18-Jan-18

Sight Distance
 Basically, it is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle
 For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of
sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object
Geometric Design of Highways on the traveled way.
 Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to
enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing
maneuvers, without risk of accident.
 Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of
Asst. Professor, their length.
Dept. of CE, AAU
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
2 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Braking Distance Stopping sight distance

Db = braking distance
V2
u 2 (mph) u = initial velocity when brakes SSD  (0.278)(t )(V ) 
Db ( ft )  are applied 254 f
30 f  G  f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake harder SSD = Stopping Sight Distance (meter)
= Dist. traveled during perception/reaction time + Braking Dist.
a = 11.2 ft/sec2 normal
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
a = 14.8 ft/sec2 emergency, use tables from AASHTO V = initial speed (km/h)
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet, icy), tire, and
roadway surface
Depends on weight, but some assumptions are made to arrive at a
standard equation
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
3 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 4 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Effect of Grade of SSD

 On grade, the braking distance formula is modified to  g = acceleration of gravity
V2  a = acceleration of vehicle
d  u = initial velocity when brakes
254( f  G )
Where G=percent of grade divided by 100. are applied w
w sin   wf cos   a
 Db = braking distance
g
 u2
a
 γ = angle of incline
2x

Note: Db  x cos 

 f = coefficient of friction Db( ft ) 

u 2 (mph)
1. Safe SSD on upgrades is shorter than on downgrades 30 f  G 

2. Min. SD should be adjusted where steep grades and high speed  G = grade (decimal)
occur in combination

Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),

5 6
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 18-Jan-18

Stopping Sight Distance Coefficient of friction, f

Pavement condition Maximum Slide

u
Good, dry 1.00 0.80
wf cos 
Db
G Good, wet 0.90 0.60
1.0
Poor, dry 0.80 0.55
Poor, wet 0.60 0.30
Packed snow and Ice 0.25 0.10
w
a
g
w
w sin 

γ
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Distance to stop vehicle
7 Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 8
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Stopping distance Grade impacts on stopping

Practical Stopping Distance
Varying Grade
700
Stopping Distance in Feet

600
Stopping Distance

600
500 500

400 400 2 percent grade

Series1 0 percent grade
300 300
-2 percent grade
200 200
100
100
0
0
0 20 40 60 80
0 20 40 60 80
Speed in MPH
Miles per Hour

Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),

9 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 10 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Friction impact on stopping Impact of reaction time

Varying Friction Varying Reaction Time
Stopping Distance in Feet

1800
1600 800 2.5 second
Stopping
Distance

1400
600 reaction time
1200 Friction = 0.5
1000 1.5 second
Friction = 0.25 400
800 reaction time
Friction = 0.1
600 200 0.6 second
400
200 0 reaction time
0
0 20 40 60 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Miles per Hour Miles per Hour

Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),

11 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 12 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

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 18-Jan-18

Sight distance Stopping Sight Distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time Distance to stop vehicle, includes P/R and braking distance
Design must allow sufficient distance for a driver to S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary 30({a/g} ± G)
where:
Db = braking distance
u = initial velocity when brakes are applied
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
a = vehicle acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
13 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 14 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Stopping Sight Distance SSD Example

 A vehicle is traveling at uniform velocity, at t0 the driver realizes a
vehicle is stopped in the road ahead and the driver brakes
With assumed acceleration, using friction  Grade = + 1%
 tP/R = 0.8 sec
S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____  The stopped vehicle is just struck, assume vf = 0
30(f ± G)  The braking vehicle leaves skid marks that are 405 feet long
where:  Assume normal deceleration (11.2 ft/sec2)
Db = braking distance  Should the police office at the scene cite the driver for traveling
over the 55 mph posted speed limit?
u = initial velocity when brakes are applied
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
15 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 16 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

SSD Example Passing Sight Distance

• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver on 2-lane
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____ two-way highway
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not
30({a/g} ± G)
cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane
Stopping distance = 405 feet
• Assumes:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
405 feet = 1.47u(0.8 sec) + ________u2________
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it reaches
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.01)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________ passing section
30(0.358) 3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________ 4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and velocity of
10.73 the passing vehicle is 10 mph (16kph) greater than that of the passed
Solving for u, u = 59.9 mph
vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle
when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
17 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 18 Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

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Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d1 = distance traveled during perception/reaction time and

d distance traveled while accelerating to passing speed
and when vehicle just enters the left lane
V f  Vo
2 2

d1  Vot  ( )
2a
where
t = perception/reaction time (sec)
Vo= average speed of passing vehicle (m/s)
Vf= speed as vehicle enters the left lane (m/s)
19
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
20
GirmaaBerhanu
= acceleration
(Dr.-Ing.), (m/s2)
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the
Passing veh. driver must traverse the clearance distance opposing vehicle at the moment the passing vehicle returns to
This image cannot currently be

between itself and the slow vehicle, the length of the slow
display ed.

the right lane. Usually d3 is taken equal to 75m.

vehicle, its own length, the length of the clearance distance
between itself and the slow veh. at lane re-entry d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the
d 2  Vt passing vehicle is in the left lane. (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )
t  V / D,
where : D  (6  6.7  6.7  6)m, and
V  16kph(relative speed of pas sin g vehicle]
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
21 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 22 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

PSD Sight Distances

A vehicle moving at a speed of 80kph is slowing traffic on a
two lane highway. What passing distance is necessary, in
order for a passing manoeuvre to be carried out safely? Design Speed Coefficient of SSD PSD (m) Reduced PSD
Use PRT=2.5sec, passing vehicles acc. rate= 0.67m/sec2, Vo of (km/h) Friction (f) (m) from formulae for design (m)
passing =80kph, V of opposing vehicle =95kph, Lengths of all veh 20 .42 20 160 50
= 6.7m, clearance distances b/n passing and slow veh at lane 30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
change and at re-entry=6m, clearance distance b/n passing and 50 .35 55 345 175
opposing vehs at lane re-entry=75m. 60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
23 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 24
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et

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 18-Jan-18

How are these factored into design References

 Wright (1996) Highway Engineering, J. Wiley (Chapter 5)

Design criteria must be based on

the capabilities and limitations of
most drivers and pedestrians.

Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.), Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),

25 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et 26 gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et