Surveying and Setting Out

Ethiopian Roads Authority
April 23, 2016 Chancho Labour Based Technology Training Center
Chancho Labour Based technology

Training Center
Surveying and Setting out Using Labour Based Methods
Setting out straight line
Setting out Horizontal Curves

 Offset method
 Quarter point method
 Tangent method
 String method
 Other methods
Setting out Vertical alignment using profile

Chapter-One
1. Safety and Environmental concerns
1.1. Introduction
 Safety is the state of being “safe”, the condition
of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes.
 Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an
acceptable level of risk.
Surveying and Setting out | Road Construction and Maintenance . 1

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 Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical

environment.
1.2. Safety
 Many Road maintenance operations are potentially dangerous, both to the maintenance
workers and to the road users.
 It is the responsibility of the maintenance foreman or supervisor to insist that all risks are
minimized by:
 Ensuring that the necessary temporary traffic signs. Where necessary, traffic should be
stopped during the placement or removal of temporary signs,
 Arranging personal safety to be worn in appropriate circumstances,
 Ensuring that all plant and vehicles are parked off the carriageway or behind protective
barriers and signs, when not in use,
 Ensuring that no materials are left in a dangerous location and worksite is kept clean
and swept of any debris arising from the maintenance work,
 Ensuring that proper precautions are taken when handling dangerous substances
 Ensuring that all operators are trained in the operation of their equipment. If they are
not adequately trained when they are assigned to the foreman or supervisor, he should
himself provide, or arrange for, the necessary instruction. Operators and labourers
alike must be informed of the potential risks of and procedures for working with or
close to machinery,
 Ensuring that traffic control operations are properly carried out and that road users are
not unnecessarily delayed,
 Ensuring all ladders or scaffolding used in bridge maintenance are securely fixed,
 Ensuring that where work on the carriageway or shoulder remains unfinished
overnight, then proper warning lights are arranged and, if necessary, protected,
 Ensuring that all sites are left tidy and cleared of debris when the work is completed.
1.3. Safe work procedure

2. The health and safety aspects of the workers are largely governed by the Health and Safety
rules an regulation in Compliance with the requirements for the accommodation of traffic,
which is not only intended for the wellbeing of the public but also to protect the
workers involved on the road.
3. The following minimum practical requirements are, however, drawn to the

contractor’s attention:
 The issue of protective clothing, boots, gloves, overalls, etc. to the workers is
essential.
 Use of diesoline by workers to clean hand arms and tools, when working with
bitumen, must be discouraged – the use of paraffin is preferable.
 A properly equipped first aid kit must be available at all times.
 Transportation of workers on open trucks/trailers must be controlled e.g. all
passengers must be seated with no legs hanging over the side of the
truck/trailer.
3.1. Personal safety
Surveying and Setting out | . 2

1. Objectives:-After completing the learning element the trainee will be able to wear
safety working clothes, shoes and etc in the working place.
2. Examples of PPE are:
╠ Overall clothes
╠ hard hate/ helmet
╠ safety shoe
╠ Rubber boot
╠ Mask
╠ Goggle
╠ Glove
╠ Hand guard
3. Hazardous Materials or Waste: Hazardous materials or waste include but are not
limited to explosives, compressed gas, flammable liquids, flammable solids,
combustible liquids, oxidizers, poisons, radioactive materials, corrosives, etiologic
agents, and other material are classified as hazardous materials.
4.
1.3. First Aid
A building site should have a first aid box which as minimum contents: -
 Plasters
 Bandages
 Ointments
 Disinfectant
1.4. Tools and equipment safety

Hammerheads should firmly secure to the handle.
Trowel, saws, chisels, and other tools should be kept in safe environment.
All ropes and chains for lifting should be inspected before use; they should not
be loaded beyond recommended limit.
Nails or bolts used in construction scaffold should be of adequate size and
sufficient number at each connection to develop the designed strength of
structure.

1.5. Temporary Signposting

Traffic signs conforming to the regulations must be correctly placed before starting
any work. This is to ensure the safety of:
╠ The road users
╠ The personnel working on the site,
╠ The vehicles and equipment to be used on the site.
The signs are:

 located on the shoulder on the side of the approaching traffic, 100 m ahead of
each end of the road works (1 Men Working" sign),
 Located along the length of the road works:
 To 10 traffic cones, as required to clearly separate the traffic from the
road works.
 Located on the shoulder on the side of the departing traffic, at each end of the
site:
 1 "End of Restriction" signs.
Note: In busy traffic 2 men must be assigned to direct the traffic in alternate
directions past the road works.

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1.6. Environmental concerns

Important environmental factors to bear in mind are:
 Preventing dust generation
 Avoiding cutting down vegetation in areas that will not be affected by the
road project.
 Preventing practices that will enhance erosion.
 Preventing blockage of waterways that would result in flooding
 Preventing biological cycles and eco-systems.
 Restoring soil borrow pits
 Planting vegetation where possible to restore vegetation.
Surveying and Setting out 5

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Chapter-Two
2. Terms and Definitions
2.1. Survey & Setting out terms
 Identification: Identification step is the preparation of a list of proposed roads to be
improved or maintained.
 Screening: Screening of routes is carried out to identify roads in order to disqualify
those projects that do not meet certain criteria, are not technically or economically
feasible, or are not likely to have the expected impact.
 Appraisal: Appraisal is a more detailed assessment for supporting an investment in
a certain road, often, a cost benefit analysis.
 Ranking: Ranking is the ordering of all selected roads which have passed the
screening and appraisal stages.
 Approval: Approval is a final step; the roads selected according to this process will
need to be approved by the relevant authorities.
 Route survey: Route surveying to be used includes all the surveying mapping activities
(the field and office works) required to plan, design, and lay out (construct) the road for low
volume traffic roads.
 Initial survey: Initial survey means gain information about the area where the road
will pass through.
 Detailed survey: Detailed survey means setting out the exact location of a road and
its components.
 Survey: Survey of a road alignment means inspection or investigation of the
condition of the terrain where the road (will) pass through an area.
 Setting out: Setting out is the first application of the road measurement marking on
the ground of what is to be built.
 Reconnaissance: c
 Accuracy: Accuracy relates to how close a measurement is to the true value.
 Precision: Precision is a measure of consistency and how close measurements are to
each other.
 Tolerance: Tolerance can be defined as how much a field measurement or point set
in the field can vary from the true angle, distance, or location.
2.2. Horizontal alignment terms

 Alignment: Alignment id the direction of the centre line of the road.
 Centerline: Centerline is a line along its longitudinal axis dividing the road equally
in two parts.
 Horizontal alignment: Horizontal alignment is setting out centerline of a road.
 Horizontal Distance (H) = Horizontal distance is distance between two points as
measured on a horizontal or level plane.
 Direction: Direction is angles measured in either horizontal or vertical plane.

 Elevation: Elevation is vertical difference between two points, relative to a datum.
 Horizontal curves: Horizontal Curves are curves used in horizontal planes to
connect two straight tangent sections.
 Point of intersection (PI): Point of intersection is the point where the back and
forward tangents intersects.
 Intersection angle: Intersection angle is the supplementary of deflection angle.
 Radius: Radius is a line segment between any point on the circumference of a circle
and its center.
 Point of curvature (PC): Point of curvature is the point where the circular curve
begins. The back tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.
 Point of tangency (PT): Point of tangency is a point circular curve ends. The
forward tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.
 Length of the curve (L): Length of curve is a distance from the PC to PT
measured along the curve.
 Tangent distance (T): Tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from
the PI to PC or PI to PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
 Central angle (q): Central angle is the angle formed by two radii from the center of
the circle to PC and PT.
 Degree of curve: Degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.
 Long chord(C): Long chord is a distance from PC to PT along the straight line.
 External Distance (E): The distance from the center of the curve to point of
intersection (PI).
 Mid-Ordinate Distance (M): The distance from the center of the curve to the center
of the long chord.
 Interpolation: Interpolation is putting the ranging rods in between the two end
points to make a straight line/alignment.
 Compound curve: Compound curve is composed of two or more circular arcs of
different radii tangent to each other, with their centers on the same side of the
alignment.
 Reverse curve: Reverse consists of two circular arcs tangent to each other, with
their centers on opposite sides of the alignment.
 Easement curve: Easement curves are desirable, especially for rapid transit
systems, to lessen the sudden change in curvature at the junction of a tangent and a
circular curve.
 Slope distance: Slope distance is the distance measured along the inclined surface.
 Tangent points: Tangent points on the road centerline where the horizontal curve
begins and ends.
2.3. Vertical alignment Terms

 Vertical alignment: Vertical alignment means set out vertical levels on the center
line.
 Straight grade: A straight grade is a section of road where the longitudinal
gradient of the road centerline is constant.
 Gradient: Gradients are expressed as percentages, with a negative for a downgrade
and a positive for an upgrade.
 Vertical curve: Vertical curve is provided at the point where the two straight lines
at different gradient intersect in the vertical plane.
 Crest curve: Crest curve is a curve having convexity upwards.
 Sag curve: sag curve is curve having concavity upwards or convexity downwards.
 Point of vertical curvature (PVC): PVC is a point where parabolic curve begins.
 Point of vertical Intersection (PVI): PVI is a point where the back tangent and
forward tangent intersects.
 Point of vertical Tangency (PVT): PVI is a point where parabolic curve ends.
 Leveling: Leveling is the most widely used method for obtaining the elevations of
ground points relative to a reference datum.
 Reduced level (level): Reduced level is the vertical height of a point above or below
a reference datum.
 Datum: Datum is a reference surface of constant potential, for measuring the
elevations of the points.
 Level line: Level line is a line lying in a level surface.
 Height of instrument (HI): HI is the elevation of the line of sight from the datum.
 Gradient: Gradient is the rate of rise or fall in relation to the horizontal along the
length of the road or other structure (e.g. a drain).
 Level: A level is a measurement in the vertical (Up and down) direction between two
points.
2.4. Cross sectional alignment terms

 Cross section: Cross section is set out the width of the road and position of the
drains from the centerline and set out levels
 Carriageway: The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which vehicle travel.
 Centerline: Line running along the centre of the road (important in surveying and
setting out the alignment).
 Camber: The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line to
either side.
 Chainage: A term frequently used for describing distances measured along the
centre line of a road.
 Lay-by: An area adjacent to the road for the temporary parking of vehicles.
 Margins: The right of way/land area maintained/owned by the road authority.

 Roadway: The area normally used by the traffic, consisting of the carriageway and
shoulders.
 Shoulder: The shoulder provides side support for the pavement and allows vehicles
to stop or pass in an emergency.
 Ditch (Side drain): A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect and
drain off surface water.
 Back slope: Back slope is the portion of the side drain from the ditch invert to the
intersection with the natural terrain.
 Crown: Crown is the highest point of the road, located on the centre line when the
surface is shaped with a camber.
 Ditch Invert: Ditch invert is the cross-section profile of the side drain from the side
slope to the back slope.
 Side Slope: Side slope is the portion of the side drain from the shoulder break point
to the ditch invert.
 Road Reserve: Road reserve is the cleared portion of land where the road and all its
components will be built.
 Culver: Culvert is a drainage structure which is allowing water to pass under the
road pavement to be discharged on the lower side of the road.
 Nearside: This is the left hand or kerb side of a vehicle, relative to the direction of
travel.
 Offside: This is the left hand or median side of a vehicle, relative to the direction of
travel.
 Parking lane: Lane primarily used for vehicle parking.
 Turning lane: An auxiliary lane reserved for turning traffic.

2.5. Related Terms
 Capacity: The maximum rate of flow at which vehicles can traverse a point or
segment of a lane or roadway during a specified time under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions, expressed as a vehicles per hour.
 Labour based Technology: Is construction technology that utilizes locally
available materials and maximizes opportunities for the employment of labour
(skilled and unskilled) together with the support of light equipment.
 Labor-intensive approach: Labor-intensive approach seeks to maximize the use
of labour with minimum use of mechanized equipment.
 Equipment-Intensive approach: Maximizes the use machines with minimum use
of labour. The use of heavy equipment requires high initial capital investments.
Chapter-Three
3. Tools for Surveying and Setting Out
3.1. Introduction
There are a number of appropriate methods for setting out a road alignment. The choice of
surveying equipment is based on the required level of accuracy and the applied setting out
methods. When surveying rural road s, it is important to bear in mind the required level of
accuracy for the works. Obviously, the level of detail for a rural road is not the same as for
major highways or city streets.
Bearing this in mind, the following section describes some low-cost and easy to use but still
sufficiently accurate methods of surveying and setting out rural road work.
3.2. List of tools and their definitions

(a) Abney level
Abney Level can be used for the measurement of vertical angles for setting out
levels. Vertical angles are measured as follows:
 The sight is taken on to a point which should be at the same height above the
ground as the eye of the observer.
 The line of sight will then be parallel to the ground surface between A and B
(see figure below).
(b) Reference pegs

Reference pegs are used to mark the alignment and road levels. They are
invariably of wood, tree branches or stakes cut to length, ideally 40 cm long
and 5 cm diameter or 5cm x 5 cm square. It is useful to paint them white or
yellow to improve their visibility. The chainage is painted on a prepared
surface on the peg. To avoid loss or damage, these pegs are placed outside
the road width, hammered deep into the ground to avoid pilferage and
placed in a prominent location.
(c) Survey pegs

Survey pegs are used for locating the various parts of the road, such as the centre line, road
shoulders, side drains, culvert trenches, etc. Pegs are also used for marking the daily task work
of each individual worker. The pegs are sharpened sticks 30 cm long, manufactured on site.
Together with a string line, they are also used for defining vertical levels when carrying out
earth fills or leveling works.
(d) Tape measures
Tape measures are available in a large variety of shapes and lengths. The most
common lengths used for setting out are 30m and 5m. The tapes are

made of steel or linen. Although the former is stronger, the numbers and marking on the tape
becomes unreadable after a period of use.
Tapes are vital for setting out lengths and widths as well as setting tasks and measuring
completed works. The smaller tapes, 2m, 3m or 5m in length, are useful for small construction
elements, such as profiles of ditches, cambers, trenches, etc. It is important to keep them clean
and avoid dirt entering the case.
(e) Profile Boards

Profile Boards are used to determine the vertical alignment of a road section. The profile
board is designed in such a way that it can be attached to a ranging rod. It has a screw
mechanism that enables the profile board to slide up and down the ranging rod and be fixed at
any desired level by tightening the screw.
A long-lasting profile board is made from thin steel plate welded to a

short length of metal tubing that can slide up and down and be clamped to
the ranging rod. A useful size for the metal profile board has been found to
be 40cm by 12cm. It is painted red to make it easy to see.

(f) Ranging Rods

Ranging Rods are used to set out straight and curved lines and to support profile boards
when setting out the vertical alignment of the road. Ranging rod s c a n be made from hollow
metal tubes, such as 20 - 25mm diameter galvanized water pipes, with a pointed end
made from sharpened reinforcement steel. They are normally 2 meters long, and are
painted red and white to make them easy to see during setting out.
Both profile boards and ranging rods are inexpensive and can easily be manufactured
by a local metal work business. Before commencing setting out works, make
sure that a sufficient amount of ranging rods and profile boards is available. A
supply of 20 rods and profile boards is regarded as a minimum to effectively
carry out the job.
In very compact or rocky ground, it may be necessary to first make a hole

for the ranging rod by hammering down a metal spike made of high tensile
reinforcement steel. Crowbars can also be used for this purpose.
A useful additional tool is a sliding hammer with a weighted head that fits over
the ranging rod and can be used to drive the ranging rod into the ground.
(g) Line Levels

The level of the profile boards can be controlled by using a line level. The line level is a
short spirit level (about 100 mm long) with a hook at each end to hang it from a nylon string.
This instrument needs two persons to operate - one at the end of the line, and the second to
watch the spirit level. The line operator moves the string up or down until the bubble is
centered in the middle between the spirit level marks. The string line will then indicate the
horizontal line.

The line level has a range of up to about 50 meters. It is easy to carry around and with care
it can be used for setting out levels and slopes not less than 1 in 300.
Points to remember when using a line level:
 The line level should be placed halfway between the two ranging rods. Use a
measuring tape to find the exact middle point.
 Keep the string tight - do not let it sag.
 T he line level is a delicate instrument, look after it – do not throw it around and
treat it roughly.
 Check the accuracy of the line level regularly.
Checking the Line Level

Like all surveying equipment, the line level needs to be checked for its accuracy on a
regular basis. This can be done by carrying out the following procedure:
 Place two ranging rods 10 meters apart. Fix a line on the one meter mark on one
rod, transfer this level to the other rod and mark it.
 While keeping the string in the same position on the first rod, take the line level
and turn it around on the string. Adjust the string on the second rod until the
bubble is in the middle again and mark the new level.
 Check to see if the two marks are at the same place. If not, measure the difference
between the two marks.
 If the difference between the two marks is less than 10cm, the correct level is
exactly in the middle of the two marks. If the difference is more than 10cm, the
line level is no longer accurate enough and should be replaced.
It is always useful to turn the line level around every time it is used, and take the middle of
the two marks as the horizontal level.

(h) Boning Rods

Boning rods are generally manufactured on site from wooden laths to
a “T” profile and of uniform height. A simple stand
can also be manufactured. This version is also referred to
as a traveller.
They are used to establish additional levels

between fixed levels (interpolation) or beyond
(extrapolation).
They are particularly useful to check gradients of

ditches and culverts. In the figure below, it can be
seen that the ground level at point 3 is lower than at the locations 1
and 2. By raising the middle boning rod, the bottom
end of this rod will indicate the required level in order
to achieve a continuous gradient between points 1 and
2.
The same exercise can be carried out using profile boards. Often, a single boning rod is
then used to check the surface levels between profile boards. This exercise is commonly
applied to secure the correct levels of earthworks layers when building up fills or when
spreading gravel.
(i) Triangles

Triangle sets can be manufactured by a carpenter and are used for various purposes:
 To set out a right angle to the centre line (necessary when cross-sections are set out)
 To control or estimate the steepness of gradients - in this case a spirit level or a plumb
line is also required.
The steepness of gradients is described as a ratio. For example, a gradient of 1:2 means that
over a horizontal stretch of two meters, the terrain will rise one meter vertically. Alternatively,
the gradient can be expressed as a percentage increase in elevation. A 6% gradient would
describe a 6m rise over a 100m horizontal stretch.
When measuring existing gradients using a triangle, a spirit level is required to secure the
horizontal line. The joints of the triangle are then adjustable with pinned joints rather than fixed.
The most common use of the triangle is to quickly establish a right angle to the road centre
line.
(j) Straight Edge

The straight edge is a simple beam, usually made of wood, which in combination with a
spirit level and tape measure, can be used to establish a gradient or road camber.
The straight edge is usually 3 meters long and set horizontally with a spirit level. This
method is used for the measurement of gradients which continue only for short distances, e.g.
culvert beds, drain slopes and road camber. The figure above shows how a gradient of 1:15 is
measured.

(k) Tube Water Level

The use of a "tube water level" is a very accurate and simple method for measuring the level
differences of two points.
This level consists of a length of clear plastic hose attached at each end to a wooden leveling
staff, as shown in the figure below. The two leveling staffs should be of the same length, about
1.5 m long. A graduated tape is attached to each staff, with the zero level at the top end of the
staff. The tube is filled with water until the level is about one meter high from the ground. Both
ends of the tube are fitted with rubber stoppers to prevent loss of water. The total length of the
tube, which defines the range of the instrument, is variable, but is usually limited to about 15 m
by the difficulty of moving the level around.
The two ends of the pipe are brought together at the starting point, the stoppers
removed and the readings taken level with
the bottom of each meniscus. The
readings should be the same (e.g.
reading A = 50 cm, reading B = 50
cm). The surveyor takes the pipe to
the point being measured and
takes another reading. The
difference between the two readings
is the difference in level (e.g. if reading A =
30 cm and reading B = 70 cm, the difference in level is
then 70 – 30 = 40 cm). The range is limited only by the convenience of
being able to carry the hose. The two points where the difference in level is being measured do
not need to be in sight of one another. The level gives accurate results and can be used for setting
level lines or slopes not less than 1 in 1,000.
(l) Dumpy Level

The dumpy level is a survey instrument consisting of a telescope fixed
to a horizontally rotating table and a spirit level. Mounted on a tripod, it is used to
measure height differences, used in combination with a leveling staff. The dumpy level is the
classic instrument used for setting out levels in road works projects. Levels can be transferred
from a benchmark and new levels can be established very accurately over distances up to 100
meters. There are several types of dumpy levels on the market, each with its own design.
(m) Camber Boards

A camber board can be used to check the cross slope of the road. Its length is usually the
same as the distance from the centre line to the shoulder of the road. In cases where the shoulders
have the same gradient as the running surface, the length of the camber board can be extended to
include the shoulder.
The figure below shows a 2.5 meter long camber board showing a gradient of 5 percent
(1:20). The camber board is built with a length and gradient that suits the required profile.
The camber board is used in combination with a spirit level as shown below. Camber boards
are useful for checking the cross-slope on existing roads however; it should not be used when
building a new camber. The use of profile boards and a line level will provide more accurate
results.
(n) Ditch Templates

The ditch template is basically a trapezoid,
constructed of timber laths or plywood to check
the profile of ditches, mitre drains, back slopes,
etc. The template is constructed to the same shape
and measurements as the drain, to provide a quick and
easy method for checking excavation works.

3.3. Choice of Tools

The final choice of surveying and setting out tools is very much dependent on the task at
hand and the personal preferences of the technical staff in charge of the work site. Various
methods of setting out do, however, have different degrees of accuracy. A particular setting out
method should only be chosen if it meets the accuracy requirements for the particular work
activity.
The table below shows the appropriate quantities of tools required for carrying out the
regular setting out activities relating to rural road construction works. As demonstrated in the
following sections, surveying and setting out for rural road works can be carried out using fairly
simple and inexpensive equipment. These quantities are adequate for a work site involving 300
workers.
Tools and equipment required for setting out


Chapter-Four
4. Surveying and Setting Out
4.1. Objectives
After you have learned this chapter you should:
 Know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a road.
 Describe why survey and setting out the construction works well in advance is
important.
 Know the types of route survey.
 Understand why the realignment of the existing road will important.
4.2. General Introduction

Survey: Survey of a road alignment means inspection or investigation of the condition
of the terrain where the road (will) pass through an area.
Setting out
 Setting out is the first application of the road measurement marking on the
ground of what is to be built.

 Standard methods have been developed for setting out road works and these
fall into the following main areas:
 Setting out the horizontal alignment
 Setting out the vertical alignment
 Setting out the cross section
 Setting out drainage structures
 Setting out of tasks
4.3. Why surveying and setting out is necessary?

In general if you are upgrading a road, the alignment follows an existing road. If it is a
new construction or re-aligning part of the existing road you will need to survey the
area in order to:
 Reduce the cost of construction by selecting the most shortest and economical
route.
 Avoid poor ground condition and obstacles.
 Reduce extreme gradients
 Improve drainage
 Avoid traffic hazards
 The choice of alignment may be influenced by the location of suitable sources
of water, gravel deposits, etc.
After all the above have been investigated and surveyed the engineer will take his
decision based on an estimate of:
 Construction costs
 Maintenance costs
 Costs to future traffic
 Social costs and benefits
Construction costs: Example an alignment of a certain length passing through a
swampy area will cost more than of the same length passing
through grassland.
Maintenance costs: Example the cost to maintain steep gradients are higher than the
costs to maintain gentle gradients.
Cost to future traffic: Example more energy or engine power is required to climb a
steep gradient than a gentle gradient which means more fuel
consumption and also more wears to brakes when descending.

Social costs and benefits: In many cases the higher construction costs of a longer
alignment may be justified if the road would serve a public facility
(e.g. school, health center, etc.).
4.4. Where to start setting out

You should start setting out the centerline of the alignment preferably starting from
the beginning of the road. Detailed setting out can be done where you intend to start
the construction work. If you intend starting work from where the camp or gravel pit
is located that is where you should start the detailed setting out. It is necessary to start
the setting out of centerline from the beginning of the road to get the correct chainage
marks on the alignment.
4.5. Selecting the road alignment

When planning the construction of a new road, there are always several possible choices
of alignments. Although the shortest connection between two points is a straight line,
the road alignment is seldom entirely straight. There are a number of reasons for this:
 A straight and short alignment would cut through villages, farms or other public or
private property. In most cases, this is not acceptable, as it would destroy crops,
buildings and public facilities.
 In hilly or mountainous terrain, the resulting gradients on a straight alignment
become too steep and the required earthworks will be excessive.
 A straight alignment may pass through difficult terrain such as rocks, swamps,
dense forest, etc., which should be avoided to minimize construction costs.
 If a river or other obstacle has to be crossed, it is necessary to establish an
alignment which provides a crossing at the most suitable location.
 By choosing a slightly longer alignment, t he road c a n be constructed on soils more
suitable for road building purposes.
 A more circuitous route may allow the road to provide access to a greater number
of people.
 Finally, the choice of alignment may be influenced by the location of suitable
sources of water and the location of gravel deposits.

Rural roads are built to improve access and will usually not have stringent requirements in
regards to road curvature. Prior to the construction of the road, the community has most
probably been relying on a track or a trail. Following the alignment of existing tracks will
in most cases have the least effect on the surrounding environment. Often, the alignment of
existing tracks also provides the best solution in terms of reducing the amount of
earthworks.
It is sensible to make sure that all interested parties agree on the route and places to be
linked by a new or improved road. During the early planning stages, it is therefore useful
to carry out a process of consultation with the communities and beneficiaries of the road
works project.
4.6. Check List for route selection
╠ Locate the best sites for river crossings
╠ Avoid rocky areas
╠ Avoid areas with heavy bush clearing
╠ Try to avoid areas requiring complicated drainage solutions
╠ Follow existing alignments
╠ Avoid steep gradients (max. 10%)
╠ Keep earth moving to a minimum
╠ Be considerate with existing farming activities in the area
╠ Avoid triggering soil erosion
4.7. Factors Affecting Choice of Route

An alignment with steep gradients may initially be cheaper than selecting a longer route
avoiding steep sections and thereby reducing the road gradient. Road sections with steep
gradients however require more maintenance and are therefore more expensive to operate
in the long run as compared with roads with gentle gradients.
Costs to future traffic are greater when the road is designed with steep gradients. More
energy is used to climb and descend steep hills, causing more wear to the vehicles. More
powerful means of transport are required for steep curvatures. Animal drawn carts will
only be able carry reduce loads on such roads.
Vertical alignments requiring excessive cuts and fills along the road line should be avoided.
By adjusting the horizontal alignment to the existing terrain, there is a large potential for
reducing earthworks. Avoiding large side cuts also reduces the risk of soil erosion and
landslides.
Equally, steep side-sloping ground should be avoided even if the existing road or track is
cut into it. If possible, relocate the line lower down the hillside where the ground is flatter.
The higher construction costs of a longer alignment may also

be justified if the road can provide additional access to public
facilities such as schools, clinics and community centers. While
close proximity to the road is regarded as an advantage, road
safety concerns may argue for a road alignment at a safe
distance from residential areas, schools and other public
facilities.
The road planning team also needs to consider existing land use
and to whom the land belongs. Although compensation
arrangements can be made, careful consideration of all possible
alternatives at the design stage may avoid such issues or at
least reduce encroachment on private property to a level at
which it does not cause serious impact on the livelihood of local residents.
Cross drainage structures are expensive and can to a certain extent be avoided when the
road follows the line of the watershed. High ground such as watershed borders has natural
drainage and if the road is located in such terrain, the amount of drainage works is
significantly reduced.
4.8. Good road alignment
Crossing ridges at their lowest point or through the lowest pass;
Circumventing (avoid) hills rather than going straight over;
Avoiding deep cuts, thereby reducing earthworks and avoiding to destabilize side
slopes;
Avoiding excessive fills by realigning the road, preferably to locations where a
cut-to-fill is sufficient;
 Finding the highest lying ground when passing through flood prone terrain;
 Avoiding steep road gradients;
Avoiding rocky terrain or areas with difficult soils;
 Locating good river crossings where there are limited risks of future scouring and
erosion.
4.9. Route survey

A route survey is a data collection operation to gather
information about the proposed route of a roadway.
Surveyors are tasked with finding the most cost effective
route to follow. An engineer will use the data the survey
teams collect to plan out the route in detail and create

specifications for work crews to follow. Teams may spend days or weeks in the field,
depending on the nature of the project.
A route survey supplies the data necessary to determine alignment, grading, and
earthwork quantities for the design and construction of various engineering projects.
The general route survey and location principles and guide listed below applies also for
the labour- based road construction roads. Route surveying to be used includes all the
surveying mapping activities (the field and office works) required to plan, design, and
lay out (construct) the road for low volume traffic roads. The following are types of
surveys:
 Initial survey
 Detailed Survey
4.9.1. Initial Survey

The objective of the preliminary survey is to obtain a general idea of the future location
and dimensions of the road and to assess how this alignment integrates into the surrounding
environment. This relates particularly to the existing terrain as well as the impact of the road
on local residents and their economic activities. By considering several alternative alignments,
it is possible to arrive at a final solution that to the extent possible takes all these aspects into
consideration. The survey methods used at this stage can therefore be simplified without
prejudicing the level of accuracy desired.
The centre line of a new road is established well in advance o f commencing construction
works. This allows the authorities sufficient lead-time to resolve any right-of-way issues with
local residents and to ensure that no new economic activities commence inside the road
reserve, i.e. new buildings erected, planting new crops, etc. It also allows local residents
reasonable time to terminate on-going farming or other economic activities within the road
reserve before the road works commence.
The initial survey is an essential input for the preliminary cost estimates and budget
allocations. From the survey, rough quantities of work c a n be derived, soil conditions
observed and productivity norms and costs assumed. This survey also provides an overview of
potential social and environmental impact s caused by t he ne w road alignment. The line
established by the surveyor is clearly defined and marked properly so that it can be retraced
during the detailed design.
It is important to stress that during this survey the subsequent end product must be borne
in mind. When building a new road for local traffic, expected to carry limited traffic volumes,
the choice of alignment should reflect this. A high speed alignment and design is expensive
and irrelevant to a low volume rural road. Undulating vertical curvature and comparatively
sharp curves are more compatible with local roads with limited traffic.
4.9.2. Detailed Survey

Preceding road construction and the bidding process, a supplementary survey is
undertaken. The purpose of the detailed survey is to establish all the details of the chosen
alignment such as the exact location, width and levels of the road and drainage arrangements.
On this basis, the precise quantities of works are estimated and used as the basis for further
planning and preparation of works.
4.9.3. Stationing
Stationing shall be provided for all points set in the alignment survey. This includes
stationing for the PC, PI, PT and for all intermediate control points. Stationing shall be in
English units. English stationing shall be increased every 100ft, unless otherwise noted in the
request for a survey. Therefore, a station of 3+56.00 represents a point 356.00ft from the
beginning point. When using metric units for stationing the kilometer is the basic unit. Thus a
station of 2+050.022 represents a point 2,050.022m from the beginning point.

Chapter-Five
5. Horizontal Alignment

5.1. Objectives
After you have learned this chapter you should
 Be Describe what is meant by a “horizontal alignment”
 Know how to establish chainages.
 Be able to describe how a road is set out in different types of terrain.
 Know how to set out horizontal alignment.
 Be able to sighting invisible points to make a straight.
 Be able to describe how horizontal curves setting out.
 Know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a road.
5.2. Introduction
Horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of straights (tangents) and circular
curves which may or may not connected by transition curves. There are different
activities under the horizontal alignment, such as setting out straight alignment (visible
and invisible points), stationing, chainage establishment, and setting out of horizontal
curves. In addition, the horizontal alignment must be designed in conjunction with the
vertical alignment and both properly coordinated.
5.3. Horizontal alignment

Prior to construction, the exact location of the road needs to be established through a
detailed survey. The position of the road centre line provides the main reference for the
setting out of all other key positions relating to the various components and structures
that form part of the road. While surveying works for highway construction normally
relies on triangulation and polygon net works and up-to-date maps,
surveying for rural road works is normally
carried out without such aids. A common
approach used to establish the
alignment for a rural road is by

finding a suitable alignment in the terrain, using simple tools such as ranging rods,
profile boards and a line level.
When surveying the alignment, the exact location of the road is established by marking
the centre line with pegs located every 20 meters on straight sections and every 5 to 10
meters along curves. A mark is also placed on each of these stakes defining the distance
(up or down) to the finished formation level of the road surface. Horizontal alignment is
setting out the centerline of the road.
5.4. Setting Out a Straight alignment

Setting out straight lines is the easiest part of surveying. The straight line can be
established by placing ranging rods every 50m to 100m, and by sighting along the rods
to ensure that they are placed in line. Between these ranging rods, intermediate points
are set out at every 10m. Normally, sections of not more than 50 to 100m are set out at
the time. In mountainous terrain, sections of less than 50m may be necessary. There are
two methods of putting /making a straight line along the route. These are:
╠ Interpolation
╠ Extrapolation
5.4.1. Interpolation
Interpolation is the estimation of unknown section from two known adjacent sections. The
two end points of the straight line to be established are each marked with a ranging
rod. The intermediate points can be found by sighting from one end rod to the other
and moving a third rod until it is aligned with the two end rods.
5.4.2. Extrapolation
The same procedure can be used to extend a straight line. Place two ranging rods at a
certain distance, e.g. 20m, along the line you would like to establish. Walk with the third
rod to the next point of the line, e.g. another 20m ahead. Sight the first two rods and shift

the third rod until all three rods are in a straight line. Mark this point with a peg and
repeat the same procedure every 20m until you have reached the end of your straight line.
Check the entire line again.
5.4.3. Straight line in hilly terrains

In hilly or rolling terrain, the line of sight between two fixed points may be obscured. The
following method can then be used to set out a continuous straight line.
The solution is to find two locations on the hill which meet the following conditions:
╠ From point A, ranging rods placed at points B and C should be visible, and
╠ From point D, ranging rods set at points C and B must be visible.
From point A, set out points B and C in a straight line which is roughly heading towards
point D. Repeat the exercise from position D and ensure that point C is in line between
points D and B. Then go back to position A and move the ranging rod at point B so it is in
line between the point A and C. Repeat this procedure until A-B-C and D-C-B are straight
lines without the need for further adjustments.
5.5. Horizontal curve

At first, the centre line is defined by means of a series of straight lines meeting at points of
intersection (PI). Curves used in horizontal planes to connect two straight tangent sections
are called horizontal curves.
Where the straights change directions, they are joined by circular curves to allow for
smooth vehicle operation at the design speed selected for the roadway. The design and
construction of curves is an important aspect of route surveying of roads.

A horizontal curve is provided at the point where the two straight lines intersect in the
horizontal plane. The horizontal curves are generally circular. Horizontal curves are of
four types namely:
 Simple circular curve
 Compound curve
 Reverse curve and
 Transition curve.
To avoid abrupt changes of direction in the road alignment, these straights are joined by
curves thus creating a more smooth curvature.
The distance between the intersection points can easily be measured and used as a first
estimate of the length of the road to be constructed.
5.6. Types of horizontal curves

Curves used in horizontal planes to connect two straight tangent sections are called
horizontal curves. Generally there are two types of horizontal curves.
 Circular arcs (Simple curve, Compound curve and reverse curve)
 Spirals (Transition) curve
Both are readily laid out in the field with surveying equipment (conventional and labour based
method).
Compound and reverse curves are unsuitable for modern high-speed highway, rapid transit, and
railroad traffic and should be avoided if possible. However, they are sometimes necessary in
mountainous terrain to avoid excessive grades or very deep cuts and fills.
a) Simple Curve
 A simple circular curve consists of a single arc of a defined radius of the
circle.
 The curve is tangential to two straight lines of the route
centerline.
 A simple curve is a circular arc connecting two
tangents.
 It is the type most often used.
b) Compound curve

 Compound curve is composed of two or more circular arcs of different radii tangent
to each other, with their centers on the same side of the alignment.
c) Reverse Curve
 A reverse curve consists of two circular arcs tangent to each
other, with their centers on opposite sides of the alignment.
 The radius of the opposing curves may or may not equal.
d) Spiral curves
 A transition curve is a horizontal curve of varying radius.
 It provides a gradual change from the straight line to
the circular curve and again from the circular curve
to the straight line.
 Transition curves are required on roads to
lessen the discomfort at sudden change in
curvature at the junction of a straight line
and a curve.
 A spiral makes an excellent easement curve
because its radius decreases uniformly from infinity at
the tangent to that of the curve it meets.
5.7. Equations of horizontal curves
( ∆2 )
(a) Tangent: T =Rx tan
∆
(b) Long chord: C=2 Rsin ( )
2
πR ∆
(c) Length of curve: L=
1800
(d) External Distance: E=Rx ¿
(e) Mid-Ordinate: M =Rx 1−cos [ ( ∆2 )]

5,729.58
(f) Radius : R=
D
Other convenient formulas that can be derived are:

∆
 E=Tx tan
4 ( )
∆
 M =Ex tan
2 ( )

5.8. Circular curve stationing

Normally, an initial route survey consists of establishing the PI according to plan,
laying out the tangents, and establishing continuous stationing along them from the start of
the project, through each PI, to the end of the job. The beginning point of any project is
assigned a station value and all other points along the reference line are then related to it. If
the beginning point is also the end point of a previous adjacent project, its station value
may be retained and the new job referenced to that stationing. Otherwise, an arbitrary
value such as 100+00 for English unit stationing, or 10+000 for metric stationing is
assigned. Assigning a starting stationing of 0+00 is generally not done to avoid the
possibility that future revisions to the project could extend it back beyond the starting
point and hence result in negative stationing.
In the English system, staking is usually in full stations (100ft apart), although half-
stations (50ft apart) or even quarter stations (25ft apart), can be set depending on
conditions. In metric stationing, full stations are generally 1km apart, but stakes may be set
at 40, 30, 20, or even 10m apart, depending on conditions. Staking at the closer spacing is
usually done in urban situations, on sharp curves, or in rugged terrain, while the stakes are
placed farther apart in relatively flat or gently rolling rural areas.
After the tangents have been staked and stationed, the intersection angle ( ∅)is
observed at each PI and curves computed and staked. The station locations of points on
any curve are based upon the stationing of the curve’s PI. To compute the PC station,
tangent distance T is subtracted from the PI station, and to calculate the PT station, curve
length L is added to the PC station.
Equations:

(a) Stationing PC¿ Station PI –T

(b) Stationing PT= Station PC + L
Example: Assume that the deflection angle; ∆=450 00' 00 ¿ , the stationing 12+20.55, and
terrain conditions require the minimum radius permitted by the specifications
of, say, 2,864.79 ft (arc definition).
Calculate:
(a) The PC stationing.
(b) The PT stationing
(c) The external distance
(d) Middle ordinate distance
The stationing of the PT cannot be obtained by adding the tangent distance to the station of
the PI, although the location of the PT on the ground is determined by measuring the
tangent distance from the PI. Points representing the PC and PT must be carefully marked
and placed exactly on the tangent lines at the correct distance from the PI so other
computed values will fit their fixed positions on the ground.
If route surveys are originally staked as a series of tangents having continuous stationing,
as described above, then an adjustment has to be made at each PT after curves are
inserted. This is necessary because the length around the curve from PC to PT is shorter
than the distance along the tangents from the PC to the PI to the PT.
5.9. Sight distance on Horizontal curves

Highway safety requires certain minimum sight distances in zones where passing is
permitted, and in non-passing areas to assure a reasonable stopping distance if there is an
object on the roadway. Specifications and tables list suitable values based on vehicular
speeds, the perception and reaction times of an average individual, the braking distance for
a given coefficient of friction during deceleration, and type and condition of the pavement.
A minimum stopping sight distance of 450 to 550 ft (137m to

167.6m) is desirable for a speed of 55 mi/h (≈ 90 km/h). An
approximate formula for determining the available
horizontal sight distance on a circular curve can be
derived from Figure below; in which the clear sight distance past an
obstruction is the length of the long chord AS, denoted by C; and the
required clearance is the middle ordinate PM, denoted by m. Then in similar
triangles SPG and SOH

If distance m from the centerline of a highway to the obstruction is known or can be

measured, the available sight distance C is calculated from the formula. Actually cars
travel on either the inside or the outside lane, so sight distance AS is not exactly the true
stopping distance, but the computed length is on the safe side and satisfactory for practical
use. If the calculation reveals a sight distance restriction, the obstruction might possibly be
removed or a safe speed limit posted in the area.
5.10. Deflection angle
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is known as deflection
angle. The deflection angle may be on the right or left of the prolongation. If the angles are
measured clockwise from the preceding line to the following line, the measured angles are
called angles to the right. Measure the total angle from the backline to the forward line and
subtract 1800:
 If the difference is positive, the angle is a right deflection angle.
 If the difference is negative, the angle is a left deflection angle.
PI
PC PT
5.11. Techniques for setting out of horizontal curves

There are various methods to set out curves. With rural roads designed for low
traffic volumes, it is usually sufficient to follow existing tracks and to improve existing
curves where necessary. Some simple methods to set out curves using a tape measure,
ranging rods, pegs and strings are described on the following.
The techniques for setting out of horizontal curves are:

(A) Intersection method
(B) Quarter point method
(C) Offset from tangent method
(D) Offset from the long chord
(E) String method
(F) Offset method
(A) Intersection method

The intersection method is an effective method to set out a curve. It requires simple
equipment and is easily managed by the technical staff on site.
Procedure for setting out curve:

1. Find the deflection angle and intersection point.
2. Establish PC and PT at equal distance from PI.
3. Divide the tangents into equal number of parts and
number them as shown.
4. The points on the curve lie on the intersection of the
lines 1-1 with 2-2, 2-2 with 3-3, and 3-3 with 4-4 and
so on, established with sisal twine or using ranging rods. Note that the number of
points on the curve will always be one less than the number of parts into which the
tangents are divided.
5. Place intermediate pegs if necessary to form smooth curve with string line.
6. Establish centerline - and chainage pegs.
(B) Quarter point method

Procedure:
1. Find deflection angle, establish PC and PT at equal distance T from PI. The given
curve radius satisfies the design criteria.
2. Establish point B halfway between PC and PT.
3. Find Y 0 and set out A at distance Y 0 from point B.
4. EstablishY 1 halfway between PC and A.
Y0
5. Set out point D at distance Y 1= from E.
4
6. Repeat the process to form smooth curve.
7.
(C) String method
Short curves can be set out using part of a
circle. This method is useful for connecting two straight lines with
a short curve; however, it requires the area around the curve to be clear and easily
accessible.

The figure below shows how a circular curve with a 30-metre radius is set out. Having
decided on the appropriate radius, set out an off-set line at the same distance from the
centre line as the length of the radius (off-set lines 1 and 2).
The point at which the two off-set lines intersect (PI) is the centre from which the circle is
defined. Having established the centre of the circle, any point along the curve can be set out
using a measuring tape or a string with the same length as the curve radius. Equally, once
the intersection point for the off-set lines have been established, it is possible to locate the
tangent points, i.e. where the curve starts and ends (points A and B). This is where the tape
or string is at right angles to the centre line.
(D) Offset from the Tangent

If the deflection angle is small (<20°), the curve can be set out by measuring perpendicular
offsets from the tangents.
If Ox is the offset perpendicular to the tangent at Q, which is at a distance of X from T1,
then drawing PP1 perpendicular to the radial line T1O
from the triangle PP1O,

Procedure for Setting out Curve

1. Set out PI and find the deflection angle. If the deflection angle is less than 20°,
proceed with step 2, otherwise use another method.
2. Set out PC and PT at distance equal to the determined tangent length from PI.
3. Set out temporary pegs along the tangents at 10m distance starting from PC and PT
and as many as will fit within the tangent length.
4. From Table 3-3 using the given radius, read off the offsets and fit as many offset
points as possible.
Note : that this method should only be used for gentle curves with deflection angle less than
20°. For curves with deflection angle greater than 20° for tangents longer than
tabulated, another method as explained above should be used.


(E) Offset from the long chord

 Offset from the long chord method is suitable for setting out circular curves of
small radius.
2
C
2 2
√
Y = √ ( R −X ) − R −
2
2
( )
(F) Offset method

 This is a trial and error approach for re-establishing existing alignments.
 For any given radius and assumed tangential distance X the offset Y is given by the
formula:
X2
Y=
R
 From this formula, table below has been generated for determining the offsets for
setting out the curve.
Table----: Data for setting out by offset method
Procedure for setting out the curve:

(1) Establish PI as the intersection of the straight centre lines.
(2) Choose the beginning of the curve BC on one
tangent.
(3) Assume distance x (normally 10m) and
determine the offset y.
(4) Set out point A on the tangent at distance x
from BC.
(5) Set out point B at perpendicular offset y/2
from A.
(6) Set out point C at distance x from B on the
extension of BC.
(7) Set out point D at perpendicular offset y from
C.
(8) Repeat until you reach the other tangent at point H.

(9) Set out point I on the extension of F-H.
(10) Set out point J at perpendicular offset y/2 from I. This should be on the straight
centre line.
If it is not possible to reach the other tangent satisfactorily, you will have to select another
starting point BC and repeat the setting out.
5.12. Problems in setting out curves

Due to certain site circumstances, the following cases of constraints may occur during
setting out of curves:
(a) Point intersection (V) not accessible
(b) Point of curve (T1) not accessible.
(c) Point of tangency (T2) not accessible.
(d) Three Straights to be joined by a Curve.
(e) Curve must pass through a Fixed Point.
5.12.1. Point intersection (V) not accessible

Sometimes, the point of intersection (V) falls in a lake, river, pond, thick forest or any
other inaccessible place. In such a case, it is not possible to determine the deflection
angle ( ∅) by the methods described earlier. It is also not possible to locate the points T1
and T2 by measuring the tangent distance T from V. Therefore the following procedure
may be employed to overcome the situation in setting out the curve.
Procedure:
1.
Establish two points M and N on tangents which are inter-visible.
Find angles α ∧β
2.
3.
Measure the length MN accurately
Deflection angle ∅=α + β
4.
5.
Calculate the lengths MV and NV by solving the triangle MNV (using the Sine
Rule)
i.e.
MV MN NV
= =
sin β sin ( 180−∅ ) sin α
sin β
∴ MV =MN
sin ( 180−∅ )
sin α
∴ NV =MV
sin β

sin α
∴ NV =MN
sin ( 180−∅ )
6. Calculate the tangent lengths VT1 and VT2
∅
VT 1 =VT 2=R tan ()
2
7. Determine the lengths MT1 and NT2:
 MT 1=VT 1 −MV
 NT 2=VT 2−NV
8. Locate the points T1 by measuring a distance MT1 from M. Likewise locate point
T2.
9. Use the Quarter method to set out the curve.
5.12.2. Point of curve (T1) not accessible

Procedure:
(1) Select a point M on the line VT1 near the
point T1 but clear of the obstruction.
Measure the distance MV.
(2) Determine the distance MT1 :
MT 1=T −MV
(3) Select another point N on the line VT1
produced on the other side of the
obstruction.
(4) Determine the chainage of N from the
field records.
(5) Select another point Q on one side of the line MN, such that NQ and MQ are
perpendicular, and measure distances MQ and NQ. Determine the length MN using
Pythagoras theorem:
MN =√ (MQ)2 +( NQ )2
(6) Determine the chainage of T1:
Chainage of T 1 =Chainage of N + MN − MT 1
(7) Determine the chainage of T2:
Chainage of T 2 =Chainage of T 1+ Length of curve
(8) Set out the curve in reverse direction from the point T2, as a left-hand curve
5.12.3. Point of curve (T2) not accessible

Procedure:
1. Select a point M on the tangent VT2 near the point T2 but clear of the obstruction.
Measure the distance MV.
2. Calculate the distance MT2:
MT 2 =T − MV

3. Select another point N on the line VT2 produced beyond the obstruction T2.
4. Select another point Q on one side of the line MN, such that NQ and MQ are
perpendicular, and measure distances MQ and NQ. Determine the length MN using
Pythagoras theorem:
MN =√ (MQ)2 +( NQ )2
5. Determine the chainage of N:
 Chainage of T 2 =Chainage of T 1 + Length of Curve
 Chainage of N =Chainage of T 2+ MN −MT 2
5.12.4. Joining three Straights by a curve of unknown radius

The condition to be fulfilled is that each straight must be a tangent to the curve of unknown
radius R, which must be determined. From Figure
below, the angles θ∧α a can be determined.
θ
1) BT 1=BT 2=R tan () 2
α
2) CT =CT =R tan ( )
2 3
2
3) BC=BT 2 +CT 2=R tan ( θ2 )+ R tan ( α2 )

BC
∴ R=
4) θ α
( ( ) ( ))
tan
2
+ tan
2
Once R has been determined; the curve can be set out using any of the methods described
earlier.
5.12.5. Curve must pass through a Fixed Point

Sometimes site conditions may constrain the curve to
pass through a specific point, say D as shown in figure 3-
30. If X, Y, and Z are distances measured respectively
from V, and ∅ is determined. Then a can be calculated
as:
z sin α
1) R=
1−cos θ
∅
2) T =R tan
2()

Tangent Length of horizontal curves for various low volume road standard
Curve angle in degree
Tangent Length in meters for

Mountainous Mountainous
Lowland Rolling Hilly
(No Reduction) (with Reduction)
a b c a B c a b c a b c a b c
5 7 6 3 6 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
10 14 12 5 11 8 3 7 5 3 6 3 2 5 -- --
15 21 17 7 16 12 4 11 7 4 8 4 3 7 3 --
20 28 23 9 21 16 5 14 9 5 11 5 4 9 4 --
25 35 29 11 27 20 7 17 11 6 13 7 5 11 5 4
30 43 35 14 32 24 8 22 14 7 16 8 6 14 6 5
35 50 41 16 38 28 9 25 16 8 19 10 7 16 7 5
40 58 47 17 44 33 11 29 18 9 22 11 8 18 8 6
45 67 54 20 50 38 13 33 21 11 25 13 9 21 9 7
50 75 61 23 56 42 14 38 24 12 28 14 10 24 10 8
55 83 68 26 63 47 16 42 26 13 32 16 11 26 11 9
60 93 75 29 70 52 17 46 29 15 35 18 12 29 12 9
65 102 83 32 77 58 19 51 32 16 38 19 13 32 13 10
70 112 91 35 84 63 21 56 35 18 42 21 14 35 14 11
75 123 100 38 92 69 23 62 39 20 46 23 15 39 15 12
80 135 109 42 101 76 25 67 42 21 50 25 17 42 17 13
85 147 119 46 110 83 28 74 46 23 55 28 19 46 19 14
90 160 130 50 120 90 30 80 50 25 60 30 20 50 20 15
95 175 142 55 131 98 33 88 55 28 66 33 22 55 22 16
100 191 155 60 143 107 36 96 60 30 72 36 24 60 24 18
105 209 170 65 157 118 39 105 65 33 78 39 26 65 26 20
110 229 186 72 172 129 43 115 72 36 86 43 29 72 29 22
115 252 204 78 189 142 47 126 79 40 94 47 31 79 32 24
120 277 225 86 208 156 52 139 87 44 104 52 35 87 35 26
125 308 250 96 231 173 58 154 96 48 116 58 39 96 39 29
130 343 278 107 257 193 64 172 108 54 129 65 43 108 43 32
Tangent Length of horizontal curves for various low volume road standard
Curve angle in degree
Tangent Length in meters for

Mountainous Mountainous
Lowland Rolling Hilly
(No Reduction) (with Reduction)
a b c a B c a b c a b c a b c
135 -- 314 121 290 218 73 193 121 61 145 73 49 121 49 37

140 -- -- -- 330 248 83 220 138 69 165 83 55 138 55 41
145 -- -- -- -- 286 95 254 159 80 190 95 63 159 64 48
150 -- -- -- -- 336 11 300 187 93 234 112 75 187 75 56
2
155 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 226 112 270 135 90 226 90 68
160 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 284 142 340 170 113 284 114 86
165 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 228 152 -- 152 114
170 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 343 229 -- 229 172
175
(a) Desirable –required for meeting sight distance criteria
Note (b) Required to satisfy minimum horizontal curve radii criteria
(c) Absolute minimum horizontal curve radii to satisfy circle criteria for a heavy buses
5.13. Movement on a circular path

As the vehicle transverses a circular curve, it is subject to forces associated with the
circular path. According to the principle of inertia, in the absence of forces, a moving
body will travel in a straight line. A force must be applied to change direction. For a
circular change of direction, the force is called centripetal force and, in road design, this
is provided by side friction developed between the tyres and the pavement, and by the
super elevation.
Super elevation is the cross falls that is provided on the pavement on a horizontal curve
in order to assist a vehicle to maintain a circular path.
For normal values of super elevation, side friction and radius, the following formula is
accepted:
V2
e +f =
127 R
 e=Superelevation(m/m). This is taken as positive if the pavement falls towards
the center of the curve.
 f =Coefficient of side friction. This is taken as positive if the frictional force on
the vehicle acts towards the center of the curve.
 V =Speed of vehicle (km/hr )
 R=Curve radius(m)
Where f is zero in the formula, all of the centripetal force is provided by the super
elevation. This condition can occur on large radius curves with positive super elevation or
for slow moving vehicles on curves of any radius. At low speeds, f can be negative, and the
curve is then over- super elevated for that speed. Curves are generally designed, however,
so that a positive f is required for the range of vehicle speeds likely occur.
On short length horizontal curves, the radius of the vehicle path can be considerably larger
than the centerline or edge line radius. In these cases, the curve radius “R” can be
arranged as follows:
V2
R=
127( e+ f )
It then follows that:
V2
Rmin =
127(e max + f max )
5.14. Maximum side friction

The maximum side friction values to be adopted for use in above equation are given in the
following table.

Maximum side friction factors on unsealed road

surface
Speed (km/hr) Maximum Coefficient of
friction (f )
50 0.12
60 0.11
70 0.10
80 0.10
90 0.09
100 0.09
110 0.08
Maximum design values of side friction demand for cars on sealed pavements
Design Absolute maximum Desirable maximum
speed coefficient of side coefficient of side
(km/hr) friction friction
40 0.35 0.30
50 0.35 0.30
60 0.33 0.24
70 0.31 0.19
75 0.29 0.18
80 0.26 0.16
85 0.22 0.15
90 0.20 0.13
95 0.18 0.13
100 0.16 0.12
105 0.12 0.12
110 0.12 0.12
120 0.11 0.11
130 0.11 0.11
Maximum design values of side friction demand for tracks on sealed

pavements
Design speed Coefficient of side friction for trucks
(km/hr) Absolute maximum Desirable maximum
50 0.25 0.21
60 0.24 0.17

70 0.23 0.14
80 0.20 0.13
90 0.15 0.11
100 0.12 0.12
110 0.12 0.12
120 0.11 0.11
5.15. Curve super elevation

It is normal practice for horizontal curves to be super elevated. This allows a
component of the vehicle weight to provide some of the centripetal force that is needed
for the vehicle to move in a circular path. If a curve is not super elevated, the curve is
said to have adverse or negative super-elevation.
The amount of super elevation required for a given radius, speed and coefficient of
friction can be calculated by:
V2
e= −f
127 R
In constrained situations such as mountainous terrain or urban roads, curves should be
fully super elevated even if only instantaneously. But it is desirable that there be at least
30m of fully super elevated curve.
5.16. Minimum and Adverse super elevation

 Rural roads- Minimum horizontal curve radii that can have adverse cross fall
equally to the normal cross fall on straights:
Speed (km/hr) Minimum radius (m)
70 900
80 1250
90 1500
100 2000
110 3000
120 4000
130 5000
 Minimum horizontal curve radii with adverse super elevation for urban roads,
temporary roads, and side tracks and temporary connections on rural roads or
motorways:
Curve deign speed Minimum Absolute maximum
(km/hr) radius (m) coefficient of side friction

40 85 0.18
50 130 0.18
60 200 0.17
70 295 0.16
80 505 0.13
90 910 0.10
100 1575 0.08
120 3780 0.06
130 4435 0.06
5.17. Curve widening
On smaller radius horizontal curves, traffic lanes may need to be widened in order to
maintain the lateral clearances that apply to vehicles on straight sections of road.
2
nL 0.1 V
+¿= + ¿
2 R √R
w
Where:
 w +¿=Total wideningrequired ¿
 n=No. of lanes
 V =Design speed , km/hr
 R=Radius of horizontal curve (m)
 L=The longest length of the wheel base
The total width of road at the curve, W:

W =w+¿+b ¿
Where: b=width of theroad onthe straight section .
Exercise
1) The design engineer has established a horizontal curve with a 400m radius be fit on
a particular road. The surveyor measured a deflection angle of 40 0 55' 30 ¿ at station
13+494.505 located at the PI. What are the other elements of the curve?
2) Compute R x to fit requirements of the figure and make the tangent distances of the
two curves equal.

Chapter-
Six
6. Vertical Alignment
1.60
1.40 1.40
f(x) = 0.02 x + 0
1.20 R² = 1 1.20
1.00 1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80 0.80
0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
0.40 0.40 0.40
0.20 0.20
0.00 0.00 0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

7.1. Objectives
After you have learned this chapter trainees should able to:
 Describe what is meant by vertical alignment.
 Describe the different types of vertical alignment.
 Establish how straight grade set out.
 Understand Maximum length of steep grade
 Describe what a sag curve is.
 Know how to set out a sag curve.
 Describe what is meant by crest ( or hump)
 Know how to set out a sag curve.
7.2. General
The vertical alignment defines the exact level of the road and how the road is placed in
relation to the surrounding terrain. As with the horizontal alignment, most road works agencies
have developed appropriate standards for how the vertical alignment is designed.
Rules concerning the allowed curvature and gradients greatly influence the alignment of the road
and the amount of earthworks required. Still, the final quality of the road alignment is dependent
on a thorough field survey and having made a careful assessment of the various alternatives
available.
In flat or slightly rolling terrain, the design of the vertical
alignment is fairly straightforward. The main concern in this
type of terrain is to ensure that water is efficiently drained
away from the road and that potential floodwater remains
well below the road surface levels.
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous
terrain, the choice of alignment is more critical in terms of
arriving at a durable design, which stands up to t he
environment in which it needs to perform. In order to reduce
future maintenance works, it is important that the road follows the shape of the existing terrain,
avoiding steep gradients and large cuts and fills. Heavy earthworks will often have a detrimental
effect on the stability of slopes, and can easily trigger landslides.
Side cuts and fills are also more prone to erosion, with the eroded material often falling into
the drainage system or causing damage to surrounding areas. It is therefore always recommended
to minimize the earthworks by trying to follow the contours of the terrain.
This can often be done in the case of rural roads since the geometrical standards allow for
smaller radiuses on the horizontal alignment for such roads. The main purpose of rural roads is to
provide basic access. As compared with highways, for which design speeds are a more
important design parameter, the main emphasis of rural roads is to maintain all-weather
access throughout the year to the rural communities.
Maximum allowable gradients should not be exceeded except in very exceptional
circumstances. Roads with steep longitudinal gradients are exposed to increased erosion
from surface water. Experience clearly shows that roads with gradients above 8 percent are
difficult to maintain unless a durable pavement is installed on the road surface as well as in
the side drains.
Therefore, the option of alternative horizontal alignment should be explored to avoid
excessive amounts of earthworks and steep gradients. Although this may result in longer
alignments, such choices will most probably provide better design solutions as the risk of
major damages to the road during the rainy season is reduced.
Vertical alignment (referred to as, and geometrically represented by the grade line or
longitudinal section) consists of straight grades joined by vertical curves. The final design
location of the vertical alignment is principally the fit to the natural terrain but
consideration also needs to be given to the maximum allowable grades, the minimum
radius vertical curves, economical balancing of the earthwork, environmental impacts, ,
and co-ordination with the horizontal alignment.
The design criteria which dominate in deciding on the appropriate alignment vary with the
type of road being considered. The vertical alignment must be designed in conjunction with
the horizontal alignment and both coordinated in accordance with the principle stated.
Once the horizontal alignment of the road centerline has been established it is necessary to
set out the vertical alignment of this road centerline. This vertical alignment sets out the
level of the road and this level is called the longitudinal gradient.
 Vertical alignment is set out the level of the road on the centerline.
 Vertical alignment consists of grades joined by vertical curves.
 As with the horizontal alignment, it is seldom possible to join two places with a
straight line from the lower place to the higher place.

 The Vertical alignment must be designed in conjunction with the horizontal

alignment and both properly coordinated.
The longitudinal gradient is very important and so setting out the correct levels of the road will
ensure that:
 The road is not too steep
 The road is not too flat
 The road is smooth and does not have any dangerous crests or sags.
 The road is protected from water and has adequate drainage.
When setting out the vertical alignment of the road there are three basic situations that you have
to take in to account.
 Setting out “straight grades”.
 Setting out “sags” (dips).
 Setting out “crests” (or humps).
Several methods can be used for setting out the vertical alignment of rural roads. Similar to the
setting out of the horizontal alignment, the methods described in this section rely on the use of
string line levels and profile boards.
The Profile Board Method

A commonly used setting out procedure for rural road
works is based on the use of a series of profile boards and
a string line level. Profile boards are commonly used on
all road works projects in order to establish the correct
levels for the civil works. The use of a line level provides a
simple method of transferring levels from one profile board to another
and also measuring the gradient between two profiles. The
line level is used as an alternative to a leveling instrument. The method is simple and when used
correctly provides sufficient accuracy for rural road works.
This method can be effectively used for setting out most levels on a rural road, including the
levels of excavation works and f ills, surface layers and drains.
Using profile boards and a line level is also a quick and effective method of establishing the
quantities works in the initial surveys during the planning stage. The basic principle is to place a
series of profile boards that show the exact level 1m above the completed construction levels.
The method is best described by imagining the excavation of a ditch from point A to point B at
the level of the dotted line as shown in the figure below.

To ensure a correct and uniform level of the ditch, ranging rods are placed at positions A
and B. Profile boards are mounted on the rods 1m above the level of the excavated ditch.
A third profile board with a fixed height is used for controlling earthworks levels between
the two profile boards. It is known as the travelling profile or traveller. A boning rod is
effectively used as a traveller. During excavation along the line from points A to B, the
traveller can be used to control that the correct levels have been achieved.
By placing the traveller in the sightline between A and B, it is easy to determine whether
the excavation has been carried out to correct levels.
When the top of the traveller is below the sight line between the two fixed profile boards,
the ditch has been excavated to a too low level. If the traveller sticks up above the sight line,
the ditch needs to be dug deeper.
To provide good guidance, it is useful to dig slots at regular intervals of 4 to 5m along the
sight line. With sufficient slots, the workers can start excavating the ditch by removing the
soils between the excavated slots. The traveller is then used once again to control that
the finished work is to the correct level and that there are no high or low spots.
If there is no boning rod readily available, a temporary traveller is easily

made from a ranging road and a profile board by measuring the length
needed from the blunt end of a ranging rod to the further edge of the profile.
For guiding drainage work, it is, however, more appropriate to use a boning
rod with a permanent length, since the profile on a temporary traveller can
become loose and thereby indicate an incorrect length.
A traveller is also useful for establishing levels beyond the sightline between to profile
boards, as shown in the figure below.

When the correct levels have been set out with profile boards, the traveller will give an
indication of the finished construction levels anywhere along the sight line.
This is useful for the site supervisor when setting out. The most frequent use of a traveller
is to mark levels on setting out pegs. In addition, it can be used for activities, such as:
 To guide and check excavation below earthwork levels (e.g. for excavation works
during construction of foundations for structures),
 To find out whether solid rock or large boulders are above or below the level of the
road before deciding on the final vertical alignment,
 To estimate the amount of fill needed if the level of the road is "lifted", or when the
road crosses low areas - this will assist in estimating the quantities of work involved
and help decide on the optimal road levels.
 To locate the end of drains and approaches, and to provide a quick check on
excavated or filled levels.
7.3. Gradients
 A rate of inclination or declination of a slope.
 The rate of rise or fall of the road surface along its length.
 The road is never dead flat and will have rise and fall along the length.
7.3.1. Objective/ Purpose of gradient

 Gradient is necessary so that surface water may be drained off easily through the
side drains.
 To eliminate/reduce water from the area application.
7.3.2. Setting out gradients

When designing the horizontal alignment, it is important to check the gradients along the
road. Ideally, the longitudinal gradient should be somewhere between two and eight
percent, preferably staying at the low side of the range. In the field, the slope of any surface
can easily be established with a line level and two ranging rods. By transferring the level of
one profile board to the next ranging rod, the level difference can be determined. T he slope
or the gradient is then calculated as follows:

Vertical difference
 Gradient (%)=
Horizontal distance
x 100
Example: If the difference of levels is 0.5m between two profiles with a distance of 20m
between them, the gradient is___________________.
7.3.3. Straight grade

A straight grade is a section of road where the longitudinal gradient of the road
centerline is constant. A road’s horizontal alignment may not be straight but its
longitudinal gradient may be straight and vice versa.
+5.5%
7.3.4. Types of road gradients

The gradients which are providing in different portions of a roads length are as
follows:

1. Maximum gradient(Limiting gradient)

2. Ruling gradient
3. Minimum gradient
4. Exceptional gradient
7.3.4.1. Maximum gradient

 It is the maximum or steepest gradient which is allowed to be provided in a road
and which must never be exceeded in any part of the road as steeper gradient are
very inconvenient to the traffic, more especially for the slow moving traffic.
 Also called limiting gradient
 Its value has been fixed as:
 1 in 15 in hilly terrain roads
 1 in 20 for flat or rolling roads
 The steeper gradients are sometimes to be provided to avoid deep excavation and
avoid long detours.
7.3.4.2. Ruling gradient

It is the desirable upper limit or permissible limit of the gradient in the alignment of a
road. This alignment is such that vehicles, whether they are animal driven or power
driven, can overcome long distances of the gradient without much fatigue or
uneconomical fuel consumption. A design engineer must aim to provide a gradient
within ruling gradient limits keeping in view the mode of traffic and topography.
Generally the value of ruling gradient is:

 1 in 20 in hilly terrain roads
 1 in 30 for flat or rolling roads
7.3.4.3. Minimum gradient

It has also been found that for efficient drainage of water from the road surface a
certain minimum gradient is essential. Such an essential gradient which has to be
provided for the purpose of road drainage is called minimum gradient.
 The value usually fixed 1 in 200
 For cement concrete roads a minimum gradient of 1 in 500 can be provided.
7.3.4.4. Exceptional gradient

During the alignment of the road, there may be situations where grades may
have to be provided with either lesser than the minimum or greater than the maximum.
Thus exceptional gradients are provided in exceptional situations such as in approaches
to causeways or near hairpin bends etc. These gradients should be provided only for
very short stretches not exceeding 60 to 100m in 1km length and should be separated by
a minimum length of 100m. This gradient becomes necessary to avoid deep cutting or

excavations. The exceptional gradient should not be provided in a length more than
100m, in any case.
Disadvantage of exceptional gradients

Following are the disadvantages of exceptional gradients:
 More fuel consumption
 More friction losses
 efficiency of engine reduces
 Early fatigue to animal
 More wear and tear to pavement surface and vehicle too.
The maximum, ruling and exceptional gradients as recommended in table below:

Gradient
S.No Type of terrain Ruling Limiting or Exceptional
. Maximum
2. Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7
3. Mountainous and steep terrain with
elevation more than 3000m 5% 6% 7%
4. Steep terrain up to 3000m height 6% 7% 8%
Maximum gradients (%)

Table below shows general maximum grades over long length of road for a range of
typical situations.
Target Terrain
speed Flat Rolling Mountainous
<2000AADT 2000-5000AADT 5000-10,000AADT >10,000AADT
(km/hr)
50 6-8 8-10 12 10 - -
60 6-8 7-9 10 9 9 -
80 4-6 5-7 9 8 7 7
100 4 4-6 - - 6 6
120 3 3-5 - - - 5
Note: Grades over 15% should be used only in extreme cases (eg. access to an isolated
vantage point) and should be for short lengths where no heavy vehicles are required
to use them.
7.3.5. Maximum lengths of steep grade
It is undesirable to have a very long length of the steep grade. On both the upgrade and
downgrade, the lower operating speed of trucks may cause inconvenience to other
traffic. When it is impractical to reduce the length of the grade to the desirable length,
consideration should be given to providing an auxiliary lane both in the uphill and
downhill directions.
Desirable Maximum lengths of grades

Grade (%) Length (m)

2-3 1,800
3-4 900
4-5 600
5-6 450
>6 300
Worthwhile design feature to avoid horizontal curves, at least sharp curves, at the
bottom of steep grades, where speeds may develop to the point of difficult vehicle
control.
7.4. Vertical levels /Transferring levels

To transfer the level at point A to point B, the following steps should be followed:
(1) Fix a profile at 1 m above the level
point A, and same at point B.
(2) With the line level fixed on the string
line mid-point between points A and B,
the string line should be raised up and
down until the line level bubble
centers.
(3) Measure up or down on rod B the difference “Y” in between the old and the new
level and put a mark on the rod as the transferred level.
7.4.1. Adjusting Vertical Levels
Once the horizontal road alignment has been established, the next step is to set out the
vertical alignment, by fixing the level of the
road at appropriate intervals along the
centre line. As the slope of the existing
terrain normally does not provide an even
surface, the road levels can once again be
adjusted to reduce the amount of earthworks.
The method shown below, using profile boards
to optimize the road level provides an
effective way of minimizing earth movement.
Example-1: During collecting of field data,

the following points are considered.
 The existing and proposed ground profile.
 Straight grade (constant gradient)
 Adjusting Vertical levels

Station Cut (+) or Existing
Slope
Chainage Distance PCH PR Fill (-) Prop. Elev. Elev.
0+000 0 1.00 1.00 0.00 2% 0.00 0.00
0+010 10 1.00 1.20 -0.20 2% 0.20 0.00
0+020 20 1.00 0.80 0.20 2% 0.40 0.60
0+030 30 1.00 0.60 0.40 2% 0.60 1.00
0+040 40 1.00 1.40 -0.40 2% 0.80 0.40
0+050 50 1.00 1.20 -0.20 2% 1.00 0.80
0+060 60 1.00 1.60 -0.60 2% 1.20 0.60
0+070 70 1.00 1.00 0.00 2% 1.40 1.40
Existing and proposed ground Profile

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Note:
Cut (+), above the give and take line and Fill below the give and take line.
 If PCH −PR is positive , it needs cut .
 If PCH −PR is negative , it needs fill.
7.5. Vertical curves

A Vertical curve is provided at the point where the two straight lines at different
gradients intersect in the vertical plane. The vertical curve provides a smooth change in
the gradients and is introduced to secure safety and adequate visibility together with
comfort to the passengers.
Whenever roads change gradient, a vertical curve is required to take traffic smoothly from
one gradient to the other. Roads made up of a series of straight lines (or tangents) are not
practical. To prevent abrupt changes in the vertical direction of moving vehicles, adjacent
segments of differing grade are connected by a curve. This curve in the vertical plane is
called vertical curve. Generally, the vertical curve is the arc curve of a parabola.
A vertical curve is a parabolic curve in a vertical plane which is used to connect two
numerically different grade lines. The two grade lines are called the back tangent and forward
tangent, respectively.
 The tangents’ intersection is called the point of vertical intersection (PVI).

 The beginning of the curve is called the point of vertical curve (PVC).
 The end of the curve is called the point of vertical tangent (PVT).
General guidelines
 Provide a smooth grade line with gradual changes, consistent with the terrain and type of
the road.
 Avoid hidden dips, that is, dips that the driver of a vehicle cannot see.
 Whenever possible, flatten the grade near the top of the ascent (An upward slope) on
long, steep grades.
7.6. Determine the length of vertical curves

To find out the vertical curve length you first have to find the “K” value of the
terrain type. The following table tells you what the “K” value will be for each of the five
low volume road standards used. From there if you multiply the addition of the road
longitudinal gradients by the “K” value you will get the tangent length.
“K” Value for sag curve on different road standards
Mountainous
Lowland Rolling Hilly With reduction Without reduction
K=20 K=13 K=8 K=5 K=6
“K” Value for Crest curve on different road standards
Mountainous
Lowland Rolling Hilly With reduction Without reduction
K=30 K=20 K=20 K=10 K=10
Example: Calculate
(a) Length of crest vertical curve
(b)Length of crest vertical curve
 Upward gradient; g1=6 %
 Downward gradient; g2=−4 %
 Assume the road to be built on rolling terrain.
[Answer: (a) L=200m and (b) L=130m]
7.7. Elements of Vertical curve

7.8. Types of vertical curves

The vertical curves are generally parabolic in profile. Vertical curves are classified into
two categories. The vertical curve could be:
 Sag curve
 Summit curve

7.8.1. Crest curve

 The crest curve having convexity upwards is also called a summit curve.
 The curve occurs when:
 An upward gradient followed by an equal or different downward gradient.
 An upward gradient followed by a flatter upward gradient.
 A downward gradient followed by a steeper downward gradient.
Varying crest vertical curve paramenters based on symmetry

Setting out crest vertical curves
Procedure:
1. Measure the longitudinal slopes g1∧g2 of the two intersection gradients.

2. Calculate the Algebraic difference A=g 2−g1

3. Given the Length L of Vertical Curve by the Engineer. (l = L/2)
4. Calculate the offset from VIP:
l g −g
(
e= x 2 1
4 100 )
5. Fix ranging rods and profile boards set at levels through the straight section and
curve that define the respective measured slopes.
6. Measure the vertical distance z of the profile board to the ground at the beginning of
the curve at each side.
7. From the beginning of the curve on each leg, drop the profile board at every x = 10m
(say) within the curve by the offset,
2
x
y= []
l
The tops of the dropped profile boards will define the vertical curve.
8. Measuring the vertical distance z down the ranging rod from the level of each
lowered profile board will determine the extent of earthwork (cut or fill) at every
distance x =10m (say).


7.8.2. Setting out Sag curves

Sag is a vertical Curve joining two sections of Straight Grade to form a valley or dip.
 The curve occurs when:
 A downward gradient followed by an equal or different upward gradient.
 A downward gradient followed by a flatter downward gradient.
 An upward gradient followed by a steeper upward gradient.
Varying sag vertical curve paramenters based on symmetry

Example: A grade g1=−3 %intersects grade g2=+ 6 % at a vertex whose station 2+240. An
equal-tangent parabolic curve 300m long has been selected to join the two tangents.
Compute the:
(a) Offset from the vertical tangent to make the curve smooth.
(b) Total cut or fill at each point.
7.9. High or low point on a vertical curve

To investigate drainage conditions, clearance beneath overhead structures, cover over
pipes, or sight distance, it may be necessary to determine the elevation and location of the
low (or high) point on a vertical curve. At the low or high point, a tangent to the curve will
be horizontal and its slope equal to zero.
g1 L
x=
g1−g2
Where
° x=¿the distance from the PVC to the high or low point of the curve
° g1=¿ the tangent grade through the PVC
° g2=¿ the tangent grade through the PVT,
° L=¿ The curve length
°
Chapter-Seven
8. Cross sectional Alignment

8.1. Objectives
After you have
learned this element you should be able to:
 Describe what it means by cross section
 set out cross section for different terrain types
 know elements of cross section
8.2. General
The cross section of a road is a vertical plane; at right angles to the road control
line, viewed in the direction of increasing chain age, showing the various elements that
make up the road’s structure. A cross section can show transverse detail from
boundary to boundary, detaining the various road components.
Cross section is set out the width of the road and position of the drains from the
centerline and set out levels. Set out necessary pegs perpendicular to the centerline of
the road. Normally, cross sections are set out at 20m intervals on straight sections of
the horizontal alignment and at about 10m interval through horizontal curves.
Once the position and level of the centre line has been established, the next step is
to install the entire road including its drainage system. This work is normally carried

out in two stages. A preliminary survey is done when preparing the detailed design
drawings, which form part of the bidding documents. This survey exercise is essential
for estimating the exact quantities of work.
A second surveying exercise is carried out at the time when civil works commence. At
this stage, the setting out of the road cross section provides the detailed directions for
civil works activities such as clearing, excavation and fills works, and drainage
construction. A similar exercise is carried out when works on a road section have been
completed, for the purpose of reporting and payment of the actual quantities of work
carried out.
Using the established centre line for the road, this setting out exercise will result in
details relating to:
 the exact location and amount of excavation works,
 detailed measurements of fills and embankments,
 all road levels including shape of road camber,
 location and shapes of the drainage system, including side and mitre drains,
cut-off drains, drifts and culverts, and
 Exact location and dimensions of any other structures.
8.3. Methods of setting out cross section

9. Using 3,4 and 5 methods
Using 6,6 and 6 methods

7.4. Elements of cross section

(a) Slope staking
Slope staking is the method of giving line and grade for the construction of sloping surfaces
when such surfaces meet uneven ground. Its use is for staking out retaining walls and laying out
earth excavations and embankments. Slope stakes are placed for every 15.24m of highway
before construction can begin. Slope staking procedures are similar for all types of construction.
Slope staking is used mainly in highway construction for marking out cuts and fills.
Stakes are place on the existing ground surface, one on each side of the centerline stake. These
stakes are placed where the edge of a cut or the toe of a fill will come when the earthwork is
completed. The centerline stake is in place and the stakes on each side are slope stakes. They are
place where the limits of the earthwork must be located. Each slope stake must be marked with
its horizontal distance to the right or left of the centerline and the vertical distance from the
ground at the stake down to the elevation of the bottom of a cut or up to the elevation of the top
of a fill, i.e., the elevation of a line known as the base. All stakes must be marked with the station
number.
Original ground
Cut
F ill
Ori ginal gr ound
Original ground
Mixed
(b) Auxiliary lane:

A portion of carriageway adjoining through traffic lanes, used to separate either faster
overtaking traffic or slower moving vehicles from through traffic, or other purposes
supplementary to through traffic movement.
(c) Cross Slopes

Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are
sloped from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or
cross slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the
two. A parabola is generally used for curved cross sections, and the highest point of the
pavement (called the crown) is slightly rounded, with the cross slope increasing toward the
pavement edge. Plane cross slopes consist of uniform slopes at both sides of the crown. The
curved cross section has one advantage which is that the slope increases outward to the
pavement edge, thereby enhancing the flow of surface water away from the pavement. A
disadvantage is they are difficult to construct.

(d) Hinge point

The point where the extended crossfall of the verge are meets the batter slope. This
point is associated with rounding where it is applied. The hinge point should be
rounded.
(e) Side Slopes

Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks.
They also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control
vehicles. When being considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross
slope are the hinge point, the fore slope, and the toe of the slope.
Side slope improvements include measures to reduce the gradient of the embankment
or roadside slope adjacent to the carriageway and also the removal of any hazardous
objects that are located within the area.
Side slope improvement will reduce the likelihood of a vehicle rollover in run-off road/
loss of control crashes and may also reduce the severity of these types of crashes.
Generally flatter side slopes are safer. A side slope is considered to be traversable if an
errant vehicle can recover and return to the roadway while keeping all wheels in
contact with the ground.
Side slope is defined as the slope of the cut or fill expressed as the ratio of horizontal
distance to the vertical distance.
CL=Ce nte rline
1 1
3 4

Example
1. A 2:1 side slope indicate that for every horizontal distance of 2m, the corresponding
vertical distance is 1m as indicated in the following diagram.
CL=Ce n te rlin e
Ele v , 2 2 5 . 5 5 0
Ele v , 2 0 0 . 5 5 0 50m
(f) Original ground

Original cross sections indicate the profile of the original ground before the ground is
disturbed. These measurements may be used for primary design, estimating volume, etc.
before beginning a contract, the original sections are checked and compare to the sections
shown on the plans.
Orig ina l g ro und

CL
6m 6m
(g) Zero section:

A zero section is a section at which no earthwork was done.
(h) Right of Way

The right of way is the total land area acquired for the construction of roads. The width
should be sufficient to accommodate all the elements of the road cross section, any planned
widening of the road, and public-utility facilities that will be installed along the road. In
some cases, the side slopes may be located outside the right of way on easement areas. The
minimum widths of the road depending on the numbers of lanes.
(i) Curve widening

Widening is applied, additional to the normal lane width on some curves. This additional
width caters for widths of the turning vehicle due to tracking, steering inaccuracies and
slippage.

(j) Guard rails

Guard rails: These are provided if the road is constructed on embankments higher than
3m to prevent the vehicles from running off the pavements.
(k) Width of formation

The width of formation includes the width of pavement shoulders and separators, if any. In
the case of embankment, formation width is equal to the top width of embankment. In the
case of cutting it is taken as the bottom width of cutting minus the side drains.
7.5. Setting out angles

7.5.1. Setting out of a right angle (90°)*
The right angle is established by measuring a triangle with side lengths of 3m, 4m and 5m.
Measure the length AB of 4m along the defined centre line. Set pegs exactly at points A and
B. Hold the zero point of the tape measure on the peg A. A second person holds the 8m of
the tape measure on peg B. A third person holds the tape measure at the 5m mark which
will lead to fixing point C when the tape measure is pulled tight.
7.5.2. Setting out of a 45° angle

1) First establish a right angle as shown above.

2) Set out the same distance on both of the two lines (L) starting from the intersection
point B, e.g. 3m, and fix pegs A and C.
3) Span a string line between points A and C and measure this length A to C.
4) Divide the length A to C by two and set peg D exactly in the middle of this length.
5) Establish the new line B to D with a string line and extend beyond peg D if
necessary.
7.6. Slope Stakeout

Slope stakes are set at all full and half stations. The correct method of setting slope
stakes is shown on the attached figure. Before beginning slope staking it is necessary to
examine the typical section and/or cross-sections to determine width of surfacing, width
of shoulder and ditch, together with the cut/fill slopes. Also, a careful examination
should be made of the summary sheets, plan sheets, profile sheets, and any special notes
pertaining to the staking and construction of the project.




7.7. Establishing Grade: Marking Elevation

Marking elevations is called giving grade or grade staking. It consists of setting marks
such as the tops of stakes, nails in vertical surface, and keel marks at required elevations.
Marks are also set at random elevations with indications of the vertical heights at which future
construction projects must be built above or below them. Marks for grade are placed near the
work.



Surveying and Setting Out

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Ethiopian Roads Authority

April 23, 2016 Chancho Labour Based Technology Training Center

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chancho Labour Based technology

Surveying and Setting out Using Labour Based Methods

Setting out straight line

Setting out Horizontal Curves

Setting out Vertical alignment using profile

Surveying and Setting out | Road Construction and Maintenance . 1

 Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical

1.3. Safe work procedure

3. The following minimum practical requirements are, however, drawn to the

3.1. Personal safety

Surveying and Setting out | . 2

1.4. Tools and equipment safety

Surveying and Setting out | . 3

1.5. Temporary Signposting

The signs are:

Surveying and Setting out | . 4

1.6. Environmental concerns

Surveying and Setting out 5

2.2. Horizontal alignment terms

 Direction: Direction is angles measured in either horizontal or vertical plane.

Surveying and Setting out | . 7

2.4. Cross sectional alignment terms

Surveying and Setting out | . 8

3.2. List of tools and their definitions

(b) Reference pegs

(c) Survey pegs

Surveying and Setting out | . 10

(e) Profile Boards

A long-lasting profile board is made from thin steel plate welded to a

Surveying and Setting out | . 11

(f) Ranging Rods

In very compact or rocky ground, it may be necessary to first make a hole

(g) Line Levels

Surveying and Setting out | . 12

Checking the Line Level

Surveying and Setting out | . 13

(h) Boning Rods

They are used to establish additional levels

They are particularly useful to check gradients of

Surveying and Setting out | . 14

(j) Straight Edge

Surveying and Setting out | . 15

(k) Tube Water Level

(l) Dumpy Level

(m) Camber Boards

(n) Ditch Templates

Surveying and Setting out | . 17

3.3. Choice of Tools

Tools and equipment required for setting out

Surveying and Setting out | . 18

Surveying and Setting out | . 19

4.2. General Introduction

Surveying and Setting out | . 20

4.3. Why surveying and setting out is necessary?

Surveying and Setting out | . 21

4.4. Where to start setting out

4.5. Selecting the road alignment

Surveying and Setting out | . 22

4.7. Factors Affecting Choice of Route