TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS & SEMI CONDUCTORS:

Electricity Generation, Storage and Transmission

The electrical resistance of transmission lines typically results in power losses of up to

5 %.  If power lines could be made superconducting, the present transmission losses
could be reduced.  Superconducting generators could be used to produce electrical
power more efficiently than conventional generators.  Since current can flow indefinitely
in superconductors, superconductor coils could be used to store electricity produced in
periods of low demand for use in periods of peak demand.  Many research laboratories
around the world are working in this area.

Magnetic Field Generation

Due to their lack of resistance, superconductors have been used to make electromagnets
that generate large magnetic fields with no energy loss. Superconducting magnets are
used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines to produce 3-D images of the
internal structure of the human body.  They are used in other nuclear magnetic
resonance instruments to study the structure of materials and in the construction of
powerful particle accelerators.  Superconducting magnets are also used in magnetic
levitation (Maglev) trains and in experimental nuclear fusion reactors in which the hot
plasma is confined by magnetic fields.

Electronic Devices

Using the quantum effects of superconductivity, devices have been developed that

measure electric current, voltage, and magnetic field with unprecedented
sensitivity.  SQUID’s (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices) are used
to measure magnetic fields that are less than a billionth of the earth’s magnetic field
strength.  These devices have applications in medicine, materials science, geology and
other fields.

SQUID’s are built using Josephson junctions, superconducting electronic switches. 

Such switches can switch current off or on very quickly – within a picosecond (10 -12s). 
They can thus be used instead of transistors in computers to produce machines that
operate many times faster than present day machines and that are much smaller, since
no space needs to left inside such machines for heat dissipation purposes. 

Application of Superconductors

• Particle Accelerators

• Generators

• Transportation

• Power Transmission

• Electric Motors
 • Military

• Computing

• Medical

• B Field Detection (SQUIDS)

Limitations

Limitations of superconductors include: 

    Metallic superconductors still require temperatures close to absolute zero for their
operation.  This requires the use of liquid helium as the coolant.  This is very
expensive and wasteful of helium, which is a non-renewable resource.

SEMICONDUCTORS

introduction to semiconductors

the magic word semiconductor is composed of two words-semi and conductor.

semi means not completely while conductor mean something, which can conduct electricity.
a semiconductor is a material that has intermediate conductivity between a conductor and an
insulator. it means that it has unique physical properties somewhere in between a conductor like
aluminum and an insulator like glass
the definition of a semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor or a good insulator
but that conducts more electricity when heat, light or voltage is added.

applications

semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, and
telephones. semiconductor-based electronic components include transistors, solar cells, many kinds of
diodes including the light-emitting diode (led), the silicon controlled rectifier, photo-diodes, and digital
and analog integrated circuits. 

    High temperature ceramic superconductors are difficult to produce, brittle,

difficult to make into wires for electricity transmission and are chemically unstable
in certain environments.
In a semiconductor, under the influence of an external electric field, holes move within
the valence band in the direction of the electric field, while electrons move
within the conduction band in the opposite direction.  See the diagram below.

In a pure semiconductor the number of holes in the valence band is exactly equal to the
number of electrons in the conduction band.  Despite the duplication in the number of
charge carriers, the conduction of a piece of pure silicon (semiconductor) is very low
compared with copper, since so few charge carriers are actually available.  When
conduction happens in a pure semiconductor, the material is called an intrinsic
semiconductor. 

 How semiconductors are used in everyday life? Since semiconductor itself is not sold

in stores as electrical appliances, it may to be hard to understand, but in fact it is
used in many electric appliances.
For example, temperature sensors used in air conditioners are made
with semiconductors. Rice cookers cook rice perfectly
because semiconductors control the temperature precisely. CPUs that operate
personal computers are also made with semiconductors. Many digital consumer
products in everyday life such as mobile phones / smartphones, digital cameras,
televisions, washing machines, refrigerators and LED bulbs also use
semiconductors.
In addition to consumer electronics, semiconductors play a central role in the
operation of bank ATMs, trains, the internet, communications and other parts of
social infrastructure, such as the medical network used for the care of elderly,
among other things. Furthermore, efficient logistics systems help save energy
and promote the preservation of the global environment. The number of car-
mounted semiconductor devices has been increasing steadily. There are many
types of car-mounted semiconductors. Particularly for future ADAS (Advanced
Driver Assistance Systems), more semiconductors are expected to be used.
In this way, semiconductors help us to live comfortable lives.