Q.1 Discuss the various type of D.C Motors and control of D.C. motors.

Write the application in

domestic use.

A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot of applications in today’s field of

engineering and technology. From electric shavers to automobiles – DC motors are
everywhere. To cater to this wide range of applications – different types of DC motors
are used depending on the application.

The types of DC motor include:

 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

 Separately Excited DC Motor
 Self-Excited DC Motor
 Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Series Wound DC Motor
 Compound Wound DC Motor
 Short shunt DC Motor
 Long shunt DC Motor
 Differential Compound DC Motor

We will now discuss in detail the various different types of DC Motors.

o Separately Excited DC Motor

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As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.

From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be
varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.

o Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC motor) consists of an armature
winding as in case of an usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The
construction of these types of DC motor is such that radially magnetized permanent magnets are
mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce the field flux.

The rotor on the other hand has a conventional DC armature with commutator segments and
brushes. The diagrammatic representation of a permanent magnet DC motor is given below.

The torque equation of DC motor suggests

Here φ is always constant, as permanent magnets of required flux density are chosen at the time
of construction and can’t be changed there after

For a permanent magnet DC motor

Where, Ka1 = Ka.φ which is another constant. In this case, the torque of DC Motor can only be
changed by controlling the armature supply.

o Self-Excited DC Motor

In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC
Motors can be classified as:

1. Shunt wound DC motor

2. Series wound DC motor
3. Compound wound DC motor
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Let’s now go into the details of these types of self-excited DC motor.

o Shunt Wound DC Motor

In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self-excited DC

motor, the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are
connected in parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure below.

To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, let’s consider the basic voltage
equation given by,

[Where, E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply

voltage, back emf, armature current and armature resistance respectively]

[Since back emf increases with flux φ

and angular speed ωω]

Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

The torque equation of a DC motor resembles,

This is similar to the equation of a straight line, and we can graphically representing the torque
speed characteristic of a shunt wound self-excited DC motor as

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NB: The shunt wound DC motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here with
the variation of mechanical load on the output.

o Series Wound DC Motor

In case of a series wound self excited DC motor or simply series wound DC motor, the entire
armature current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the armature
winding. The series wound self excited DC motor is diagrammatically represented below for
clear understanding.Now to determine the torque speed characteristic of these types of
DC motor, let’s get to the torque speed equation.

From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets modified to

Where as back emf remains Eb = kaφω

Neglecting saturation we get,

[since field current = armature current]

From equation (5) and (6)

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o Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the

operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound
self-excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure
below:

Applications of DC Motors

The applications include:

 DC Motors are used in weaving machines and spinning machines.

 Shunt Wound Motors are used in lathe machines and centrifuges.
 They are also used in lifts, fans and blowers.
 Compound Excited Motors are used in presses, electric shovels, conveyors and Rolling
Mills.
 Permanent Magnet Motors are widely used in automobiles in the functioning of
windshield wipers and washers, in blowers for Air conditioners and heaters and to
operate windows.
 They are used in computer or laptop drives.
 They are also a part of cranes and compressors.
 They are used in food mixers, vacuum cleaners and electric toothbrushes and toys.

Q.2 Describe the different logic functions and their performance.

There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The common
ones are;

Logic AND Function

The Logic AND Function output is only true when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output
is false

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The Logic AND Function function states that two or more events must occur together and at the
same time for an output action to occur. The order in which these actions occur is unimportant as
it does not affect the final result. For example, A & B = B & A. In Boolean algebra the Logic
AND Function follows the Commutative Law which allows a change in position of either
variable.
The AND function is represented in electronics by the dot or full stop symbol ( . ) Thus a 2-input
(A B) AND Gate has an output term represented by the Boolean expression A.B or just AB.

Switch Representation of the AND Function

Here the two switches, A and B are connected together to form a series circuit. Therefore, in the
circuit above, both switch A AND switch B must be closed (Logic “1”) in order to put the lamp
on. In other words, both switches must be closed, or at logic “1” for the lamp to be “ON”.
As there are only two Switches, each with two possible states “open” or “closed”. Defining a
Logic “0” as being when the switch is open and a Logic “1” when the switch is closed.

AND Function Truth Table

Switch A Switch B Output Description

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0 0 0 A and B are both open, lamp OFF

0 1 0 A is open and B is closed, lamp OFF

1 0 0 A is closed and B is open, lamp OFF

1 1 1 A is closed and B is closed, lamp ON

Boolean Expression (A AND B) A.B

Logic OR Function

The Logic OR function output is only true if one or more of its inputs are true, otherwise the
output is false

The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if either one
“OR” more events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does not
affect the final result.

Switch Representation of the OR Function

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Here the two switches A and B are connected in parallel and either Switch A OR Switch B can

be closed in order to put the lamp on. In other words, either switch can be closed, or at logic “1”
for the lamp to be “ON”.
Then this type of logic gate only produces and output when “ANY” of its inputs are present and
in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be TRUE when any of its inputs are TRUE.

OR Function Truth Table

Switch A Switch B Output Description

0 0 0 A and B are both open, lamp OFF

0 1 1 A is open and B is closed, lamp ON

1 0 1 A is closed and B is open, lamp ON

1 1 1 A is closed and B is closed, lamp ON

Boolean Expression (A OR B) A+B

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Logic NOT Function

The Logic NOT Function output is true when its single input is false, and false when its single
input is true

The Logic NOT Function is simply a single input inverter that changes the input of a logic level
“1” to an output of logic level “0” and vice versa.
The “logic NOT function” is so called because its output state is NOT the same as its input state
with its Boolean Expression generally denoted by a bar or over line ( ¯ ) over its input symbol
which denotes the inversion operation, (hence its name as an inverter).
As NOT gates perform the logic INVERT or COMPLEMENTATION function they are more
commonly known as Inverters because they invert the signal. In logic circuits this negation can
be represented by a normally closed switch.
Switch Representation of the NOT Function

If A means that the switch is closed, then NOT A or simply A says that the switch is NOT closed
or in other words, it is open. The logic NOT function has a single input and a single output as
shown.
NOT Function Truth Table

Switch Output

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1 0

0 1

Boolean Expression not-A or A

Logic NOT gates or “Inverters” as they are more commonly called, can be connected with
standard AND and OR gates to produce NAND and NOR gates respectively

Logic NAND Function

The Logic NAND Function output is only false when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the
output is always true

he NAND or “Not AND” function is a combination of the two separate logical functions, the
AND function and the NOT function in series. The logic NAND function can be expressed by
the Boolean expression of, A.B

The Logic NAND Function will not produce an output when “ALL” of its inputs are present and
in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be FALSE only when all of its inputs are TRUE.

Switch Representation of the NAND Function

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The truth table for the NAND function is the opposite of that for the previous AND function
because the NAND gate performs the reverse operation of the AND gate.

NAND Function Truth Table

switch A Switch B Output Description

0 0 1 A and B are both open, lamp ON

0 1 1 A is open and B is closed, lamp ON

1 0 1 A is closed and B is open, lamp ON

1 1 0 A is closed and B is closed, lamp OFF

Boolean Expression (A AND B) A.B

The NAND Function is sometimes known as the Sheffer Stroke Function and is denoted by a

vertical bar or upwards arrow operator, for example, A NAND B = A|B or A↑B.

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Logic NOR Function

The Logic NOR Function output is only true when all of its inputs are false, otherwise the output
is always false

The NOR or “Not OR” gate is also a combination of two separate logic functions, Not and OR
connected together to form a single logic function which is the same as the OR function except
that the output is inverted.
To create a NOR gate, the OR function and the NOT function are connected together in series
with its operation given by the Boolean expression as, A + B

The Logic NOR Function only produces and output when “ALL” of its inputs are not present
and in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be TRUE only when all of its inputs are FALSE.

Switch Representation of the NOR Function

The truth table for the NOR function is the opposite of that for the previous OR function because
the NOR gate performs the reverse operation of the OR gate. Then we can see that the NOR gate
is the complement of the OR gate.

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NOR Function Truth Table

Switch A Switch B Output Description

0 0 1 Both A and B are open, lamp ON

0 1 0 A is open and B is closed, lamp OFF

1 0 0 A is closed and B is open, lamp OFF

1 1 0 A is closed and B is closed, lamp OFF

Boolean Expression (A OR B) A+B

The NOR Function is sometimes known as the Pierce Function and is denoted by a downwards

arrow operator as shown, A NOR B = A↓B.

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Q.3 Explain the architecture of a PLC with a suitable block diagram. Mention three industrial
application.

PLC stands for “Programmable Logic Controller”. A PLC is a computer specially designed to
operate reliably under harsh industrial environments – such as extreme temperatures, wet, dry,
and/or dusty conditions. It is used to automate industrial processes such as a manufacturing
plant’s assembly line, an ore processing plant, or a wastewater treatment plant.

PLCs share many features of the personal computer you have at home. They both have a power
supply, a CPU (Central Processing Unit), inputs and outputs (I/O), memory, and operating
software (although it’s a different operating software). The biggest differences are that a PLC
can perform discrete and continuous functions that a PC cannot do, and a PLC is much better
suited to rough industrial environments. A PLC can be thought of as a ‘ruggedized’ digital
computer that manages the electromechanical processes of an industrial environment.

The working of a PLC can be easily understood as a cyclic scanning method known as the scan
cycle.

Block Diagram of How A PLC Works

Physical Structure of PLC

The structure of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.

PLC Block Diagram

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Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitors the input values from various input
sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight scale, hardwired signals, etc.) and produces
corresponding output depending on the nature of production and industry. A typical block
diagram of PLC consists of five parts namely:

 Rack or chassis
 Power Supply Module
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input & Output Module
 Communication Interface Module

Rack or Chassis
In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important module and acts as a
backbone to the system. PLCs are available in different shapes and sizes. When more complex
control systems are involved, it requires larger PLC racks. Small-sized PLC is equipped with a
fixed I/O pin configuration. So, they have gone for modular type rack PLC, which accepts
different types of I/O modules with sliding and fit in concept. All I/O modules will be residing
inside this rack/chassis.

Power Supply Module

This module is used to provide the required power to the whole PLC system. It converts the
available AC power to DC power which is required by the CPU and I/O module. PLC generally
works on a 24V DC supply. Few PLC uses an isolated power supply.

CPU Module and Memory

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CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM memory. ROM memory includes an operating
system, drivers, and application programs. RAM memory is used to store programs and data. CPU is the
brain of PLC with an octal or hexagonal microprocessor. Being a microprocessor-based CPU, it replaces
timers, relays, and counters. Two types of processors as a single bit or word processor can be
incorporated with a PLC.

Input and Output Module

PLC has an exclusive module for interfacing inputs and output, which is called an input & output
module. Input devices can be either start and stop pushbuttons, switches, etc and output devices
can be an electric heater, valves, relays, etc. I/O module helps to interface input and output
devices with a microprocessor. The input module of PLC is explained in the below figure.

PLC Input Module

Circuit Diagram of PLC Input Module

The output module of PLC works similarly to the input module but in the reverse process. It
interfaces the output load and processor.

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PLC Output Module

PLCs have a variety of applications and uses, including:

1. Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)

2. Glass Industry
3. Paper Industry
4. Cement Manufacturing
5. In boilers – Thermal Power Plants

Q.4 With a help of block diagram, explain digital, logic control.

Digital Control System

A digital control system model can be viewed from different perspectives including control
algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and digital domains, system
performance etc. One of the most important aspects is the sampling process level. In continuous
time control systems, all the system variables are continuous signals. Whether the system is
linear or nonlinear, all variables are continuously present and therefore known (available) at all
times.

A typical closed loop continuous time control system

In a digital control system, the control algorithm is implemented in a digital computer. The error
signal is discretized and fed to the computer by using an A/D (analog to digital) converter. The
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controller output is again a discrete signal which is applied to the plant after using a D/A (digital
to analog) converter.

General block diagram of a digital control system

logic control

Control logic is a key part of a software program that controls the operations of the program.
The control logic responds to commands from the user, and it also acts on its own to perform
automated tasks that have been structured into the program.

Control logic can be modeled using a state diagram which is a form of hierarchical state
machine. These state diagrams can also be combined with flow charts to provide a set
of computational semantics for describing complex control logic. This mix of state diagrams
and flow charts is illustrated in the figure on the right, which shows the control logic for a simple
stopwatch. The control logic takes in commands from the user, as represented by the event
named “START”, but also has automatic recurring sample time events, as represented by the
event named “TIC”.

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Q.5 Enumerate the difference between a PLC and a personal computer (PC).

PLC:
 Operates in industrial environment
 PLC is programmed in relay ladder logic
 Has no keyboard, CD drive, monitor, or disk drive
 Has communication ports and terminals for input and output devices

PC:

 Capable of executing several programs simultaneously, in any order.

 Some manufacturer have software and interface card available so that a PC can do the
work of a PLC.
 Speedy information processing
 Easy customization
 Straightforward data exchange with other systems

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Q.6 What are the benefits of Mechatronics in industry? Mention application defense.

Mechatronics word is made from the combination of words mechanics and electronics, so it is a
field of science which mainly includes mechanical and electronic engineering.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MECHATRONICS:

• Mechatronics is important because it enhances functionality and features.

• It brings more efficiency. Mechatronics adds intelligence to design of the system, by which
efficiency of the system improves.

• It reduces cost. Mechanical solutions are expensive when compared to mechatronics solutions,
which lowers cost.

• A mechatronic solution improves design time, product size and reliability. It is also more user-
friendly and safer to use.

• Mechatronic uses microcontroller, by which precision, position, speed, flow rate, and variables
can be controlled.

• Using mechatronic solution increases reliability. Mechanical designs get damaged over time
whereas mechatronic design is more reliable. An example is the odometer present in the cars.

• Studying mechatronic has a good career scope. The demand of nanotechnology,

biomechatronics, and robotics in increasing day by day in developing countries. Also, the salary
package offered to mechatronic engineers is very high.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONICS:

• Mechatronic is widely used in our day to day lives. Be it contact-free magnetic bearings,
digitally controlled combustion engines, robots, automated guided vehicles or other machine
tools, mechatronics is present everywhere.

• It is used in home appliances such as dish washer and washing machines.

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• It is used in laser optical systems. It is part of the image and sound processing devices such as
sound operators and automatic focusing device.

• Mechatronic is also used in intelligent measuring devices like calibration devices, measuring
and testing of sensors.

• Mechatronic is used in the medical field as well. Many medical applications such as magnetic
resonance, ultrasonic probes, arthroscopic devices use mechatronics.

• It is used in automation like automatic air conditioning systems, security system, automatic
door systems. It is also used in pressure, heat and position control systems.

• It is widely used in aeronautics engineering’s for unmanned aerial vehicles and automatic
pilots. In the defence industry it is used for automatically guided vehicles and mine detection
robots.

Q.7 What are position sensors? Explain the working of hall effect sensors and mention the
advantages of it.

Position sensors are a vital component of many industrial processing set-ups and monitoring
equipment. Sensors are typically needed for quality control and ensuring safety. In some
commercial applications like consumer products, sensors provide the framework for some
functions.

How does a position sensor work?

The type of position sensor also dictates its working principle. There are several kinds of position
sensors categorized according to how they measure and detect an object’s displacement as well
as the method of producing an output signal. A linear voltage differential transformer is perhaps

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the most identifiable type of linear position sensor. An LVDT is a non-contact sensor which
converts the linear movement of a body into electrical signals. It consists of three coils wound
around a core encased in a tube. The core is freely moving but connected to the target object.

Hall Effect Sensor

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices which generate electrical signals proportional to the
magnetic field applied on it. These electrical signals are then further processed by a user specific
electronic circuit to give the desired output.
An external magnetic field is used to activate these Hall Effect Sensors.  When the magnetic flux
density in the vicinity of Sensor goes beyond a specific defined threshold, it is detected by the
Sensor. On detection, the Sensor generates an output voltage which is also known as Hall
Voltage.

Working Principle of Hall Effect Sensor

Hall Effect Sensor is based on Hall Effect Principle. This principle says that when a conductor or

semiconductor with current flowing in one direction is introduced perpendicular to a magnetic

field a voltage could be measured at right angles to the current path.

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The working of Hall Effect Sensor is described below:

o When an electric current flows through the Sensor, the electrons move through it in a
straight line.

o When an external magnetic field acts on the Sensor, the Lorentz force deviates the charge
carriers to follow a curved path.

o Due to this, the Negative Charge Electrons will deflect towards one side of the Sensor
and the Positive Charge Holes to another.

o Due to this accumulation of electrons and holes at different side of the plate, a voltage
(potential difference) can be observed between the sides of the plate. The voltage obtained is
directly proportional to the electric current and magnetic field strength.

Advantages of Hall Effect Sensors

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Hall Effect Sensors have the following advantages:

o They can be used for multiple sensor functions like position sensing, speed sensing as
well as for sensing the direction of movement too.
o As they are solid state devices, there is absolutely no wear and tear due to absence of
moving parts.
o They are almost maintenance free.

o They are robust.

o They are immune to vibration, dust and water.

Q.8 Explain static and dynamic characteristic of sensors.

Static Characteristics of Sensors

The static characteristic of the sensor refers to the relationship between the output and the input
of the sensor for the static input signal. Because both input and output are independent of time at
this time, the relationship between them is that the static characteristics of the sensor can be
described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by using input as abscissa and
output as longitudinal coordinates. The main parameters that characterize the static
characteristics of the sensor are linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift and so on.

(1) Linearity: refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor output
and input deviates from the fitting line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation
between the actual characteristic curve and the fitting straight line in the full range to the output
value of the full range.

(2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of static characteristics of sensors. It is

defined as the ratio of the increment of output to the corresponding increment of input that
causes the increment. Sensitivity is expressed by S.

(3) Hysteresis: The phenomenon that the input-output characteristic curve does not coincide
with the output characteristic curve becomes hysteresis when the input of the sensor changes
from small to large (positive stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the input signal
of the same size, the positive and negative stroke output signals of the sensor are different in
size. This difference is called hysteresis difference.

(4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curve
of the sensor when the input varies continuously and repeatedly over the whole range in the same
direction.

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(5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the change of sensor output over time when the input is constant.
This phenomenon is called drift. There are two reasons for the drift: one is the sensor’s own
structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity,
etc.).

Dynamic characteristics of sensors

The so-called dynamic characteristics refer to the output characteristics of the sensor when the
input changes. In practical work, the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are often expressed by
its response to some standard input signals. This is because the response of the sensor to the
standard input signal can be easily obtained by experimental method, and there is a certain
relationship between the response of the sensor to the standard input signal and its response to
any input signal. The latter can be inferred by knowing the former. The most commonly used
standard input signals are step signal and sinusoidal signal, so the dynamic characteristics of the
sensor are often expressed by step response and frequency response.

Sensor linearity

Usually, the actual static characteristic output of the sensor is a curve rather than a straight line.
In practice, in order to make the instrument have uniform calibration reading, a fitting straight
line is often used to approximate the actual characteristic curve. Linearity (non-linear error) is a
performance index of this approximation degree.

There are many ways to select the fitting line. If the theoretical straight line connected with zero
input and full range output points is used as the fitting line, or the theoretical straight line with
the least square deviation of each point on the characteristic curve is used as the fitting line, the
fitting line is called the least square fitting line.

Sensitivity of Sensors

Sensitivity refers to the ratio of output change (y) to input change (x) of the sensor under steady-
state operation.

It is the slope of the output-input characteristic curve. If there is a linear relationship between the
output and input of the sensor, the sensitivity S is a constant. Otherwise, it will vary with the
input.

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The dimension of sensitivity is the dimension ratio of output to input. For example, if the output
voltage of a displacement sensor changes to 200 mV when the displacement changes 1 mm, its
sensitivity should be expressed as 200 mV/mm.

When the output and input dimensions of the sensor are the same, the sensitivity can be
understood as an amplification factor.

Higher measurement accuracy can be obtained by improving sensitivity. However, the higher the
sensitivity, the narrower the measurement range and the worse the stability.

Resolution of sensor

Resolution refers to the ability of the sensor to sense the smallest change in the measured value.
That is, if the input changes slowly from a non-zero value. When the input change value does not
exceed a certain value, the output of the sensor will not change, that is, the sensor can not
distinguish the change of the input. Only when the change of input exceeds the resolution will
the output change.

Generally, the resolution of the sensor varies from point to point in the full range, so the
maximum change value of the input which can make the output step change in the full range is
often used as the index to measure the resolution. If the above indicators are expressed as
percentage of full range, they are called resolution. The resolution is negatively correlated with
the stability of the sensor.
Q.9 What are buses? Explain types of buses.

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components.

The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines) with addressing information describing
the memory location of where the data is being sent or retrieved. Each wire in the bus carries a
bit(s) of information, which means the more wires a bus has, the more information it can address.
For example, a computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a computer
with a 36-bit bus can address 64 GB of memory.

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Three types of bus are used.

 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components. The data bus
is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control
bus also carries the clock's pulses. The control bus is unidirectional.

Q.10 Distinguish between a transducer and sensor.

1.Sensor
Sensor is the devices that detect the change in the environment. It can be temperature sensor,
pressure sensor or Humidity sensor. As we Know sensors sense just like eyes and ears. Sensor
measured information (data being sensed) shall be sent to the processor or controller for them to
work on it.
2.Transducer
Transducer is the devices which transform energy from one form to another. It also transforms a
non-electrical physical into an electrical signal. It provide output response to specific input
measured which may be physical quantity.

Difference between Sensor and Transducer :

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SENSOR TRANDUCER

A device that convert physical A device that convert energy one form to

parameters to electrical output. another form is known as Transducer.

The word Sensor comes from USA. The word Transducer comes from Europe.

The use of Sensor is for sensing The uses of transducer are for sensing

element itself. element and also for circuitry.

In Sensor changes its resistance with In Transducers change in resistance to

temperature. change in voltage.

All the sensors are not transducers. All Transducers contain a Sensor.

It is a sensor when it responds to a It becomes transducers when connected in a

stimulus. bridge circuit.

It detects change in physical It transfers power form one system to

stimulus and turn it into a signal. another in the same or in different form.

Examples of Sensor: Temperature Example of Transducer: Strain gauge, and

Sensor, and Proximity Sensor. Piezoelectric Transducer.

Q.11 Explain with neat sketches the functioning of following sensors:

(i) Pyroelectric sensor (ii) Thermo diodes

(i) Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensors are generally used to detect weak infrared irradiation due to their high
sensitivities at room temperature. However, they require the use of metallic packages to insulate
the sensitive element from thermal disturbances and electromagnetic noise, making their
miniaturization difficult. Moreover, it is difficult for the pyroelectric sensors to detect a
stationary human body because the surface charge generated on the pyroelectric element
disappears gradually when the human body is stationed. Thermopile infrared sensors, which are
used in remote thermometry, are also available, but they require the same thermal isolation
technique and are unable to respond to fast signals. As the sensitivity of thermopiles is one order
of magnitude lower than pyroelectric infrared sensors, the application of thermopiles is thus
limited to proximity sensing.

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Pyroelectric sensor.

A focusing device is needed to direct the infrared radiation onto the sensor. While parabolic
mirrors can be used, a more commonly used method is a Fresnel plastic lens. Such a lens also
protects the front surface of the sensor and is the form commonly used for sensors to trigger
intruder alarms or switch on a light when someone approaches.

We use the finite element method for the calculation of the coupled thermo-electro-mechanical
fields for an instance of a linear sensor array, derive the modulation transfer function from the
simulation data, and compare the result to an analytical solution. Applications; Security,
Lighting appliances, Household or other appliances

Function of Pyroelectric sensors

 Intrusion detector
 Optothermal detector
 Pollution detector
 Position sensor
 Solar cell studies
 Engine analysis

(ii) Thermo diodes

The term "thermal diode" is sometimes used for a (possibly non-electrical) device which allows
heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Or, the term may be used to describe an electrical

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(semiconductor) diode in reference to a thermal effect or function. Or the term may be used to

describe both situations, where an electrical diode is used as a heat-pump or thermoelectric
cooler.

Thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are used in temperature sensors operating in the range
from -80 to + 150 °C. the Upper limit of the temperature range is limited by the thermal
breakdown of the p-n transition and for certain types of germanium sensors reaches 200 °C, and
for silicon sensors - even 500 ° C. The lower limit of the temperature range of thermal diodes
and thermal transistors is determined by a decrease in the concentration of the main carriers and
can reach for germanium sensors — (240 - 260) °C, for silicon -200 °C.

The main advantages of thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are small size, the possibility of
interchangeability and, most importantly, low cost, allowing them to be used in single-use
sensors.

Q.12 Explain the principle and application of proximity and light sensors.

Light sensors

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications. Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a
resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high

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resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photoresistor
varies inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photoresistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material. Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor. The
CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin
material. The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires. On
incidence of high intensity light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which
will be used further to generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Types and Characteristics of Light Sensors

Photodiode Type
Photodiodes and semiconductor diodes are similar in structure, and their die is a PN junction
with photosensitive characteristics, which has unidirectional conductivity, so a reverse voltage
needs to be added when working.
When there is no light, there is a small saturation reverse leakage current, that is, a dark current,
at which time the photodiode is turned off. When exposed to light, the saturation reverse leakage
current greatly increases, forming a photocurrent, which changes with the intensity of the
incident light.
When light irradiates the PN junction, an electron-hole pair can be generated in the PN junction,
which increases the density of minority carriers. These carriers drift under the reverse voltage,
causing the reverse current to increase. So you can use the light intensity to change the current in
the circuit. It is turned off when there is no light and turned on when there is light.
Features:
(1) High sensitivity can reduce the influence of stray light
(2) Photodiode (photodiode) is a photoelectric conversion device, which can convert the received
light into a current change
(3) The working mode of the photodiode (photodiode) is to increase the reverse voltage or not
increase the voltage. When a reverse bias is applied to it, the reverse current in the tube will
change with the intensity of the light. The greater the light intensity, the greater the reverse
current.

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Photodiode

 Photoresistor Type

(1) Principle
It works based on the semiconductor photoelectric effect. The photoresistor is non-polar and is
purely a resistive element. It can be applied with DC voltage or AC voltage.
(2) Working characteristics of the photoresistor: When the light is on, the resistance is small;
when the light is off, the resistance is large. The stronger the light, the smaller the resistance;
when the light stops, the resistance returns to its original value.
(3) Spectral range: from ultraviolet to infrared.
(4) Features:
● The internal photoelectric effect has nothing to do with the electrode (only related to the
photodiode), that is, a DC power supply can be used.
● Sensitivity is related to the semiconductor material and the wavelength of the incident light
● Epoxy resin package, high reliability, small size, high sensitivity, fast response speed, and
good spectral characteristics.

Photoresistor

Typical Applications

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Backlight adjustment: TV, computer monitor, LCD backlight, mobile phone, digital camera,
MP4, PDA, GPS;
Energy-saving control: outdoor advertising machines, induction lighting appliances, toys;
instruments and meters: instruments and industrial controls for measuring light intensity;
Environmentally friendly replacement: Replace traditional photoresistors, photodiodes,
phototransistors
Proximity sensors

Proximity sensors are use in various devices. From the basic household applications to large
scale applications proximity sensors have a vast range of applications. The basic functionality of
the proximity sensors is the detection of the objects. The detection of material or an object by the
proximity results in an initiation of a specific action. The action initiated upon detection is pre-
defined. The detection of the object with the help of proximity sensor is without any physical
contact of the sensor with the object. A number of sensing techniques are utilize in the proximity
sensor for its operation. 

Operating Principles

Detection Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensors

Inductive Proximity Sensors detect magnetic loss due to eddy currents that are generates on a
conductive surface by an external magnetic field. An AC magnetic field generates on the
detection coil, and changes in the impedance due to eddy currents generated on a metallic object
are detected.
Other methods include Aluminum-detecting Sensors, which detect the phase component of the
frequency, and All-metal Sensors, which use a working coil to detect only the changed
component of the impedance. There are also Pulse-response Sensors, which generate an eddy
current in pulses and detect the time change in the eddy current with the voltage induced in the
coil.

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Detection Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and
the Sensor. The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and distance of the sensing
object. An ordinary Capacitive Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates,
where the capacity of the two plates is detected. One of the plates is the object being measured
(with an imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor’s sensing surface. The changes in the
capacity generated between these two poles are detected.
The objects that can be detected depend on their dielectric constant, but they include resin and
water in addition to metals.

Applications of Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors have number of applications. The very basic is the detection of objects. This
application of proximity is hugely use. For example in cell phones the proximity sensors are the essential
parts. In different projects of engineering different proximity sensors are use for various functionalities.
Proximity sensors are also use in parking lots, sheet break sensing and conveyor systems.

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