POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF DAVAO DEL SUR, INC.

Mac Arthur Highway, Brgy, Kiagot, Digos City The Birth of the Elements
LESSON 1
PHYSICAL SCIENCE LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
Learning Module - I • Give evidence and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
CHAPTER 1
WEEK
Introduction

1 The elements that we have in our body are the same elements that
can be found in our surroundings and the same elements that comprised the
entire universe. Georgiy Antonovich Gamow postulated that the Cosmos
was just a single point in space which was compact, dense and hot, the
hypothetical singularity. Everything in the Universe must have originated
from a violent explosion known as the “Big Bang”.

THE BIG BANG THEORY

This theory suggest that nothing existed before the Big Bang. There
was no time and no space. And out of this nothingness came the vast system
of space, time, matter and energy that is still present nowadays.
Radiation dominated the early universe. Immediately after the big
bang, the universe was so hot and was made of pure energy. There was a

11 period of rapid expansion causing the energy to cool and allowed sub-atomic
particles like protons, neutrons and electrons to form.
Hydrogen nuclei started to form about a second after the big bang
GRADE but the temperature is too high for the formation of atoms. It took about
380,000 years after the big bang that electrons started to combine with the
atom’s nucleus. After 400 million years, the first stars were born.
THE GENESIS OF ELEMENTS
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
An enormous cloud of immensely hot gas and dust known as
primordial soup burst apart in the Big Bang. Big Bang provides the
greatest energy. Just a second after the Big Bang, temperature fell to
100 billion degrees Kelvin, so high that the universe was filled with
Name: _________________________ Grade/Section: _____________ primordial soup of quarks and leptons. Then the quarks bind together
into free protons and neutrons. Later on, protons and neutrons fuse NUCLEAR FUSION
forming new atomic nuclei. Nuclear fusion occurs
The quantity of protons signifies what elements is formed. For where energy can be obtained
example, Hydrogen has one proton while Helium has two protons. On when very light nuclei are
the other hand, neutron has a neutral charge and easily be absorbed combined to form heavier
by the nuclei. Therefore, nuclei could also have extra neutrons with nuclei. In stars and sun, energy
the same number of protons or Isotopes just like Deuterium and is produced out of the
Tritium, known isotopes of Hydrogen. The process of adding protons combination of hydrogen nuclei,
to protons changed one element to another element. where they fuse together and
As the universe had cooled to a few billion Kelvin, the rate of release high amount of energy.
nucleosynthesis had slowed down significantly. By the time the This huge energy drives nuclear
universe was three minutes old the process had basically stopped and fusion reaction. In stars, extreme temperatures provide the energy
the relative abundance of the elements was fixed at ratios that didn’t needed to bring hydrogen nuclei together.
change for very long time: 75% hydrogen, 25% helium, with trace
amount of deuterium (hydrogen-2), helium-3, and lithium-7. Big Bang In the first stage of its life, the star is powered by a series of
nucleosynthesis produced no elements heavier than lithium. nuclear fusion reactions that convert hydrogen to helium.
Four hydrogen atoms combine in the sun to make a helium
FORMATION OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS atom and high energy gamma rays. This nuclear fusion of hydrogen
As the temperature occurs in three steps that involve two isotopes of hydrogen namely the
decreased in early ordinary hydrogen 11H and deuterium 21H.
universe protons and The three steps are as follows:
neutrons continued to
1 H 1 H 2 H 0 β
collide and fused together 1 + 1 1 + 1
2 H 1 H 3 He 0 γ
becoming deuterium and 1 + 1 2 + 0
3 He 3 He 4 He 1 H 1 H
tritium which are the 2 + 2 2 + 1 + 1
different isotopes of
hydrogen. The large amounts of helium-4 formed become concentrated in
When deuterium the core of the star, which slowly becomes denser and hotter. At a
collided with hydrogen, it temperature of about 2 X 108 K, the helium-4 nuclei will begin to fuse,
formed into helium. The chain of reactions synthesized different producing beryllium-8:
isotopes of helium and it formed into beryllium and then to lithium to
boron. As a result, the universe continued to expand with the formation 242 He 8 Be
4
of hydrogen (74%) and helium (25%) and other Trace Elements (1%).
Gravitational force started to draw these substances together into Despite the even mass number and even atomic number of
bodies that became the first massive Stars. beryllium-8, it is still unstable because of low neutron-to-neutron ratio,
decomposing it in only about 10-16s. But this is still long enough for it
to react with a third helium-4 nucleus to form carbon-12, which is very
stable. Sequential reactions of carbon-12 with helium-4 produce the iron and nickel nuclei within it disintegrate to protons and neutrons,
elements with even numbers of protons and neutrons up to and many of the protons capture electrons to form neutrons. This
magnesium-24: forms as dense and dark neutron star where atoms no longer exist.
The energy released by the collapsed of the core causes the
4 He 4 He 4 He 4 He
8 2 12 2 16 2 20 2 21
supernova to explode.
4Be → 6C → 8O → 10Ne → 12Mg The explosive force blows star’s matter into space, creating a
gigantic and rapidly expanding dust cloud called nebula. During this
Huge amount of energy is released by these reactions event, neutron is highly concentrated that multiple neutron-capture
causing the surrounding mass of hydrogen to expand, producing a events occur, producing heaviest elements and many of the less
red giant star that is about 100 times larger than the original yellow stable nuclides.
star. For example, an iron-56 nucleus can absorb as many as 64
As the star expands, heavier nuclei accumulate in its core, neutrons, briefly forming an extraordinary unstable iron isotope that
which contracts further making the core even hotter. At a can then undergo multiple rapid β-decay processes to produce tin-
temperature of about 7 X 108 K, carbon and oxygen nuclei undergo 120:
nuclear fusion reactions to produce sodium and silicon nuclei:
12 C 12 C 23 Na 1 H
6 + 6 11 + 1 56 Fe
26 + 6410n 120 Fe
26
120 Sn
50 + 240-1β
0γ
12 C 16 28 0
6 + 8C 14Si +

At these temperatures, carbon-12 reacts with helium-4 to

initiate a series of reactions that produce more oxygen-16, neon-20, ESSENTIAL IDEAS
magnesium-24, and silicon-28, as well as heavier nuclides such as
sulfur-32, argon-36, and calcium-40: Nucleosynthesis and nucleogenesis is the process of making new atomic
nuclei by nuclear fusion of two or more nucleons.
4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒 4 𝐻𝑒
12 2 16 2 20 2 24 2 28 2 32 2 36 2 40
6𝐶 → 8𝑂 → 10𝑁𝑒 → 12𝑀𝑔 → 14𝑆𝑖 → 16𝑆 → 18𝐴𝑟 → 20𝐶𝑎 Nucleons are composed of protons and neutrons, so it can produce new
isotopes of an element or a completely new element, depending on the
The energy released by these reactions causes a further number and types of particles that are involved.
expansion of the star to form a red supergiant, and the core
temperature increases steadily. At a temperature of about 3 X 109 K, There are several processes that can contribute to nucleosynthesis just like
the nuclei that have been formed exchange protons and neutrons Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, Stellar Nucleosynthesis, Cosmic Ray
freely. This leads to the formation of heavier elements up to iron-56 Spallation, Neutron Star Collision and Nuclear Reactions.
and nickel-58, which have the most stable nuclei known.
Supernova provides only condition causing the formation of heavier
elements. The force of the explosions distributes these elements
SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
throughout the galaxy surrounding the supernova, and eventually they are
All naturally occurring elements heavier than nickel are formed captured in the dust that condensed to form new stars.
in the cataclysmic explosion called supernovas.
When the fuel in the core of a very massive star has been
consumed, it collapses due to gravity. As the core is compressed, the
 SCITIVITY NO. 1
LEARNING ACTIVITY NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ________________

SHEETS GRADE/SECTION: _____________________ SCORE: _______________

THINK ABOUT IT!

PHYSICAL SCIENCE INSTRUCTION: To sum up what you have learned, answer the
following questions: (5points each)

LESSON 1. What is the process that produces element in the stars?

_______________________________________________________
1 _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. How do the elements beryllium, carbon, and oxygen produce stars

such as the sun?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. The reaction of two carbon-12 nuclei in a carbon-burning star can

produce elements other than sodium. Write a balanced nuclear
equation for the formation of
a. Magnesium-24
_______________________________________________________
b. Neon-20 from two carbon-23 nuclei.
_______________________________________________________

NAME: _____________________________________________________ 4. What is a supernova?

_______________________________________________________
GRADE/SECTION: __________________ DATE: ___________________ _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF DAVAO DEL SUR, INC.
SCITIVITY NO. 2 Mac Arthur Highway, Brgy, Kiagot, Digos City

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ________________ SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

GRADE/SECTION: _____________________ SCORE: _______________
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ________________
NUCLEAR FUSION
GRADE/SECTION: _____________________ SCORE: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Study the figure below and answer the following
questions. (Note: if some parts of the figure are unidentifiable, please contact your INSTRUCTION: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
subject teacher.)
1. During the main sequence stage, how is energy generated in a star’s core?
A. Hydrogen fuses into helium B. Helium fuses into hydrogen
C. Carbon fuses into hydrogen D. Carbon fuses into oxygen
2. After its temperature rises to 10,000,000˚C, a protostar becomes a star
when
A. Nuclear fusion ends B. Nuclear fission begins
C. Nuclear fusion begins D. Nuclear fission ends
3. The Big Bang occurred about _____________________.
A. A billion years ago B. 5 billion years ago
C. 14 million years ago D. 14 billion years ago
4. What is the most common element found in stars?
A. hydrogen B. Helium C. Sodium D. Calcium
5. What happens when a star exhausts its core hydrogen supply?
A. It expands so it becomes bigger but dimmer.
B. It contracts so it becomes hotter and brighter.
C. It contracts so it becomes smaller and dimmer.
D. Its core contracts, but its outer layers expand and the star becomes
1. What particle make up nucleus A? bigger and brighter.
____________________________________________________________ 6. At approximately what temperature can helium fusion occur?
A. 1 million K B. 100,000 K
2. What results from the fusion of nucleus a and nucleus B? C. 100 million K D. A few million K
____________________________________________________________ 7. How many helium nuclei fuse together when making carbon?
A. 2 B. 3
3. If this nuclear reaction occurs in the sun, what elements are A,B,C and C. 4 D. Varies depending on the reaction
D? 8. The helium fusion process results in the production of ________________.
____________________________________________________________ A. Hydrogen B. Oxygen
____________________________________________________________ C. Carbon D. Nitrogen
____________________________________________________________
9. Which element has the lowest mass per nuclear particle and therefore
cannot release energy by either fusion or fission?
A. hydrogen B. Iron
C. oxygen D. Silicon
10. Which method of energy generation provides the source of energy for a
protostar?
A. Helium fusion B. Matter-antimatter
C. Gravitational contraction D. Fusion by proton-proton chain
annihilation

REFERENCE:

Physical Science for Senior High School Mutya Publishing House, Inc. @
2016

Fundamentals of Physical Science Abiva Publishing House, Inc @ 2018

Teaching Guide for Senior High School Physical Science CHED

Prepared by:
JOHN MARK G. YUARATA, LPT
Science Teacher
 NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Nuclear reactions can be induced by bombarding either stable or
Atomic Number and naturally radioactive nuclei with high energy particles.
Synthesis of New Elements One of the interesting results of bombardment is the complete
creation of new elements. Four of these elements produced namely
LESSON 2 Technetium (Tc 43), promethium (Pm 61), and astatine (At 85) and francium
(Fr 87).
LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
• Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new
Synthetic elements heavier than uranium, the heaviest naturally
elements in the laboratory occurring element, have also been produced. All these elements, called
transuranium elements, are radioactive just like Neptunium (Np number 93).

Introduction Writing Nuclear Equation

Using a periodic table, you will find that there are more than 110
different elements. What do you think makes an atom of one element
different from an atom of another element?
All atoms are made up of electron (negatively-charged particle),
protons (positively-charged particle), and neutron (no charged particle).
Elements might differ in terms of the number of these particles.
ATOMIC NUMBER
Henry Moseley, one of the
students of Ernest Rutherford,
discovered that atoms of each
element contain a unique positive
charge in their nuclei. Thus, the
number of protons in an atom
identifies it as an atom of a particular
element. The number of protons in
an atom is known as Atomic Number.
Consider Hydrogen as shown above; notice that above the symbol
of hydrogen (H), you can find number 1 in the periodic table. This number,
which corresponds to the number of proton in a hydrogen atom, is also the
atomic number of hydrogen.
Moving across the periodic table to the right you will find helium (He)
with atomic number 2, thus it has two protons in its nucleus. The next row
begins with lithium (L), atomic number 3, followed by beryllium (Be), atomic
number 4 and so on. Therefore, the periodic table is organized left to right
and top to bottom by increasing atomic number.
Take note that all neutral atoms have the same number of protons
and electrons. Therefore:
Atomic Number = number of protons = number of electrons
Nuclear reactions can be represented by balance equations focusing
on mass number and atomic number on each side. Symbols are used in
nuclear equations that make it convenient to balance mass and atomic
numbers.
Nuclear decay cause changes in the nucleus of an atom. There are
different types of nuclear radiation namely: alpha particles, neutron, beta
particles and gamma rays. Emission of these particles leads to the following:
1. Alpha particle – nucleus will lose two protons and two neutrons and
the mass will decrease by 4, the symbol is 42He.
2. Neutron – the nucleus will lose a neutron and the mass will
decrease by 1, symbol is 10n.
3. Beta decay – the mass number before and after the decay does
not change, but the atomic number of the product nucleus
increases by 1, the symbol is 0-1e.
4. Gamma decay – no change in the atomic number or the atomic
mass of the element.
Example:
Actinium 217 decays by releasing an alpha particle. Write the
equation for this decay process, and determine which element is formed.
 Steps in writing the equation:

1. Write the equation with the original element on the left side and the
products on the right side.

217 Ac A 4 He
89 ZX + 2

NOTE: X=unknown product, A=unknown mass, Z=unknown atomic number

2. Write the math equations for atomic mass and atomic number. Rearrange
the equation.

217 = A + 4 89 = Z + 2
A = 217 – 4 Z = 89 – 2

3. Solve for the unknown values and rewrite the equation with all nuclei
represented.

A = 213 Z = 87

Based on the periodic table, Francium has an atomic number of 87.

The unknown element is 21387Fr.

217 Ac 213 Fr 4 He
89 87 + 2

ESSENTIAL IDEAS

Artificial transmutation is the process of synthesizing new elements by

striking the nucleus of element with a particle, usually neutron or another
light nucleus, to produce a new element.

Transuranic elements are the artificial elements beyond uranium, Z=92 and
the nuclear reactions used to prepare the new elements in the laboratory.

Superheavy Elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.

These are produced by bombarding heavy nuclear targets with accelerated
heavy projectiles.
 LEARNING ACTIVITY SCITIVITY NO. 1

SHEETS NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ________________

GRADE/SECTION: _____________________ SCORE: _______________

WRITE THE NUCLEAR EQUATION

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
INSTRUCTION: Complete the following radioactive-decay equations
then identify the isotope X. Indicate whether alpha or beta decay takes
LESSON place.

2 1. 12 B
5
12 C
6 + AZ X

_________________________________________________

225 Ac 221 Fr
2. 89 87 + AZ X

_________________________________________________

65 Ni A
3. 28 ZX + 0-1 e

_________________________________________________

212 A
4. 85 Bi ZX + 42 He

NAME: _____________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

GRADE/SECTION: __________________ DATE: ___________________

238 U 239 Np
5. 92 93 + AZ X

_________________________________________________
 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF DAVAO DEL SUR, INC.
Mac Arthur Highway, Brgy, Kiagot, Digos City 4. Write the nuclear equation of Meitnerium (266109Mt) was formed by
cold fusion which involves the combination of Bi (20983Bi) and Fe
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT (25826Fe) nuclides at ordinary temperature.

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ________________

GRADE/SECTION: _____________________ SCORE: _______________

A. INSTRUCTION: Answer the following problems.

B. INSTRUCTION: Using the concepts discussed in Atomic Number,
1. Write the nuclear equation of iron-58(5826Fe)
with lead-208(20882Pb) complete the table below.
1
that produces one neutron ( 0n). What new element is produced?
Composition of Several Elements
Element Atomic Number Protons Electrons
a. Pb 82 _______ _______
b. _______ _______ 8 _______
c. _______ _______ _______ 30
2. Write the nuclear equation of Curium (24296Cm) was formed by d. C 6 _______ _______
reacting Pu (23994Pu) with alpha particles 42He. It has a half-life of 162
days.

ASSIGNMENT

3. Write the nuclear equation of Mendelevium (256101Mv) was formed INSTRUCTION: In a short bond paper, write a reaction paper on the
by reacting En (25399En) with alpha particles 42He. discovery of new chemical elements with numbers 113, 115, 117, and
118. Attached your output on this module.

Prepared by:
JOHN MARK G. YUARATA, LPT
Science Teacher