1

CHAPTER I
DESCRIPTION OF CURRICULUM

A. History of Curriculum Development

The systematic study of curriculum is a twentieth century phenomenon. In
the past, concerns about what happened in schools were mostly limited to
descriptions of what courses or subjects ought to be studied. Curriculum as a field
of study started at about 1918 out of the practical managerial necessity for solving
technical and practical school‘s problems. This was as a result of an essay written
by Franklin Bobbit in 1913 which drew an analogy between curriculum making
and industrial processes. He published his first work on curriculum in 1918.
The field of curriculum unlike other areas in education like: Educational
Psychology, Philosophy of Education and Sociology of Education, emerged
without any mother discipline. These other areas mentioned here are applications
of the various areas to the field of education.
Curriculum derives its name from Latin word meaning ‗a running course‘,
race, running on a wager, a race ground or a career. In its original Latin usage, it
means a ‗runway‘ or a course which one runs to reach a goal. In time, the
meaning of the word came to denote more than a race-course to mean a course
which students pursue and compete for targets defined in terms of high grades,
passes, certificates or other forms of academic awards. Therefore, curriculum as a
field is, opened to anyone who is interested in the area and ready to contribute to
its development.

B. Definition of Curriculum
It has been noted that the definition of curriculum changes from time to
time and it also changes due to social conditions, conception of knowledge, the
learner, and indeed education. Clearly, therefore, the definition of curriculum is a
matter of someone‘s perception.
The word ―curriculum‖ is defined in various ways by experts but they
have the common meaning. Curriculum is a very general concept which involves
 2

consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative

factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program (Nunan, 2000).
In detail, Richards and Platt and Platt (1993) elaborate that curriculum can be
defined as an educational program which states: (a) the educational purpose of the
program (the ends), (b) the content teaching procedures and learning experience
which will be necessary to achieve this purpose (the means), and (c) some means
for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been
achieved.Furthermore,Kerr in Kelly (1999) defines that curriculum as all the
learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individually, inside or outside the school.
The term curriculum covers all the arrangements the school makes for the
students‘ learning and development. It includes the content of courses, student
activities, teaching approaches, and the way in which teachers and classes are
organized. It also includes decisions of the need for the use of facilities (Murdoch
and Hornsby, 1997 in Australian Ministry of Education, 1998). The term
curriculum can refer to a variety of things, including the courses taught in a
school, or a program, the documents that list the courses taught, a set of teaching
materials that are organized in some sequence of framework, or a framework for
selecting and organizing learning experiences (Howel and Wolet, 2000).
Curriculum is an educational program in which it is: (a) the educational purpose
of the program (the ends); (b) the content, teaching procedures and learning
experiences which will be necessary to achieve this purpose (the means); (c) some
means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.
(Richards, et.al, 1985).
Brown (1995) defines curriculum as a series of activities that contribute to
the growth of consensus among the staff, faculty, administration, and students.
This series of curriculum activities will provide a framework that helps teachers to
accomplish whatever combination of teaching activities is most suitable in their
professional judgment for a given situation, that is, a framework that helps the
students to learn as efficiently and effectively as possible in the given situation.
 3

Brubacher (1969) referred to curriculum as the ground which pupils and

teachers cover in order to reach the goal of education. In other words, it can be
regarded as a total experience with which the school deals with educating young
people. That is all the experiences both curricular and co-curricular which
children pass through to become what is known as an educated person. Wheeler
(1969) defined it as the planned experiences offered to the learner under the
guidance of the school.
Fafumera (1974) saw it as the whole of the educative process, that is, the
total environment in which education takes place. In other words, the total
environment in which education takes place; That is, the child, the teacher the
subject, the content, the method, the physical and psychological environment.
Hass (1980) defined curriculum as all the experiences that individual
learners have in a programme of education whose purpose is to achieve broad
goals and related specific objectives which is planned in terms of a frame work of
theory and research or past or present professional practice.
Marsh & Willis (2003) offer some definitions of curriculum as follows:
1. Curriculum is such ―permanent‖ subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric,
mathematics, and the greatest books of the Western world that best embody
essential knowledge.
2. Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary
society.
3. Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible.
4. Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the
school.
5. Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that
they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites.
6. Curriculum is what the student constructs from working with the computer and
its various networks, such as the Internet.
7. Curriculum is the questioning of authority and the searching for complex views
of human situations.
8. Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living.
 4

Meanwhile, in Indonesia, with reference to Act No. 20 of 2003 Article 19,

verse 1, the curriculum means a set of plans and settings about the objectives,
contents and teaching materials, and methods used as guidelines for organizing
learning activities to achieve certain educational goals. Based on this definition, it
is clearly understood that curriculum should be firstly made on purpose and
organized systematically in order to be used as reference in performing
educational program to achieve its goal in certain level.
From all the definition above, we can see that educators consider
curriculum not only as the subjects studied in school. Their conception has come
to embrace all those activities that used to be referred to as extra-curricular, or co-
curricular. We can summarize all definitions mentioned above by looking at
curriculum as the process undertaken by the school/society of determining what
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be acquired. Based on the definitions of the
curriculum above, it can also be stated that curriculum is the guidance for the
teacher in determining his/her ways or strategies in doing the teaching and
learning process and it is also the guidance for the students in achieving what they
expect in their learning process.

C. Characteristics of Curriculum Development

If education is concerned with the advancement of man and the society in
which he finds himself, the curriculum planned to actualize this must possess the
following characteristics:

1. Purposeful aims and objectives

The aims and objectives must be clearly and precisely stated bearing in mind
the societal values and the needs of the child. In selecting and stating the aims
and objectives, consideration should be given to the learner‘s age level of
development, needs and interests. The economic attainment, religion,
philosophy and norms of the people should also be put into consideration.
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2. Functionality
The curriculum planned must be workable, practicable and feasible. For a
curriculum planned to be called functional, it must be stated in clear and
understandable terms. Practicability is another criteria for judging the
functionality of a curriculum. The curriculum should be able to succeed given
the human and economic resources available. It should also be acceptable by
the people in a given society. It should strike a balance between theory and
practice. Issues in the curriculum should be attainable.

3. Flexibility
The curriculum must be capable of adapting to the needs of the changing
learner and the society. Since education is not static, it should change with
thesociety. It must be flexible and be able to create an avenue for growth and
development to attain the predetermined objectives. In order words, it should
be sufficiently flexible to enhance its adaptation to the changing condition and
needs of the people.

4. Relevance
It should emphasize those aspects that will be of benefit to the learner and the
society. The curriculum should assist in helping to ease contact between the
learner and his studies, socialize him and facilitate the transfer of knowledge
and developmental skills to the entire populace.

5. Evaluation
It should be subjected to evaluation to ensure that there is progress and that
such a progress is in the desired direction. Evaluation as a characteristic could
facilitate learning and teaching. It could produce records appropriate to the
purpose for which records are essential and provide feedback for curriculum
planners and teachers.
 6

TASK
1. What is the mean of “a running course, race, running on a wager, a race ground or a
career”
2. What is definition of curriculum
3. Draw map mapping about curriculum by Marsh & Willis (2003)
4. Mentions the Characteristics of Curriculum Development
5. Write the scientific paper, group of 4-5 students, 5 journals
- the curriculum to manage the society
- the curriculum to evaluate the education in the school
- the curriculum to change the program of learning
 7

CHAPTER II
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM

A. Aim and Objective

Instructional objectives are the specific and immediate outcomes of
particular teaching-learning situation. In curriculum development they take form
in a listing of statements describing the intended learning for students.
Instructional objectives are known to serve three purposes in curriculum
development, namely: (1) they clarify for teacher and learner what is to be
accomplished, (2) they serve as a guide for design and selection of meaningful
content, activities and resources, and (3) they provide guidance for measuring
learner‘s progress.
Some educators hold that learning involves changing behavior or
developing new ways of behaving (Behaviour is an action type of thing). If this is
the case, they suggest that only behaviour can be measured. The implication of
this is that objectives should be stated in behavioural terms. Stating objectives
behaviourally indicates its statement using action verbs such as list, prepare,
identify, add, mention and so on.
In selecting objectives, consideration should be given to the following: (1)
an analysis of our culture – It is important to teach those kinds of behaviour, those
ways of thinking, teaching and acting that have value in our society and that help
the person to become an effective human being in it, (2) present status of student –
What has he already learned? What is he ready for? (3) What we know enough
about to teach, (4) their relevance to the school‘s philosophy of education, and (5)
the consistency of these objectives with our theory of learning.
Learning is known to occur in three areas namely; Cognitive, Affective
and Psychomotor. If the conception of the learning process and the process of
education include the motion that the learner is active, that he is looking at the
world and trying to make something out of it, the three domains of knowledge
should be considered when selecting objectives. There are three domains of
learning by Bloom’s Taxonomy
 8

1. The Cognitive Domain

This refers to the acquisition and use of knowledge. The levels within this
domain include:
a. Knowledge (memory of ideas or facts).
b. Comprehension (understanding of information)
c. Application (applying knowledge to problem situation)
d. Analysis (identification of parts and their relationship).
e. Synthesis (combining parts to form a whole).
f. Evaluation (developing judgments about values)
2. Affective Domain
Objectives in this domain are concerned with feelings and emotions involving
attitude, interests, appreciations, and models of adjustment. There is a link
between the objectives in the cognitive domain and those in the affective
domain. A certain amount of cognition seems to be involved in every affective
behaviour. Levels in this domain include:
a. Receiving or attending (paying attention to things).
b. Responding (reaching to or using that which is received)
c. Valuing (identifying and committing to particular beliefs).
d. Organization (establishing a set of values).
e. Characterization by a value or value complex (acting on and displaying
values).
3. The Psychomotor Domain
This deals with motor activities. It is integrally related to the cognitive and
affective processes. It has six levels of classification namely:
a. Perception
b. Set
c. Guided Response
d. Mechanism (Physical abilities – endurance, strength, flexibility and agility).
e. Complex overt Response (Skilled movements).
f. Adaptation (Non-discursive communication).
 9

One major ingredient in curriculum development as shown above is the

statement of objectives. These will provide learners with an understanding of what
they are supposed to accomplish.

B. Content
The content component of teaching- learning situations refers to the
important facts, principles, concepts and understanding associated with the
predetermined objectives. This phase of curriculum development raises the
question, ―what content will the teachers and learners need to consider in order
to accomplish the instructional objectives?‖ When we talk about selection of
appropriate learning experiences and content for the achievement of
predetermined objectives, it involves several issues.
1. Relevance
The first has to do with the relevance of the content and learning opportunities
to the objectives, the child and his society. Here, those responsible for
curriculum development must make decisions about what knowledge is most
appropriate and most pertinent. Content should include what is necessary and
sufficient for accomplishing the objectives at hand.
2. Uptodateness
A second content issue is the degree of the uptodateness of the concepts and
generalizations which are embodied in the content and learning opportunities.
The more pertinent content is to the needs and interests of the learner and his
day-to-day existence, the greater the likelihood that he will perceive its
meaning and worth. As a result, there is every possibility that the content will
be learned and used.
3. Comprehensiveness
The third issue in the identification of content focuses in terms of its
comprehensiveness and balance. Content identified must reflect al the areas of
human personality as stipulated in the objectives. This also deals with its level
of difficulty. The content should depend partly on the capacity of learners to
understand it. When content is not congruent with the cognitive capacity of
 10

learners, they are likely to feel as though they are trying to listen to or read an
unfamiliar foreign language. This could lead to frustration on the part of the
learners. The content coverage should therefore, reflect areas of social
adjustment that must be accompanied by the ones for intellectual attainments
and physical fitness and appropriate emphasis should be given to each
according to the demand of the society.
4. Deep-rootedness
The fourth issue has to do with the deep-rootedness of the content and
opportunities in the culture of the society. Whatever will be developed should
have a direct bearing on the culture of the society.

C. Media

Media are generally defined as the means by which information is conveyed

from one place to another. In the past century, various forms of media have been
used to convey instruction and to support learning. Examples of instructional media
include traditional means of delivering instruction (chalkboards, textbooks, overhead
projectors, and teachers), mass media used for education (newspapers, movies, radio,
and television), and the newer "electronic" instructional media (computers,
interactive video, and multimedia systems). All instruction requires the selection and
use of at least one medium to deliver instruction. Many alternative media and
mixtures of media may be chosen for any given learning goal and group of students.
D. Teaching and Learning Method
In many curricula, the choice of teaching and learning methods is not
stipulated but it is left up to the teacher to select the method most appropriate to
the subject and the intended learning. In some courses, the learning method is
explicit in curriculum design and guidelines will probably need to be produced to
support teachers and students during the learning process. The teaching and
learning methods or learning experiences should be derived from the content and
learning objectives in a meaningful way and the methods or the organisation of
 11
experiences should facilitate the attainment of respective objectives in the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain
Points to keep in mind are: (1) How relevant are the teaching and learning
methods to the content and learning outcomes? (2) How are practical skills going
to be taught and supervised? (3) How are students supported in independent
learning and study (e.g. self-directed learning)? (4) What resources are required
and available to ensure effective teaching and learning? (5)Does the teaching
promote critical and logical thinking at the level of the learner? (6) What are the
constraints affecting the teaching and learning process? (7) Are the teaching and
learning methods appropriate for the selected assessment methods?
With developments in new technology, and information technology in
particular, there are many more opportunities for course developers to introduce
innovative teaching and learning methods. This can enable learning to be more
flexible, learners can study in their own time via the Internet or an Intranet, and
lectures may be given over the Internet or via videoconferencing reducing the
need for students or trainees (and teachers) to travel. Open learning materials can
be developed such as workbooks which can help to encourage self-directed study
and reflective practice. With careful planning, and careful matching of learning
outcomes to teaching/learning methods and assessments, technology can help to
facilitate learning and use resources more effectively and efficiently.

E. Organization
In structuring learning experiences and content, consideration should be
given to research findings in the theories of learning and child development and
sound educational practices. The contents should be organized in such a way as to
produce major changes in the learners in the direction of stated objectives. This
will go a long way to influence the efficiency of instruction and the amount of
learning that takes place in any educational setting.
For effective organization to take place, what was developed must have
what is known as continuity because a single learning experience has a profound
influence upon the learner. He can use the knowledge of one area to understand
another different but related area. Another criterion to be considered in
organisation of learning experience is sequence. Sequencing emphasizes the
 12
importance of having each successive learning experience built upon the
preceding one. Sequence, therefore, implies continuity as well as progression from
the lower to the higher level of treatment of curriculum elements.
Integration is another criterion for effective organisation of learning
experiences and this is dealing with the utilization of curriculum elements from
one subject area to other subject area of the curriculum. In other words, one
should buttress the other, for example, using what is learnt in arithmetic to solve
problems in science, economics trading and other fields. Where this happens, the
learner will see that what he learns in one area is not simply an isolated experience
to be utilized in one single course but one of the many capacities he needs in
various situations in his daily life.

F. Evaluation
Teachers, learners and others are concerned about whether learning has
actually taken place or not. For the reason, curriculum developers had to concern
themselves with the identification of means to determine both quality and quantity
of learning. If education is regarded as a process that seeks to change the
behaviour of learners in the direction of predetermined objectives, one can define
evaluation as the process of determining the nature and extent of those changes in
learner‘s behaviour after a programme of curriculum and instruction. Then,
Curriculum evaluation may refer to the formal determination of the quality,
effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the curriculum.
Evaluation performs certain functions as an important phase in curriculum
development:
1. It is meant to check the reality of the hypotheses upon which the curriculum
has been based. There is a need to determine through the process of evaluation
what changes had been produced by the curriculum and their effects on the
total educational outcome.
2. It serves a diagnostic function in the school and in curriculum development. In
the school, one can assess the weaknesses and strengths of an educational
programme by careful assessment of the achievement of learners in the
programme. Through students‘ performances, one can know whether certain
types of educational objectives are either under-emphasised, adequately
 13
emphasized or over-emphasised by the curriculum or pattern of instruction.
This can provide the basis for curriculum revision or improvement.
3. Information on the variation in the achievement of individual learner is made
possible by evaluation. This could make the teacher vary his methods of
teaching to meet the needs of more learners. The evaluation instruments should
therefore, be closely related to the educational objectives of the programme.
 14

4. Results of evaluation can provide adequate data which will enable the teacher
to report to parents and the school management about the success or otherwise
of the school. Consideration should, therefore, be given to any instrument that
will be used for evaluation.
The uses of curriculum evaluation can be briefly listed as follows: (1) to
select appropriate contents, (2) to select appropriate methods, (3) to check the
effectiveness of methods and learning experiences used, (4) to check on the
suitability and the appropriateness, (5) to give feedback to the planners, learners,
teachers, and (6) to provide a rationale for making changes
There are some steps to do curriculum evaluation, namely: (1) Focus on
one particular component, (2) Collect or gather the information, (3) Organize the
information, (4) Analyze information, (5) Report the information, and (6) Recycle
the information.

TASK
1. What are the components of curriculum
2. What is definition of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor
3. Draw the mind mapping the Bloom’s Taxonomy domain of learning
4. How to teach the students in era industry 4.0
5. Make a group of 4 – 5 students, presentation slide of Microsoft power point,
- Definition of Authentic assessment
- How to implement authentic assessment in the class
- Why the authentic assessment is essential of curriculum 13
- Kinds of authentic assessment
- Make 3 examples of authentic assessment on English skill in the class
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CHAPTER III
TYPES OF CURRICULUM

There are different types of curriculum designs which were developed at

different times in educational history in accordance with societal conceptions of
the role of education, the nature of the learner and of the learning process as well
as societal needs. There are some types of curriculum are elaborated in the
following descriptions, namely: subject-centred curriculum, activity/experience-
centred curriculum, and child-centred curriculum, the broad-field curriculum, the
hidden curriculum, and the core-curriculum.

A. Subject-centred Curriculum
This type of curriculum is concerned with the collection and arrangement
of school subjects which are generally studied separately or sometimes in relation
to each-other. For instance, in our secondary schools, subjects in the curriculum
include: English, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Economics,
Geography, Home Economics, Agricultural Science, Government, Social Studies
and Integrated Science (in Junior Secondary School). The subjects are sometimes
subdivided into divisions. English for instance is subdivided into composition,
grammar, spelling, dictation, writing, literature, essay, lexis and structure and
comprehension.
In this type of curriculum, mastery of the subject matter is usually the
basis through which educational outcomes are achieved. Its scope, however, is
determined by the quantity of subject matter existing within each subject as well
as the range of subjects to be included in the school time-table.
The characteristic feature of this type of curriculum is orderliness. If
learners follow the bodies of subject matter, they build their store of knowledge.
They can readily make use of such store of knowledge when needed. This type of
curriculum is convenient to teachers since they were trained in subject areas. They
can easily plan, organize and teach their areas of specialization. Examination
which is the yardstick for admission and selection of candidates into schools,
 16

colleges and universities appear in subject areas. Employment in some cases is

done on the basis of the subjects candidate studied.

B. Activity/Experience-centred Curriculum
This type of curriculum is learner-centred. Consideration in this type of
curriculum is given to learners ‘interest, needs and motivation. It is also regarded
as problem-solving. To channel learners into the learning experiences in order to
make learning purposeful, stimulating and rewarding for them, teachers must try
to discover their interests and needs. In other words, one can say that activity
curriculum is an approach with very flexible ideas and adaptation of curriculum to
the needs of children in the natural setting of human growth and development.
One characteristic of the activity curriculum is that children’ interests
determine the content and structure of learning. As they select and work in any
task, skills and knowledge are acquired as they are needed and subject matters
from many fields are used according to the requirements of the task (Yaba, 1962).
Within the activity-centred curriculum tradition, the role of the teacher is
that of an instructor and work supervisor while their students are learners as well
as productive workers. In other words, his role is seen as that of a more mature
member in the problem-solving situation to provide advice or help, direct or
guide.

C. Child-centred Curriculum
When the claim of a curriculum approach is that a worthwhile curriculum
is solely constructed by reference to needs, wants and interests of the child, it
becomes a child-centred curriculum. Curriculum developers in this type of
curriculum should be very careful when exploring children‘s needs, wants and
interests in curriculum matters to make children do what they want with
qualification. When this is done, the curriculum could be regarded as a
worthwhile school curriculum. Barrow (1976) observed that by concentrating on
children‘s actual wants or interests, it is possible for the teacher to help them find
aspects of value in those wants and interests.
 17

D. The Broad-field Curriculum

This type of curriculum is an attempt at inter discipline. The purpose is to
integrate the subject-matter of closely related disciplines or school subjects such
that learners will see the relationships between different subject areas. In this type
of curriculum, children are introduced to methods of inquiry and generalizations
through the approach of curriculum synthesis. It is an attempt to overcome the
compartmentalization and fragmentation of subjects. This is done by putting
together several specific areas into larger field. In this regard, chemistry, physics
and biology were studied together at the Junior Secondary School level as
‗integrated Science Social Studies incorporated history, geography, economics
and government.
One major advantage of this type of curriculum is that, it facilitates the
integration of subject-matter. One shortcoming of this type of curriculum is that in
many cases ‗broad fields is broad only in name; the integration is only formal.
Where teachers teaching the integrated subjects are not specifically trained for the
broad field curriculum, they tend to emphasize or stick to their respective subject
areas instead of doing justice to the integrated subject.

E. The Hidden Curriculum

Hidden curriculum refers to the unofficial, unwritten curriculum of the
school or that which is not ordinarily addressed through regular curriculum
planning but which nevertheless influences what and how students learn. The
hidden curriculum has been regarded as a powerful detrimental force that
undermines the professed commitment of the school to foster intellectual
development.
The school as an agent of socialization of the young, has its rules and
regulations governing social conduct of students within the context of the
educational programmes, and a system of procedures that make itan acceptable
institution in the larger society. What is, however, learnt from the hidden or subtle
curriculum is frequently more powerful and lasting than that which is learnt from
the more obvious planned curriculum.
 18

For instance, a teacher decided to teach a topic not using the traditional
lecture method but the group investigation model where learners are grouped to
work on the topic. The group will select a leader from among themselves while
others will play the leds. Apart from the content of the topic which they will work
at in group, the leader will learn to lead, coordinate the affairs of the group while
carrying out the task; learn to respect the views of others by being receptive to
them while other members of the group will learn to follow for the success of the
group. The nurturant values here can be regarded as the hidden curriculum. The
method nurtured was not planned by the teacher.
Since the hidden curriculum is just as much as part of the school
programme as any course or subject or unit that is offered, it should be considered
as a powerful and pervasive source of learning. For this reason, there is a need to
subject it to the same policies and procedures for curriculum planning as any other
part of the programme. In schools, learners offered opportunities to learn about
themselves and their relationship with others. These learning are not always
planned or intended in curriculum plans. They instead grow out of the day-to-day
life of the school and its organization. Because such learnings are embedded in
features of the school rather than in curriculum, they are often referred to as the
hidden curriculum.

F. Core-Curriculum
Core is used to describe a portion of the curriculum, usually those courses
prescribed for all. The identification of the required portion of the school
programme is a crucial issue in curriculum planning. Whatever is chosen to be
included will normally be required of all students regardless of their background
characteristics. Essentially, core curriculum is meant to develop unified studies
based upon common needs of the learners and organized without restriction by
subject-matter. Phonex (1964) interprets the core curriculum as general education.
He believed that human beings are essentially creatures who have the power to
express and experience meanings. General education is thus the process of
engendering essential meanings.
 19

This type of curriculum organization was designed as a synthesis of all

other apparatus and to specifically integrate all subject areas, serve the needs of
the students, promote actual learning and enhance the relationship between life
and learning.
Core-curriculum is used variously to designate Basic Studies, General
Studies, General Education and indeed all subjects and courses (or part of the
curriculum) which educational authorities consider necessary for all students.
Such subjects are of interest to all in a social group no matter how typical or
atypically such individuals may be within the group. A typical example of core
curriculum could be seen in what constitutes Teachers‘ Grade II Certificate in
Nigeria. In the teacher training programme, English Language, Mathematics,
Principle and Practice of Education and Teaching Practice are the core
course/curriculum.
The core curriculum has several important characteristics. These include:
1. Integration of learning experience by writing subject area. i.e. Social Studies
and Integrated Science.
2. Relating learning experiences to life problems and students interest.
3. Focuses on real life problems that are meaningful to the students. The method
of teaching is essentially problem solving techniques and critical thinking.
4. Flexibility in arrangement of time and content which facilitate:
5. Teachers can consider more seriously the development sequence of growth and
the behavioural objectives.
6. Bringing to the fore the social role of the school through the emphasis on life
problems.
A number of shortcomings had been observed with this approach. These
are as follows:
1. It does not offer significant and systematic knowledge. The organization of all
learning experiences around new centres have not been successful because the
people involved themselves are not versed enough in this area of integration.
 20

2. The curriculum then reflects on combination of subject disciplines rather than

integration. Owing to this, a particular subject often dominates the other
―cooperating‖ subjects. The essential principles or thought forms on the other
subjects are this.
3. It is difficult to discover a problem that will have significant validity and scope
for curriculum purpose.
4. There is inadequacy of teaches with broad competence to cope with such
curriculum. Teachers themselves were trained in specialized subject areas.
Implementing the core-curriculum thus becomes an encumbrance.
In making decision regarding what should be core curriculum in any
programme, those responsible for curriculum policy must reflect upon the three
foundation areas in curriculum (Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology).
In conclusion, we should note that the idea of grouping the curriculum into
types is just to better appreciate the concept of the whole curriculum. It should be
noted that there is no types of curriculum that is value free.
In the other side, there are some types of curriculum are applied in many
schools as the following descriptions.
1. Overt, Explicit, or Written Curriculum
Is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling
experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and
supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the intentional
instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum is usually
confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated
and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often
collectively.

2. Societal Curriculum
As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this curriculum as:…[the] massive,
ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches
organizations, occupations, mas, media and other socializing forces that
―educate‖ all of us throughout our lives. This type of curricula can now be
 21

expanded to include the powerful effects of social media (YouTube;

Facebook; Twitter; etc) and how it actively helps create new perspectives.

3. The Hidden or Covert curriculum

That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of
what revolves around daily or established routines. Longstreet and Shane
(1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term – the ―hidden
curriculum,‖ which refers to the kinds of learnings children derive from the
very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the
behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators. Examples of the hidden
curriculum might include the messages and lessons derived from the mere
organization of schools — the emphasis on: sequential room arrangements; the
cellular, timed segments of formal instruction; an annual schedule that is still
arranged to accommodate an agrarian age; disciplined messages where
concentration equates to student behaviors were they are sitting up straight and
are continually quiet; students getting in and standing in line silently; students
quietly raising their hands to be called on; the endless competition for grades,
and so on. The hidden curriculum may include both positive or negative
messages, depending on the models provided and the perspectives of the
learner or the observer.

4. The Null Curriculum

That which we do not teach, thus gives students the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his discussion of the null
curriculum. The major point have been trying to make thus far is that schools
have consequences not only by virtue of what they do teach, but also by virtue
of what they neglect to teach. What students cannot consider, what they don‘t
processes they are unable to use, have consequences for the kinds of lives they
lead.Eisner (1994) first described and defined aspects of this curriculum. He
states: There is something of a paradox involved in writing about a curriculum
that does not exist. Yet, if we are concerned with the consequences of school
 22

programs and the role of curriculum in shaping those consequences, then it

seems to me that we are well advised to consider not only the explicit and
implicit curricula of schools but also what schools do not teach. It is my thesis
that what schools do not teach may be as important as what they do teach. I
argue this position because ignorance is not simply a neutral void; it has
important effects on the kinds of options one is able to consider, the
alternatives that one can examine, and the perspectives from which one can
view a situation or problems.

From Eisner‘s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not
taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make
conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded
from the overt (written) curriculum. Since it is physically impossible to teach
everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally
excluded from the written curriculum. But Eisner‘s position on the ―null
curriculum‖ is that when certain subjects or topics are left out of the overt
curriculum, school personnel are sending messages to students that certain
content and processes are not important enough to study. Unfortunately,
without some level of awareness that there is also a well-defined implicit
agenda in schools, school personnel send this same type of message via the
hidden curriculum. These are important to consider when making choices. We
teach about wars but not peace, we teach about certain select cultures and
histories but not about others. Both our choices and our omissions send
messages to students.

5. Phantom Curriculum
The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These
components and messages play a major part in the enculturation of students
into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or
generational subcultures.
 23

6. ConcomitantCurriculum
What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are part of a
family‘s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This
type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious
expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social
experiences based on the family‘s preferences.)

7. Rhetorical Curriculum
Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by
policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum
may also come from those professionals involved in concept formation and
content changes; or from those educational initiatives resulting from decisions
based on national and state reports, public speeches, or from texts critiquing
outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum may also come from
the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical knowledge.

8. Curriculum-in-Use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks,
and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those
―formal‖ elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the
actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.

9. ReceivedCurriculum
Those things that students actually take out of classroom; those concepts and
content that are truly learned and remembered.

10. TheInternal Curriculum

Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of
the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this
curriculum, they have little control over the internal curriculum since it is
unique to each student. Educators can explore this curricula by using
instructional assessments like ―exit slips,‖ reflective exercises, or debriefing
 24

discussions to see what students really remember from a lesson. It is often very
enlightening and surprising to find out what has meaning for learners and what
does not.

11. The Electronic Curriculum

Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or
through using e-forms of communication. (Wilson, 2004) This type of
curriculum may be either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be
overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on ones‘ views.
Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for recreational purposes
(as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, listserves, through instant messenger, on-line
conversations, or through personal e-mails and sites like Twitter, Facebook, or
Youtube) and from personal online research and information are bombarded
with all types of media and messages. Much of this information may be
factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or inspirational. But there is
also a great deal of other information that may be very incorrect, dated, passé,
biased, perverse, or even manipulative.The implications of the electronic
curriculum for educational practices are that part of the overt curriculum needs
to include lessons onhow to be wise consumers of information, how to
critically appraise the accuracy and correctness of e-information, as well as the
reliability of electronic sources. Also, students need to learn how to be artfully
discerning about the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of
information. And, like other forms of social interaction, students need to know
that there are inherent lessons to be learned about appropriate and acceptable
―netiquette‖ and online behavior, to include the differences between ―fair
usage,‖ legitimate citations, and overt plagiarism.

G. Curriculum in Indonesia
Since 1945, the curriculum has changed several times, namely in 1947,
1952, 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004, 2006, and 2013. The development of
the curriculum can be mapped into six periods, namely: (1) Curriculum 1975; (2)
 25

Curriculum 1986; (3) Curriculum 1994; (4) Curriculum 2004; (5) school based
curriculum (SBC) which refers to the National Education Standards, and (6)
Curriculum 2013. The following diagram shows the chronological development of
the curriculum in Indonesia.

Those amendments are logically consequences of political issue,

government system, social cultural, economic, science and technology change in
the living of state community (Soekisno, 2007,). Therefore, the curriculum as a set
of educational plans should be developed dynamically in accordance with the
demands and changes that occur in society. All Indonesia‘s national curricula
were designed based on the same foundation, namely Pancasila (Philosophical
foundation of the Indonesian Republic) and the 1945 constitution; the principal
differences among those curriculums were only on emphasizing of educational
goals and approaches to realize it.
Continuing to improve the quality of education in order commensurate
with other developing countries, the Indonesian government has made various
changes, and continues to review the implementation of education in Indonesia.
The National Education Standards of Indonesia (BSNP) had regulated through
Government Regulation (PP) No. 19 Year 2005 and set eight contents of the
 26

Standards of Education, specifically Content Standard, Standard Process,

Graduates Competency Standards, Educators Standards and Education Workforce,
Infrastructure Standards , Management Standards, Financial Standards and
Evaluation Standards.
Simultaneously the Government Regulation No.19 year 2005 affected the
direction of Indonesian curriculum development policies to implement its Content
Standard (SK) and Graduate Competency Standard (SKL) as established through
the Regulation of The Minister of National Education: Number 22, 23, 24 Year
2006. These three regulations then further elaborated ―KTSP‖ (School Based
Curriculum) which is built and developed by each educational unit or school in
Indonesia.
According to Azra (2006), explained that the changes in education in
Indonesia means that there are two new paradigms emerged in education, shifting
the orientation of the policy where previously being centralized to decentralized,
then national education is more oriented to the learning process rather than results.
Decentralized system means to implement the new breakthrough School-Based
Curriculum known as KTSP in Indonesia.
Change of curriculum had affected the national education system of
Indonesia; it had not only affected the learning climate in the classroom, but the
readiness of the principal and subject teachers in efforts to understand and apply
the curriculum in practice. In addition, Sutrisno and Nuryanto (2008) viewed that
the implementation has not been optimally practiced as educational practitioners
think KTSP differs with KBK. Meanwhile Suhadi (2006) argued that such an
assumption was due to a prior attitudes and psychological resistance against the
changes. The changes enhanced the operational practice of curriculum which are
developed and implemented by each school consisting of their own respective
goals, local content perspectives, educational calendar and syllabus.
KTSP which was being mandated by the Ministry of National Education
Indonesia through The National Education Standard Institution (BSNP) means to
reinforce the implementation of its predecessor; it implies that KTSP still put
pressure on developing students competencies. According to Fasli and Bachruddin
 27

(2007) said that KTSP implementation will not be undergoing a public test,
because this curriculum had been tested through KBK which was being applied by
several schools in a pilot project before the birth of KTSP. This is then a
following-up toward curriculum change in the context of regional autonomy and
decentralization of education programmed by the government of Indonesia. The
implementation of this curriculum is focused on three dimensions of student‘s
enrichment of knowledge (cognitive), attitude formation (affective) and behavior
(psychomotor).
Under KTSP the school and teacher have the authority to decide the
educational goals based on their own schools perspective, in other words, teacher
have duties on: (1) constructing and formulating the proper goal, (2) choosing and
constructing the right lesson material according to the needs, interest and
children‘s development phase, (3) using various methods and teaching media, (4)
and constructing the program and the right evaluation. A curriculum should be
made systematically and detail, which will help the teachers in its implementation.
However, KTSP faces major challenges related to integration of local
information, national, and international. Combining these integrations may only be
solved by having resources which are prepared ahead of time, not by the teachers
who prepared instantly through a variety of curriculum development assistance
programs. It is more dangerous if the schools eventually just offered cheat or trace
the guidelines offered by National Education Standard (BSNP). If so, KTSP will
create the instant schools and result in stunted creativity, contrary to the mandate
of the KTSP.
The 2006 curriculum is also known as the ―Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan (KTSP) or School-Based Curriculum (SBC)‖. The KTSP is designed
in order that every school can develop the teaching and learning process according
to the student‘s character and the situation of school. As a result, the teacher can
develop his methods and techniques in the teaching and learning process and
increase the students‘ competencies too. The successful of the implementation of
KTSP may rely on some factors. These factors include a complete readiness of the
teacher‘s language proficiency, the teacher‘s language teaching, and the teacher‘s
 28

ability to media or tools in the teaching and learning process. If those factors are
fulfilled, the main goal of the implementation of KTSP which is to develop
students‘ competencies will be achieved.
However, based on the research conducted by Directorate General of
Teacher Quality Improvement (Dirjen PMPTK), Ministry of National Education
on the School-Based Curriculum (KTSP) implementation in schools in Central
Java year 2010, it was found that there were a number of obstacles in the
implementation of KTSP. They are: (1) the insufficient number of media and
instructional aids to support the implementation of KTSP; (2) teachers do not
sufficiently and thoroughly understand KTSP; (3) insufficient numbers of
workshops, guidance, and reference in developing KTSP; (4) insufficient time
allocation and students‘ study load; (5) too many variations of materials given by
trainers in KTSP training; (6) training for teachers in rural areas need to be
intensified (Hartoyo, 2011).
In Indonesia, as mentioned in the previous part, has implemented a number
of curriculum. The latest one is the 2004 curriculum which was then modified and
changed in 2006 to the Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) or School-
Based Curriculum (SBC).
KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) or School-Based
Curriculum (SBC) is an operational curriculum that is designed and implemented
at each educational institution (school). Based on the Minister of National
Education Regulation (Permendiknas) number 24 year 2006, there are a number
of components covered in School-Based Curriculum (KTSP), such as: (1) the
objectives of education institution; (2) the structure and content of School-Based
Curriculum (KTSP); and (3) academic calendar.
Hartoyo (2011) cites that basically the 2006 curriculum (KTSP) is
developed from standard of content by schools based on their context and
potentiality. Thus, each school has a different way in performing KTSP. The
KTSP of one school should not be the same as other schools even if it has the
same study program because each school has different characteristics. Although
KTSP varies between one and other schools, government gives some regulations
 29

stated in Governmental Regulation (PP) No.19, 2005 concerning National

Standard of Education (SNP) on May 16, 2005 such as standard of content and
standard of competence of graduate. He further explains that English as stated in
standard of content (PERMENDIKNAS No.22, 2006) is learned at elementary
two hours in a week (as local content [MULOK] for classes IV, V, and VI), at
junior and senior high schools four hours in a week except for language program
in SMA-five hours in a week.
Mulyasa (2006) states that the standard of content for each primary and
secondary education involves the minimum materials and the competence level to
achieve the minimum graduate‘s competence at certain kind and level of
education.According to the Education National Standard Board (BSNP) the
standard of competence of graduate is the qualification of graduates which
involves the aptitude, knowledge, and the skill which is stated on the basis of
decree No. 23, 2006. This means that the standard of competence of graduate is
the guidance to determine the graduation of the student, which is suspended on
how the student can master each competency of the study: the cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor side of the student.
The characteristics of Curriculum 2006 are:
1. emphasizing the attainment of the students‘ competence individually and
classically;
2. orienting toward learning outcomes, and diversity;
3. using genre approaches in the learning process and greatly is influenced with
Systematic Functional Grammar of Halliday (1987);
4. accepting any other educative learning sources besides teachers;
5. emphasizing its evaluation on the learning process and outcomes in acquiring
or attaining a certain competence;
6. using special terms such as Standar Kompetensi (Standard of Competence) refers
to a minimum statement covering knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values which
are reflected in the way of thinking and acting after students learned and finished
one of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing);
Kompetensi Dasar (Basic Competence) refers to a minimum
 30

statement covering knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values which are reflected
in the way of thinking and acting after students learned and finished one of the
four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing); Indikator
(Achievement Indicators) refers to a specific basic competence that can be
taken as a standard to assess the attainment of a learning process; Materi Pokok
(Core Materials) refers to materials or lessons that students have to learn in a
learning process. (Hartoyo, 2011)
The implementation of curriculum is the actualization of written
curriculum in the learning form which consists of program development, learning
implementation, and the evaluation. Kusnandar (2007) states that the
implementation of KTSP is a process of applying the idea, concept, and policy of
the curriculum in the learning activity so the students can master some
competencies. This suggests that the implementation of KTSP is a process which
needs some of teacher‘s roles in the teaching and learning process. The teacher is
not only responsible for teaching in the classroom but also able to manage the
class administration. He is supposed to develop the annual program, the semester
program, the daily program, the remedial program, etc.
Ministry of education and culture of Indonesia has already published the
new curriculum for Indonesia‘s education. It is called the 2013 curriculum. The
2013 curriculum will change the last curriculum KTSP. By variety of reasons, the
2013 curriculum is expected to be able to increase Indonesia‘s education in this
globalization era. Then now the 2013 curriculum is still being discussed as a pro-
contra issue.
KTSP which now is implemented in Indonesia has significant differences
in the 2013 curriculum. The most distinguished thing is the structures of those
curricula. The 2013 curriculum will have a fewer subjects than KTSP. Total
subjects for KTSP are 11, but in the 2013 curriculum will just have 6 subjects.
They are religion, civilization (PKn), Indonesian, mathematics, culture (SBK),
and sport (PJOK). Together with the changed lesson science (IPA) and social
(IPS) will be integrated into Indonesian subject. Moreover, in the 2013 curriculum

will apply a thematic learning method starts from 1st grade until 6th grade, though
 31

KTSP applies thematic learning method for 1st grade until 3rd grade and for 4th
grade uses lesson approach. Furthermore, there is an additional time in the 2013
curriculum for elementary school. It was 26 hours, but in the new curriculum it
will be 30 hours every week. On one hand, KTSP and the 2013 curriculum also
have similarities. First, they are discussed and arranged by the government,
specifically the Department of National Education (Depdiknas). Second, some
subjects in the KTSP are still taught in the 2013 curriculum, for example
Indonesian, mathematics, religion, civilization, etc. Then the 2013 curriculum
might be mentioned as one-fourth revision of the KTSP.
The implementation of the 2013 curriculum has some effects in several
ways somehow. The effects must be in positive or negative. The advantages are
the good standard competence, the constructive approximation method, and the
continuing competence from SD to SMA. Firstly, the graduation standard
competence is well-ordered. According to KTSP, the subjects had to be fixed to
maintain it. On the contrary, the 2013 curriculum, the determination of graduation
standard competence had to be fixed first before the subjects. Secondly, the 2013
curriculum completes the approximation method based on the students‘ creativity.
The new curriculum fulfils three main components of education: knowledge, skill,
and attitude. Knowledge is proved by the lesson in general. Skill is from their
practical lesson like sports and attitude is reflected by implementing the additional
time for religion subject. In view of character building and religion subjects are
inserted into the 2013 curriculum more. Thirdly, the 2013 curriculum is designed
continuously from SD to SMA. Specifically, the SMA competence is a
continuance from SD and SMP. In spite of those positive sides, the new
curriculum also has several weaknesses. The disadvantages are teachers‘ position
threatened to be relocated, obstruct children‘s intelligence, and unobvious lesson.
First, English and IT (Information and Technology) teachers might lose their job.
It is because IT subject that was taught in SMP and SMA would be removed and
it is also done in English for SD. As a consequence, IT and English teachers who
half of them are honorary teachers will have no time to teach or the worst is they
will be fired. Second, the new curriculum will just obstruct children‘s intelligence.
 32

One of the eight intelligences is Language Intelligence which can be identified

from child's skill in processing words while speaking or writing. Furthermore, If
English is removed as a subject for SD, students would just know fewer
vocabularies might be important to learn another subject. Such as when they learn
science and some words in the textbook are absorbed from English. As a result,
they might have difficulties in saying English words in the future because when
they were still being children, they were not accustomed to saying any English
words. Third, the lesson will be unclear to learn. In fact, Social and Science
lessons are combined into one. Naturally, it is difficult to differ for the students to
learn science in the Indonesian.The root of them is completely different, whether
based on epistemology, ontology or axiology. Overall, the 2013 curriculum seems
to bright sides and dark sides to be implemented.
In this regard, the government should focus on preparing many things to
implement the new curriculum. At least there are three important things must be
fixed. They are the textbook, teacher training; education governance. The most
significant preparation is the textbook. If the curriculum is revised, and the
textbook is unchanged, as a result the new curriculum will look like a paper tiger.
It means something that seems as threatening as tiger but does not withstand a
challenge. The government should prepare source books for teachers and students,
and of course both contents are different. The next prominent readiness is teachers
training. In this case the implementation of the curriculum is done stage by stage
so the teacher training will also be applied continuously.
The ministry has intended the stage of the education governance. For that
reason, the education governance for the 2013 curriculum is also adjusted such as
the report administration book. Surely, changing the curriculum will change four
aspects: the content standards, process standards, graduation standards, and
assessment standards. If four standards in the KTSP are changed so that the report
administration book. All of these changes mean that the new curriculum really
needs a big set-up to be done by the government.
Therefore, between KTSP and the 2013 curriculum make some differences
and resemblances. In general, Curriculum 2013 contains four elements of change.
 33

They are (1) standard of graduate competencies, (2) standard of contents, (3)
standard of learning processes, and (4) standard of assessment.

1. Standard of Graduate Competencies (SKL)

The learners in this regard are expected to improve and to balance between
the soft skills and hard skills that include aspects of competencies of attitudes
(including: personal faith, morality, self-confident, and responsibility in
interacting effectively with the social environment, the natural surroundings, as
well as the world and its civilization), skills (including: a person having effective
and creative thinking in the realm of the abstract and concrete domains), and
knowledge (the ability to produce the persons mastering the knowledge, science,
technology, arts, and culture that are based on humanity, national, state, and
civilization).

2. Standard of Contents
The competencies which are originally derived from the subjects‘ turns
into a subject are developed from thecompetencies. Competence is developed
through: (a) Integrative thematic in all subjects at the elementary school level
(SD), (b) Subjects at the levels of junior high school (SMP) and senior high school
(SMA), and (c)Vocations at the level of vocational high school (SMK).

3.Standards of Learning Process

a. Standard process that was initially focused on the exploration, elaboration,
and confirmation is fitted with observing, questioning, collecting
information, presenting, summing, and creating.
b. Learning does not just happen in the classroom, but also in school and
community environments.
c. Teachers are not the only source of learning.
d. Attitudes are not taught verbally, but through example and role model
 34

4. Standard of Assessment
a. The shift from assessment through tests (measuring the competence of
knowledge based on the results of course) to the authentic assessment
(measure all attitude competencies, skills, and knowledge based process and
outcome).
b. Strengthening criterion reference assessment, i.e. the achievement of
learning outcomes is based on the scores obtained on the position of the
ideal score (maximum).
c. Assessment is not only on the level of Basic Competencies (KD), but also
the Core Competencies (KI) and Standard of Graduate Competencies
(SKL).
d. Encouraging the use of portfolios made up by students as the main
instrument of assessment.
From the description above, the common thread in curriculum 2013 that
can be used for the curriculum development is the standard of processes. Standard
of processes that was initially focused on the exploration, elaboration, and
confirmation is changed to observing, questioning, processing, presenting,
summarizing, and creating. In addition, learning does not only happen in the
classroom, but also in the school and the community environment. Thus, teachers
are not the only source of learning in the formation of learners‘ characters, attitude
is not taught verbally but through example and role model, including the
establishment of living environment awareness.
Referring to the many types of curriculum occurring in Indonesia, they
have indicated the changes of curriculum. Certainly, any changes of curriculum
are influenced by some factors such as; to improve quality of live, to preparing the
young generations for the knowledge age, the need to develop information
technology, and the implementation of regional autonomy; a district-based
education planning. Besides, the curriculum changes also make the students
confused because of the programs of education often change.
 35
TASK

Draw one of the types curriculums using by project-based learning

 36

CHAPTER IV
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Hamalik (1999) proposes some general principles of curriculum

development, namely: goal-oriented, relevancy, efficiency, effectiveness,
flexibility, continuity, balance, unity, and quality. In the other side, there are also
some general principles in developing the curriculum. Those principles are
elaborated briefly in the following description.

A. Focused on Learners’ Potential, Development, Needs, and Interest; and

Their Environment
Curriculum is developed based on the principle that learners have their
own unique potential to develop their competence to become religiously devoted,
bright, competitive, and responsible citizens. It is, therefore, the development of
this potential is done based on the learners potentials and develomental needs. The
learners are supposed to be the central attention of learning activities (learners
oriented curriculum).

B. Varied and Integrated

Curriculum is developed by keeping in mind the diversity of learners
characteristic, geography condition, level and type of education, as well as
appreciating differences in religion, ethnics, culture, tradition, socio-economics
status, and gender. Curriculum must contain required subjects, local content, and
integrated self development and is developed in a meaningful and right
intersubjects integration.

C. Responsive to the Development of Science, Knowledge, Technology, and

Art
Curriculum is developed based on awareness that science, knowledge,
technology, and art is developing dynamically. Therefore, the curriculum spirit
and content are required to provide learners with learning experience that enable
 37

them to keep up with and utilize science, knowledge, technology, and art
development.

D. Relevant to the Need of Life

Curriculum is developed by involving the stakeholders to ensure its
relevance to the needs of life which include social life, business, and employment.
It is, therefore, educational institutions have to include the development of
personal, thinking, social, academic, and vocational skills.

E. Comprehensive and Continued

Curriculum content includes the whole dimensions of competences and
subjects that are planned and presented continously through all educational level.
It means, therefore, that the same subject may be presented at different level, but
with diverse depth and scope.

F. Long Life Learning

Curricullum is directed toward the process of learners‘ development,
aculturation, and empowerment in the frame of long life learning. The curricullum
reflects the interrelation of formal, non-formal, and informal education by paying
attention to the ever changing environment condition and demand.

G. Balancing National and Regional Interests

Curriculum is developed by paying attention to the national and regional
interest in order to develop a well-balanced life in community, nation, and state.
National and regional interests must be kept in balance on a par with the motto of
the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia: unity through diversity.
 38
TASK
1. What are the principles of curriculum
2. What is the mean “Varied and Integrated” of curriculum
3. How to create study English by long life learning in the class
 39

CHAPTER V
PROCESSES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

In a broad sense, the curriculum development process includes the design,

development, implementation and evaluation of curricula. However, as one
examines the process more closely it becomes evident that each component may
itself comprise several varied but inter-related activities. The curriculum
development is charged with the responsibility to operationalise the curriculum
development process. Accordingly, the work of the division may be more
adequately described as designing, developing, implementing, monitoring,
evaluating and reviewing curricula that are appropriate and relevant to the needs
and interests of a developing nation, such as ours. The cycle of curriculum
development process can be drawn as the following figure.

A. Design
This involves all the preliminary work that is carried out to ensure that the
curriculum is relevant, appropriate and workable. At this stage, the curriculum is
conceptualized and attention is paid to arrangement of the varied components.
Considerations include the focus on the philosophical underpinnings, goals,
objectives, subject matter, learning experiences and evaluation; all established in
consultation with stakeholders. At present, emphasis is being placed on the learner
in curriculum development activities.
 40

B. Develop
In this stage, curriculum development involves planning, construction and
the logical step-by-step procedures used to produce written documents, as well as
print and non-print resource materials. These documents may include vision
statements, goals, standards, performance benchmarks, learning activities and
instructional strategies, interdisciplinary connections, and other integration
activities that guide curriculum implementation.

C. Implement
This is the stage in which all stakeholders become part of the process by
making their contribution to operationalise the curriculum as designed and
developed. The process is managed by the officers of the Curriculum
Development Division. It requires interaction between officers of the division,
principals, teachers, parents, students and the general public, all key in the
education of the child. Since implementation is a change activity, the Curriculum
Development Division also engages in in-service teacher education through
seminars and workshops to facilitate the required alteration of individuals'
knowledge, skills and attitude.

D. Monitor
This can be seen as part of the implementation process. It is at this stage
that officers visit schools to verify that classroom practice is consistent with the
established goals and objectives of the national curriculum. Data is gathered to
inform policy and decision making relative to the curriculum. The monitoring
activities also capture best practices for generalization and develop the working
relationship between officers of the Curriculum Division and school personnel,
allowing for technical support at the school level to be provided where needed.

E. Evaluate
At this stage, officers engage in analyzing data collected on the field to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum design and its implementation as
 41

they relate to the child. The process entails comprehensive study of the data with
the view of identifying possible deficiencies and root causes that can lead to
corrective action. It is the findings from this exercise that directly influence the
final stage of review.

F. Review
The information gained from data analysis is used to guide appropriate
adjustments to the curriculum documents. Such adjustments incorporate the
strengths and address any apparent weakness of the implemented curriculum.
Because of technological developments and the resulting ease with which new
information can be shared, continuously evolving curriculum is now possible.
Updates, links to resource material and successful teaching and learning
experiences can be easily incorporated in curricula. These considerations are all
geared towards curriculum improvement and improved student performance in
meeting national, developmental and educational goals.
In the other side, Richard (2001) elaborates curriculum development as a
comprehensive, ongoing, cyclical process to determine the needs of a group of
learners; to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs; to
determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and
materials; and to carry out an evaluation of the language program that results from
these processes. The curriculum development process should reflect needs
analyses and ideologies about language, language teaching and language learning.
He proposes the following stages in developing curriculum.
1. Needs Analysis
A cyclical process – that takes place prior to, during, and after courses have
been taught – that involves the collection of information that can be used to
develop a profile of the needs of a group of learners in order to be able to make
decisions about the goals and contents of a language curriculum (and its
courses). The steps done as the followings:
a. Determination of who students are (e.g., educational background, prior
experiences with English, attitudes toward English and English needs)
 42

b. Determination of students‘ language abilities (e.g., communicative abilities,

pragmatic competence, strategic competence, formal knowledge of English)
c. Determination of which language skills, language strategies, content,
and experiences students need and for what purposes
d. Identification of gap between what students are able to do and what they
need to be able to do
e. Identification of perceived and present needs as well as potential
and unrecognized needs

2. Situation Analysis
A continual/cyclical process that takes place prior to, during, and after courses
have been taught that involves the collection of information about the broader
context in which instruction is given in order to be able to make decisions
about the goals and contents of a language curriculum (and its courses). The
steps done as the followings:
a. Identification of stakeholders (e.g., higher administration, program
administrators, teachers, parents, educational and other governmental
officials) and their attitudes toward English language instruction
b. Examination of societal factors in relation to language education
c. Examination of institutional factors that may facilitate or hinder change and
innovation at the curricular level
d. Examination of teacher factors (e.g., language proficiency, teaching
experience and skills, qualifications, morale, motivation, beliefs about
language teaching and language learning)

3. Specification of Goals, Objectives, and Outcomes

Specification of goals (general purposes of a curriculum), objectives (more
specific and concrete description of purposes/goals) and learning outcomes
(what students will have learned/ be able to do) based on needs and situation
analyses and ideologies about language, language learning, and language
teaching. The goals and objectives statements should provide guidelines for
teachers, materials writers, test writers, and learners. They should provide a
 43

focus for instruction and evaluation. Goals and objectives often focus on
these learning areas: Language, strategies, content, and experiences.

4. Syllabus Design and Course Planning

Translation of goals, objectives, and targeted outcomes into a decision about
the structure of courses within the curriculum, the distribution of course
content, breadth and depth of content coverage at different levels, adaptation of
different syllabus frameworks (e.g., grammatical, skills-based, task based,
content-based, situational) to meet goals and objectives. Course syllabi will
identify what is to be taught, when it is to be taught, and how it is to be taught
(thereby providing additional guidance for teachers, materials, writers, test
writers, and learners).

5. MaterialsSelection and Development

Evaluation of commercial materials to determine their appropriacy to previous
steps in the curriculum development process. Decisions about what
commercial materials to adopt, what in-house materials should be created, and
how primary materials might be adapted and/or supplemented to accomplish
goals, objectives, and targeted outcomes.

6. Course Piloting
Implementation of courses, with ongoing evaluation (thereby making almost
all courses pilot courses) and fine-tuning in response to evolving student needs,
teacher abilities, institutional goals and objectives, etc.

7. Curriculum Evaluation
Ongoing cycle of (formative and summative) evaluation of all aspects of the
curriculum in order to understand how the program works, how successfully it
works, and whether it, in all its complexity, is responding to students‘ needs,
teachers‘ abilities, etc.
 44

CHAPTER VI
ENGLISH CURRICULUM OF SENIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

English was the first foreign language obliged to be taught at junior and
senior highschool as determined by central government policy since independent
day in 1945. It isprioritised over other foreign languages such as French, Arabic,
Chinese and others(Dardjowidjojo (2000). Similarly, Mattarima and Hamdan
(2011) utter that English is a compulsory subject in schools in Indonesia.
Although the country was not colonized by the British, the language has become a
significant part of the nation‘s institutions. The exigencies of the language‘s
import in transacting business and communicating with neighboring countries
such as Singapore, Malaysia, India and other countries in the opinion of Lauder
(2008) makes the learning inevitable.
In 1967, the Ministry of Education reviewed that teachingEnglish as a
foreign language in Indonesia was intended to equip students to readtextbooks and
references in English, to participate in classes and examinations thatinvolved
foreign lecturers and students, and to introduce Indonesian culture inInternational
arenas. This general objective was represented in the high schoolenglish
curriculum 1975, 1984, and 1994.The objective in the 1967 decree actuallywas to
teaching English as to prepare students for the function at the tertiary level(Fuad
Hassan in the Jakarta Post, 2001 as cited by Jazadi, 2008).
English teaching and learning in Indonesia was dedicated to academic
purposes.English teaching in Indonesia has been based on the curriculum designed
by thecentral government throughout provision of curriculum policies. In 1945,
during the colonialized era followed the grammartranslationmethod as it it
suitable for large classes, cheap and only requiredgrammatical mastery of the
language. From the early 1950s, Indonesian governmentthrough the US Ford
Foundation grant started to introduce audio-lingual approachwhich was letter led
to audio lingual based curriculum. In this case, somecharacteristics could be
identified such as that the language laboratory was the mainsupport, audio-lingual
 45

textbooks were developed. Yet, as the large classes remainedthe main issues,
many teachers still employed grammar translation method.
In 1975s, the revised curriculum was still oriented to the audio-lingual
approach but with more systematic teaching guidelines that covered all curriculum
components such as teaching objectives, materials, approaches and evaluation
(Tjokrosujoso & the same format as in the 1984 which tested reading
comprehension and form-based multiple choice questions and did not test all
aspects of communicative competence.
The 2004 competency-based curriculum was then published as a reflection
toward perfection of previous curriculum. This curriculum contain more
systematic competency to be achieved in any level of education in Indonesia.
Communicative language teaching was the underlying approach in its
implementation. Within this sense, the learning being more put on students or
learner-centred learning become the trend of language teaching and learning. The
national examination managed by central govenrment started to incorporate
listening, reading and grammar while speaking and writing score was taken from
teacher‘s assessment at schools.
The condition of Indonesian government which issues the policy of
decentralizedsystem has made many educators and teachers urge for the role
presence of local authority in designing curriculum. The 2006 KTSP curriculum
was implemented as a response to many input toward curriculum correction.
However, the 2006 curriculum had several problems; (a) too many subjects being
learnt by students and many competences were overlappoing each other ignoring
the cognitive development of the students, (b) curriculum was not fully based on
competency, (c) competency did not holistically reflect domain of knowledge,
skills and affective behavior, (d) some competences were not accomodated such
as character building, active learning methodology, (e) the equilbirium of
developing soft skills and hard skills, (f) standard of learning process is still
teacher-oriented, (g) standard of assessment and evaluation still neglects process
and end product, and (h) KTSP was still open for multi interpretation by many
educators and teachers in real practice (Diknas, 2012).
 46

Responding to some above constraints, the Indonesian government has

decided torethink, reformulate, and redesign the curriculum into the 2013
curriculum. To thisdate, the government has succeeded in producing curriculum
documents that served as frameworks and syllabuses in all subject from primary
level to senior high level. After being launched for public review, this curriculum
has been implemented in many schools in Indonesia. In context of ELT in the
2013 curriculum, the time allotted for English subject at schools is reduced. This
surely brings about several consequences for language teaching and learning
process in Indonesia.
The school based-curriculum, comprising English curriculum, as endorsed
by the Department of NationalEducation of the Republic of Indonesia has recently
been implemented from Elementary to High Schools in thecountry. However,
English as a subject remains an optional subject in elementary schools. Better
acquisition ofskill and effective language learning will be achieved if the
curricula, syllabi, materials, and activities are enhanced and improved (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001). They agree with Gattegno (1976) that enhanced students‘ role
and autonomy in the class will improve the learning process.
The learning process is divided across three years or three grades in Junior
and Senior High Schools or SMA (SekolahMenengah Atas) with mile stones of
minimum competences which students should reach in each grade to ensure
competence. The goal of English teaching at general senior secondary school
(compared to vocational one) is to equip students with the ability to develop: (1)
oral and written communicative competence to the informational literacy level;
(2) the awareness of the nature and the importance of English roles played in
global competition among nations; and (3) understanding about the
interrelationships of language and culture (Attachment of the Regulation of the
Ministry of National Education Number 22 Year 2006). The teaching is to be
completed in six semesters starting from grade X to grade XII within 34 – 38
effective weeks and allotted in 4 lesson hours (1 lesson hour equals to 45 minutes)
a week. Thus, the total lesson hours needed to reach the competence standard for

42
 47

each grade are from 136 to 152 lesson hours a year (Attachment of the Regulation
of the Ministry of National Education Number 22 Year 2006).
Competence standards of teaching speaking in Senior High Schools are
done through oral expression of the meanings of interpersonal and transactional
discourse in formal and non-formal communication. This is achieved by using
recount, narrative, news item, procedure, descriptive, report, analytical exposition,
spoof, hortatory exposition, discussion, explanation, and review in daily life
contexts. The aptitude to communicate in English is a very difficult mission in
Indonesia because of the emphasis on the national language. The fear of making
mistakes has affected the rate of personal expression so much that not all of the
students in an EFL (English as Foreign Language) speaking class have the
courage to speak. Many of the students feel anxious in a speaking class
(Padmadewi, 1998); and some are likely to keep silent to avoid making mistakes
(Tutyandari, 2005).
It seems that a high school graduate is unable to communicate intelligibly
in English. The number of hours of learning English at class in the new 2013
curriculum are less than that of previous curriculum. This bring a big challenge
for both teacher and students to work harder in achieving the learning goal in a
limited time. In addition, schools should also be aware of this condition in which
opportunities for additional English learning and exposure could be one effort to
improve students learning mastery of English. Nevertheless, Dardjowidjojo (1996,
cited in Kam, 2004) claims that the lack of students motivation, poor attitude of
students in learning English and shortage of teachers with adequate English
language competence are the contributors of the low ability in English.
In conclusion, some of the identified problems of existing curriculum
include the allocation of inadequate time for Englishlesson, lack of resources and
instructional materials, lack of motivation by the stakeholders and open display of
disgust for the language by students. Teachers are also faced with many problems
in the course of their duties in teaching English as foreign language especially
with overcrowded classrooms and inadequate continuous development programs.
 48

CHAPTER VII
HOW TO DEVELOP CURRICULUM MATERIAL

A. Adopting Materials
Adopting materials in a rational manner is not as easy as it might at first
appear. It is considered the following terms:
1. First, it is necessary to decide what types of materials are desirable.
2. Second, all available materials of these types should be located just in case
they might prove useful.
3. Third, some form of review/evaluation procedures must be set up to pare this
list down to only those materials that should be seriously considered so that the
choices can be made.
4. Fourth, some strategy for the regular review of these adopted materials must be
set up to make sure that they do not become irrelevant to the needs of the
students and the changing conditions in the program.

Deciding the Types of Materials

To adopt the materials, the curriculum developer must take decisions
concerning which types of materials are suitable. Materials can also be based on
many different approaches and can be organized around a number of different
syllabuses. Materials can also be presented on a number of media and take many
physical forms on any one of those media.

Locating Materials
Three sources of information immediately spring to one‘s mind that can
help in finding existing materials that might be suitable: publishers' catalogs,
books received (sections of journals), and teachers' shelves.
Publishers' Catalogs include addresses for some of the most famous
publishers of ESL materials. Many of these publishers also produce materials for
other languages, so catalogs' list should provide at least a starting point for any
language teacher looking for published materials.
 49

To make even a short list of candidates for materials that might be

adopted, hands-on examination is necessary. Most publishers are happy to send
teachers desk copies of their materials. A desk copy is a textbook, manual,
workbook, or other form of material sent free of charge for consideration by
teachers who might adopt the material in their courses. The teacher may usually
keep a desk copy even if student copies are not subsequently ordered.
Examination copies, also called review copies, are also sent so that they
can be considered for adoption in courses. However, examination copies are only
free of charge if the teacher subsequently orders the material(s) for his or her
students within a certain number of days (usually 60 or 90 days).
Remember that publishers' catalogs are designed to sell language teaching
materials. Hence they will best be used as a source list of available materials, not
as the definitive word on the quality or those materials.
Another source of relatively up-to-date information on language materials
is the "Books Received" section that is found in many of the prominent language
teaching journals. These "Books Received" are usually listed near the back of a
journal/such listings are usually fairly current. However, since such lists include
only the author, title, and publisher, sending for desk or review copies will still be
necessary.
One last source of information about materials should not be overlooked.
The teachers' shelves within the program may be full of materials that could prove
interesting and useful. More to the point, teachers are more likely to have
experience with materials they already own.

Evaluating Materials
Whether materials are found in publishers' catalogs, "Books Received"
sections of journals, or teachers' shelves, firsthand examination will eventually be
necessary to determine the suitability of the materials for a particular program.
This process might safely be called materials evaluation.
The "reviews" in professional journals and newsletters typically reflect
only the views of one individual. If possible, seek out two or three reviews or a
 50

book or other materials. One review can be helpful, but a number of reviews will
offer a more comprehensive picture of the book or materials under consideration.
It is also a good idea to establish a file of reviews that might be of interest to
program faculty and administrators.
Firsthand review of materials is clearly the' most personal and thorough
method for evaluating them. Stevick suggested that materials should be evaluated
in terms of qualities, dimensions, and components as follows: (1) Three qualities:
Strength, lightness, transparency (as opposed to weakness, heaviness, opacity), (2)
Three dimensions: Linguistic, social, "topical", and (3) Four components:
Occasions for use, sample of language use, lexical exploration, exploration of
structural relationships. Then, Brown suggests a checklist that contains more
detail. It considers materials from five perspectives: background, fit to curriculum,
physical characteristics, logistical characteristics, and teach ability. All of these
judgments can be made only with the materials physically in hand.
The checklist materials background refers to nation about the author's and
the publisher's credentials. It considers also the amounts and types of experience
the author has had in teaching and administration, as well as in curriculum and
materials development.
Logistical characteristics might include such mundane (but important)
issues as the price and number of auxiliary parts (that is, audiovisual aids,
workbooks, software, unit tests, and so forth) that are required, as well as the
availability of the materials, time that it will take to ship them, and the like.
Finally, the teach abilityof the materials should be appraised. This decision
may hinge on whether there is a teacher's edition; an answer key, annotations to
help teachers explain and plan activities, unit reviews, and so forth. It is also
important to ask the teachers if they think the set of materials will work and is
otherwise acceptable to them.

Ongoing Review of Materials

Even after a set of materials is in place for each course, the materials
evaluation process must continue while they are being used, as well as after each
 51

implementation period. Teachers can keep notes on their reactions to the materials
as they use them. Such notes can be as simple as scribbling in the margins of the
teacher's edition, or as formal as typed reviews of the materials in question.

B. Developing Materials
Developing materials requires tremendous efforts and work. Nevertheless,
with the help and ideas of a number of people within a program, especially the
teachers, materials can be developed that will create the best possible match
between materials and the curriculum in question.
To begin developing materials, the curriculum designer must consider the
overall curriculum issues including deciding on the theoretical bases of the
program in terms of approaches and organizational principles in terms of
syllabuses. This step also suggests looking at the students' needs, defining the
goals and objectives, and using the tests to get a fix on the students' overall levels
in terms of proficiency or placement and the appropriateness of the objectives in
terms of diagnosis or achievement testing.
Materials development goes through three phases: creating, teaching, and
evaluating. In creating phase, the steps are as follows:
1. to find teachers who are willing to work on materials. Teachers are much more
likely to be willing participants in a materials development project if they see
something in it for themselves, that is, if they are paid for their efforts, or get
release time, or, at the very least, if they expect to have an easier job with the
new materials in hand.
2. to find a group of materials developers has been identified, then make sure that
all of them are provided with copies of all relevant documents. Such
documents may include a program description, a copy of found with the
program objectives, consider the degree to which the materials are ordered
appropriately and the degree to which they use techniques and exercises that
are acceptable to the teachers in the program .
Physical characteristics may take the form of layout considerations such as
the amount of free space on each page, the relative quantities and qualities or
 52

pictures and text, the effectiveness of highlighting, and so forth. Other physical
characteristics might include organizational issues like the existence and quality
of a table of contents, index, answer key, and glossary, as well as the general
reference potential of the book after the course is finished.
The degree of relationship between a set of materials and a particular
program can best be determined by considering the degree to which the materials
fit to the curriculum. To begin with, consider the extent to which each set of
materials agrees with the overall approach and syllabus (or combination of
approaches and syllabuses). Next, focus on the degree to which the materials
match the language needs of the students in a general way.

C. Adapting Materials
The process of adapting involves all of the steps listed down for finding
and evaluating materials plus several distinctive features. These new features
include analyzing, classifying, filling the gaps, and reorganizing.
The first stage in adapting materials is to find and evaluate materials that
might serve at least some of the students' needs and help to meet at least some of
the course objectives. In other words, the developer must identify the
usable/revisable materials. However, as the materials are being evaluated, teachers
should also analyze the degree to which each set of existing materials matches the
course objectives, as well as the degree of mismatch. In the end, a decision must
be made as to which set, or sets, of materials will be adapted.
Secondly, once usable/revisable materials have been identified, the
curriculum developer must list the uncovered /covered objectives. It may prove
useful to think of grouping the useful elements of the materials in a way that is
different from how they were grouped in the original so that the resulting
adaptation will more closely match the groupings and orderings in the course
objectives.
 53

CHAPTER VIII
CURRICULUM PLANNING ON INSTRUCTION

Instruction can be defined as the processes of imparting information and

knowledge to a learner. Instruction is a teacher initiated activity, designed to
facilitate receptivity by the learner. Then, planning instruction may be seen as
setting the stage for proper teaching activities. Instruction can be organized in
three phases: Introduction, Development and Culmination.Introductory activities
are intended to introduce learners to the particular topic or problem that will be
studied. Introductory activities are meant for the arousal of learners‘ interest and
curiosity.
Introduction canbe based on previous knowledge of the students. Some of
the components the teacher will bear in mind include: direction of the attention of
the learner towards the predetermined objective(s), stimulate recall, enhance
retention and promotion of transfer of knowledge and so on.
Developmental activity is the main frame of this unit. What is done here
leads to the actual accomplishment of the objectives. At this stage, the unit or
topic to be taught will be presented to the learners through any appropriate
teaching method – lecture, discussion, reading, practice, survey, field trips and so
on. The essence of activities here is to give the learners the content to be learnt
focusing on the objectives to be accomplished.
Culminating activities conclude the instructional phases. Specifically, they
are intended to synthesize and end the lesson and to demonstrate accomplishment
of objectives. Culminating activities can take the form of question and answer
between the teacher and learners, summary, projects debates, reports, self-
evaluation or unit evaluation. The concern in this phase is about whether learning
has actually taken place. Here the concern will be on means of determining both
quality and quantity of instruction.
The essence of curriculum planning is to provide quality experience for
learners and it is a structured stage by stage process which usually begins with an
analysis of the situation in which people find themselves. This is closely followed
 54

by formulation of objectives or goals, the selection of appropriate tools in the

form of relevant subject matter, the application of suitable instruments of
evaluation to determine the success so far.
Curriculum instruction follows a definite planning stage. Before
instruction could take place, a teacher must be acquainted with the syllabus; with
the syllabus, he could draw his own scheme of work from which he will draw out
his unit of instruction. From the unit of instruction, he now forms his lesson note.
Therefore, the structure of curriculum and instruction can be examined with
emphasis on syllabus, scheme of work, the unit of instruction and lesson
plan/note.

A. Syllabus
Syllabus refers to a list of topics or collection of outline of what pupils
should study in a given year or specified period of teaching. It is a brief outline of
the ground to be covered in course of lectures or lesson. Broadly speaking, the
syllabus is that aspect of curriculum that lists subjects to be taught in a given
course or programme. The outline of the syllabus is meant to guide the teacher on
the extent of work involved in a particular class. Sometime, the syllabus often
gives detailed instructions on what is to be taught in each term of each year of a
course, what books are to be used and even what methods are appropriate
(Farrant, 1980).
Then, scheme of work is the sub-division of the entire school syllabus into
specific portions. Here, the content and learning experiences that should be
studied in a given subject every term or every week of the academic year should
be spelt out. A scheme of work can, therefore, be defined as a plan or outline of
academic work in a sequential concordance. A scheme of work is prepared by
forecasting what part of the syllabus will be covered on each lesson period and
with reference.
The topics in the syllabus are broken into component parts and into logical
sequence covering each topic in a number of lessons. In a scheme of work, works
are allocated on termly, monthly or weekly basis. In order to plan the scheme of
 55

work, you as a teacher must know how many lesson periods is allocated to your
subject weekly. If this number is multiplied by the number of weeks there are in a
term, then you will know how many lessons you will have in a term.
The topic stated in the syllabus are now fitted into the lesson periods. In
the scheme of work, as a teacher, you set out in logical sequence the way you
think the broad topics in the syllabus can be covered by your pupils. The scheme
of work should be drawn up primarily with the pupils in mind. In other words, it
must be tailored to suit the ability, interest and rate of learning of the pupils.
To draw a good scheme of work that will be a practical guide to the
teacher, the following elements should be taken into consideration: (1) the
syllabus, (2) the pupils (their age, average ability, the quality of group motivation
in the class), (3) the school calendar – How long the term is and the number of
period devoted to each subject per week, and (4) logicality of topics or sub-topics.
The scheme of work is meant to assist the teacher to clarify his thought
and guide his subsequent detailed preparation of the various curriculum areas he
will tackle. It includes the following terms: (1) particulars of the learners (their
number, age, sex, ability and stream), (2) previous knowledge and experience of
the class in respect of the subject-matter, (3) the number and duration of the
lessons, (4) the aim of the scheme of work and outline of the subject – matter and
the content with the objectives of each lesson, (5) some indication of
organizational factors such as: the way students learn the method of teaching and
learning to be employed, (6) source of information such as: books, work-book,
film strip, etc., (7) equipment to be used in terms of audio-visual aids.
It has been noted that some Local Education Authorities provide scheme
of work for their schools and some of these allocate the work on a monthly or
weekly basis. They also go as far as indicating the ground to be covered in each
lesson. Scheme of work assists in guiding the teacher in planning lessons and
thereby, facilitating the provision of learning experiences to learners.
Next, the unit or series of instruction is always drawn from the scheme of
work by the respective teachers of each subject to facilitate instruction. What the
teacher does here is breaking down the termly work into smaller portions which
 56

are regarded as units. The duration for teaching each unit should be between 3 and
6 weeks. The number of periods that will be allocated to a unit will be determined
by the rate of progress of the teacher‘s class. The sequence in which you will
teach the lesson material can be decided at this stage. A unit of instruction can,
therefore, be seen as the projected plans which include both students‘ and
teachers‘ activities to be performed in order to realize the predetermined objective
of the unit of instruction (Aguokogbuo, 2000).
The idea of planning units of instruction is to help you as a teacher to see
the teaching material as a whole rather than as dismembered part and also help
you to present it in an interesting way that is understandable to your learners.
Having units of instruction will enhance converting the curriculum into
manageable units and, therefore, facilitate effective teaching-learning situation. A
unit of instruction should include the followings: (1) subject, (2) class, (3) age-
range of learners, (4) unit title, (5) duration, (6) sub-unit title, (7) entry behaviour
– teacher-centred, (8) unit objectives, unit content, (9) methods and activities, and
(10) unit resources (human and material resources).
Syllabus in KTSP is an instructional plan of any subject that involves
competence standard, basic competence, indicator, material, learnin activity,
assessment, time allocation, and learning sources developed by each education
unit. It is the spelling out of competence standard and basic competence into
indicator, material, and learning activity to be used for assessment.
The principles of syllabus development in KTSP involve: (1) Scientific;
true, logic, and accountable, (2) Relevant; internal and external, (3) Flexible; (4)
Continuous; (5) Consistent; (6) Adequate; ((7) Systematic; (8) Actual and
Contextual; (9) Effective; it can be implemented well in the class, and (10)
Efficient. Meanwhile, the processes in developing syllabus consist of: (1)
Planning; collecting the information, references, and learning sources, (2)
Implementation, (3) Assesment, and (4) Revision.
The main components of syllabus in KTSP are: (1) Competence Standard,
(2) Basic Competence, (3) Indicators, (4) Standard Material, (5) Standard Process,
 57

and (6) Standard Assessment. Then, the procedures in developing syllabus are
sequenced as follows:
1) Fulfilling the identity column,
2) Investigating and analyzing the Competence Standard,
3) Investigating and determining the Basic Competence,
4) Formulating the indicators,
5) Identifying the material,
6) Developing learning experiences,
7) Determining the kinds of assessment,
8) Determining the allocation of time,
9) Determining the learning sources.
Then, the procedures of syllabus development above certainly will be
designed into any format. Their formats may vary in schools. Although the format
of syllabus can be different between one school to others, some formats of
syllabus in KTSP are presented below:

Format 1
SYLLABUS
Name of School : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................

Class/Semester : .........................................................................

Standard of Basic Indicators Standard Standard Standard

Competence Competence Material Process Assessment

53
 58

Format 2
SYLLABUS
Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................

Class/Semester : .........................................................................

Standard of Basic Learning Learning Indicators Assessment Time Learning

Competence Competence Material Activity Allocation Sources

Format 3
SYLLABUS
Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................

Class/Semester : .........................................................................

Standard of Competence : .............................................................................

Basic Learning Learning Indicators Assessment Time Learning

Competence Material Activity Allocation Sources
 59

Format 4
SYLLABUS
Name of school : .........................................................................
Subject : .........................................................................
Class/Semester : .........................................................................
Standard of Competence : .........................................................................
Basic Competence : .........................................................................
Time allocation : .........................................................................
Learning Learning Indicators Assesment Time Learning
Material Activity Allocation Sources

NOTE:
The regulations or ways of developing syllabus in Curriculum 2013 have been
clearly included in PERMENDIKBUD number 22 in 2016 about Standard Process
of Elementary and Secondary Education.

B. Effective Week, Annual Program, and Semester Program

1. Effective Week
Effective week is the week used for doing learning activities. It can be
determined by subtracting the total week (for a semester or a year) to non
effective week (Effective Week = Total week – non effective week). Therefore, it
is narrowed down to formulate the effective hour for learning activities by
applying the pattern: Effective Hour = Effective week x total hour/week. Next,
there are various formats of effective week that a teacher may have. One of them
can be seen below.
 60

EFFECTIVE WEEK

Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................
Class : .........................................................................
Semester : ........................................................................
Academic Year : .........................................................................

Month Total WeekNon Effective Week Effective Week

Total

2. Annual Program
Annual program refers to the general program of a subject that is
developed by the teacher for one year. There are various formats of annual
program that a teacher may design. One of them has been provided below.

ANNUAL PROGRAM

Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................
Class : .........................................................................
Semester : ........................................................................
Academic Year : .........................................................................

Semester Standard of Competence Time Allocation Remark

Basic Competence
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3. Semester Program
Semester program illustrates the general program of a subject that is
developed by the teacher for one semester. Similarly to annual program, semester
program can be also developed into many models of format. One that a teacher
may design is presented as the following.

SEMESTER PROGRAM

Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................
Class : .........................................................................
Semester : ........................................................................
Academic Year : .........................................................................

Standard of Competence Time Allocation Months/Weeks Remark

Basic Competence

C. Lesson Plan/Note
This is the final stage in curriculum implementation. A lesson plan is the
final major stage of preparation before a teacher is ready to go into the classroom
for actual active teaching. This is the stage when the scheme of work or unit of
instruction is interpreted for periods of thirty or forty minutes.
A lesson plan can be regarded as a well thought-out, orderly and sequential
arrangement of the lesson on paper. One can say that it is the core of a successful
lesson. It is the guideline by which the teacher teaches his lesson. Lesson plans
can be comprehensive or concise and sketchy in form and yet containing the
salient steps of the progression of the lesson.
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In whatever way it may be written, it should be designed in such a way

that it contains adequate information for the teacher, to remind him of all the
aspects that must be treated in any lesson. Most unsuccessful lessons have been
noted to come about as a result of improper lesson planning and unpreparedness
on the part of the teacher.
When lesson plan is transcribed into a note book, it becomes a lesson note.
It is regarded as a guide to the teacher in executing the plan of teaching the
students.
The basic components of a lesson plan include the followings: (1) The
subject, (2) Date, (3) Time/Duration, (4) Class, (5) Period, (6) Average age of the
learners, (7) Topic, (8) Behavioural objective(s), (9) Entry behaviour/Previous
knowledge, (10) Instructional materials/resources, (11)Introduction/Set induction,
(12) Instructional techniques or skills, (13) Instructional procedure, and (14)
Evaluation.
A poor lesson is usually characterized by at least one of the following
faults: (1) lack of logical presentation of material, (2) the omission of important
facts due to lack of adequate knowledge of subject content, (3) inaccurate facts
taught or accepted as correct, (4) poor timing of the lesson, (5) lack of ability to
motivate the class, resulting in boredom and restlessness in the class, (6) lack of
interesting detail of illustrative aids, and (7) excessive corrections when the
assignments or written work of learners are being marked.
In KTSP, lesson plan illustrates a plan that describes the instructional
procedures and management in order to achieve any determined competence. It is
a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for an individual
lesson. Next, There are some principles should be kept in developing lesson plan:
(1) concrete, (2) simple and flexible, (3) relevant, (4) integrated and
comprehensive, and (5) coordinated. Meanwhile, the main components of lesson
plan involve: (1) competence, (2) indicator, (3) standard material, (4) learning
experiences, (5) teaching method, and (6) standard assessment.
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The procedures in developing a lesson plan are presented orderly in the

following list:
1. Fulfilling the identity column,
2. Determining the allocation of time,
3. Determining the Competence Standard, Basic Competence, and the indicators,
4. Formulating instructional objectives,
5. Identifying the material,
6. Determining teaching methods,
7. Formulating instructional steps,
8. Determining the learning sources.
9. Determining the kinds of assessment,
Then, the procedures of lesson plan development above certainly will be
designed into any format. Their formats may vary in schools. Although the format
of syllabus can be different between one teacher to others, the following is one
example of them.

LESSON PLAN

Name of school : .........................................................................

Subject : .........................................................................
Class/Semester : .........................................................................
Meeting : .........................................................................
Time allocation : .........................................................................

A. Competence Standard :
B. Basic Competence :
C. Indicators :
D. Instructional Objectives :
E. Material :
F. Learning Methods :
G. Learning Activity :
H. Learning Sources :
I. Assessment :
 64

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