Lin ar Equa i n and Ma ric

I NTR OD U CT ION : sc e ce d he cs s e g zed ws d c lu s ec gul ys,

c lled “ ces” (plu l “ x”). M ces e e bles u e c ld h se phys c l bse v s, bu hey ls
ccu v us he c l c ex s. F ex ple, we sh ll see h s ch p e h s lve sys e equ s such s

rm r qu r d r s u s mb d d m rx

d s u c b b d by p r rm g ppr pr p r s s m r x. T s s p r cu r y mp r
d v p g c mpu r pr gr ms s v sys ms r qu s b c us c mpu rs r w su d r m pu g rr ys
um r c rm . H w v r, m r c s r s mp y r s v g sys ms qu s; yc b v w d s
m m c bj c s r w rg , d r s rc d mp r ry ss c d w m s wd v r y
pp c s. I sc p rw w b g s udy m r c s.

© 2005 J n W le & S ns, Inc. All s ese ved.

 . in ar a g braic qua i n and h ir ui n c n iu n h
aj r pic udi d in h c ur kn wn a “ in ar a g bra.” In hi ir ci n
w ha in r duc ba ic r in g and di cu a h d r ving uch
Y EM FL EA .
EQ A

Linear Equations

A ysr g -p c b r pr s d g br c y by qu rm

w r , , d r r c s s d d r b z r . A qu s rm s c d r qu
vr b s d .M r g r y, w d o vr b s , , …, b c b xpr ss d
rm

w r , , …, , d r r c s s. T v r b s r qu r s m m sc d k ow s.

EXAMPLE Lin ar Equa i n

T qu s

r r. Obs rv r qu d s v v y pr duc s r r s v r b s. A v r b s ccur y rs

p w r dd pp r s rgum s r rg m r c, g r m c, r xp u c s. T qu s

r r.

A so o r qu s s qu c umb rs , , …, suc qu s
s s dw w subs u , , …, .T s s u s qu s c d s so o s r
s m m s g so o qu .

EXAMPLE 2 Finding a lu i n

F d s u s ( ) , d (b) .

T ds u s ( ), w c ss g rb r ry v u ds v r , rc s rb r ry v u r ds v r .I
w w rs ppr c d ss g rb r ry v u , w b

T s rmu s d scr b s u s rms rb r ry umb r , c d p m . P r cu r um r c s u sc b

 b d by subs u g sp c c v u s r . F r x mp , y ds s u , ; d y ds s u
, .

I w w s c d ppr c d ss g rb r ry v u , w b

A ug s rmu s r d r r m s b d b v , yy d s m s u s s vr s v r p ss b r
umb rs. F r x mp , pr v us rmu s g v s u , w ,w r s rmu s mm d y b v
y d s u w .

b)

T d s u s (b), w c ss g rb r ry v u s y w v r b s ds v r rd v r b . I p r cu r,
w ss g rb r ry v u s d d , r sp c v y, d s v r ,w b

Linear ystems

A s r qu s v r b s , , …, sc d sys m of o s r sys m. A s qu c
umb rs , , …, sc d so o sys m , , …, s s u v ry qu
sys m. F r x mp , sys m

s s u , , s c s v u ss syb qu s. H w v r, , , s
s u s c s v u ss sy y rs qu sys m.

N sys ms r qu s v s u s. F r x mp , w mu p y s c d qu sys m

by , b c m s vd r r s u ss c r su g qu v sys m

sc r d c ry qu s.

A sys m qu s s s u s ss d b co s s ; r s s s u sys m, s c d
co s s .T us r p ss b s c ccur s v g sys ms r qu s, c s d r g r sys m w
r qu s u k w s d :

T gr p s s qu s r s; c m d .S c p ( , ) s d y umb rs d
s sy qu , s u s sys m qu s c rr sp d p s rs c d .T r r
r p ss b s, us r d F gur 1.1.1:
 Figur . .

T s d m yb p r , w c c s r s rs c d c s qu y s u sys m.

T s d m y rs c y p , w c c s sys m s x c y s u .

T s d m yc cd , w c c s r r ym yp s rs c d c s qu y y
m ys u s sys m.

A ug w v c sd r d y w qu sw w u k w s r ,w w s w r s m r p ss b s d
r rb r ry r sys ms:

r m f li ar qua i ha lu i , r ha ac l lu i , r ha i fi i l ma lu i .

A rb r ry sys m m r qu s u k w sc b wr s
w r , , …, r u k w s d subscr p d a's d 's d c s s. F r x mp , g r sys m r
r qu s ur u k w s c b wr s

T d ub subscr p g c c s u k w s s us u d v c s us d sp c y c c c
sys m. T rs subscr p c c dc s qu w c c c ccurs, d s c d
subscr p d c s w c u k w mu p s. T us, s rs qu d mu p s u k w .

Augmented Matrices

I w m y k p r ck c +'s, 's, d ='s, sys m m r qu s u k w sc b

bbr v d by wr g y r c gu r rr y umb rs:

T s sc d gm dm x r sys m. (T rm ma ri s us d m m cs d r c gu r rr y
umb rs. M r c s r s m yc x s, w c w w c sd r m r d rs c s.) F r x mp , ugm d
m rx r sys m qu s

W c s ruc g ugm d m r x, w mus wr u k w s s m rd r c qu , d

c s s mus b rg .

T b scm d r s v g sys m r qu s s r p c g v sys m by w sys m s s m s u

s bu s s r s v . T s w sys m s g r y b d s r s s ps by pp y g w g r yp s
p r s m u k w s sys m c y:

Mu p y qu r ug by z r c s .

I rc g w qu s.

Add mu p qu r.

S c r ws ( r z s) ugm d m r x c rr sp d qu s ss c d sys m, s r
p r s c rr sp d w g p r s r ws ugm d m r x:

Mu p y r w r ug by z r c s .
 I rc g w r ws.

Add mu p r w r r w.

Elementary ow perations

T s r c d m y ow op o s. T w g x mp us r s w s p r s c b us d s v sys ms
r qu s. S c sys m c pr c dur r d gs u sw b d rv d x s c , s c ss ry
w rry b u w s ps s x mp w r s c d. T m r s m s u d b d v d u d rs d g
c mpu s d d scuss .

EXAMPLE 3 U ing El n ar R w Op ra i n

I c um b w w s v sys m r qu s by p r g qu s sys m, d rg c um
w s v s m sys m by p r g r ws ugm d m r x.

Add −2 m s rs qu s c d b Add −2 m s rs r w s c d b

Add −3 m s rs qu rd b Add −3 m s rs r w rd b

Mu p y s c d qu by b Mu p y s c d r w by b

Add −3 m s s c d qu rd b Add −3 m s s c dr w rd b

Mu p y rd qu by − 2 b Mu p y rd r w by −2 b
 Add −1 m s s c d qu rs b Add −1 m s s c dr w rs b

Add m s rd qu rs d m s Add m s rd r w rs d m s
rd qu s c d b rd r w s c d b

T s u , , s w vd .

Exe c se Se 1.1

C ck r r Jus Ask!

W c w g r r qu s , , d ?

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()

Gv k s c s ,w c w g r r qu s?
 ( )

(b)

(c)

F d s u s c w g r qu s.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

F d ugm dm rx r c w g sys ms r qu s.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

F d sys m r qu s c rr sp d g ugm d m r x.
 ( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( ) F d r qu v r b s d s g r s u , .

(b) S w , s s g r s u qu p r ( ).

T curv s w cc mp y g gur p ss s r ug p s , , d .S w
c c s a, , dc r s u sys m r qu sw s ugm dm rx s

Figur Ex-7

C sd r sys m qu s

S w r s sys m b c ss , c s s a, , d c mus s s y .
 S w r qu s d v s m s u s , qu s r d c .
9

S w m ry r w p r sd c s u s r sys m.
0

F r w c v u (s) c s kd s sys m

v s u s? Ex c y s u ?I ym ys u s? Exp y ur r s g.

C sd r sys m qu s

I dc w w c s y b u r v p s s s , , d
w

( ) sys m s s u s.

(b) sys m s x c y s u .

(c) sys m s ym ys u s.

I sys m qu s Ex rc s 12 s c s s , xp w y s qu c b
d sc rd d r m sys m w u r g s u s .

I Ex rc s 12, xp w y sys m mus b c s s . W c b s d b u

p rs c r s sys m s x c y s u ?

W c ud s d m ry c um p r s gy w m ry r w p r s.
W c y us y b u c m ry c um p r s s u s r
sys m? H w w u d y u rpr cs m ry c um p r s?

opyright © 2005 John Wiley & ons, nc. All rights reserved.
 In hi c i n w ha d v p a a ic pr c dur r ving
.2 in ar qua i n . Th pr c dur i ba d n h id a r ducing h aug n d
T O a rix a an h r aug n d a rix ha i i p n ugh ha h
ui n h can b und b in p c i n.

chelon Forms

I Ex mp 3 s s c ,w s v d r sys m u k w s , , d z by r duc g ugm dm rx

rm

r mw c s u , , b c m vd . T s s x mp m rx s d c d ow- ch o fo m. T
b s rm, m r x mus v w g pr p r s:

I r wd s c ss r y z r s, rs z r umb r r w s 1. W c s d g 1.

I r r y r ws c ss r y z r s, y r gr up d g r b m m r x.

I y w succ ss v r ws d c ss r y z r s, d g1 w r r w ccurs r r rg
d g1 g r r w.

E c c um c s d g1 s z r s v ryw r s c um .

Am rx s rs r pr p r s s s d b ow- ch o fo m. (T us, m r x r duc d r w- c rm s

c ss y r w- c rm, bu c v rs y.)

EXAMPLE R w-Ech l n and R duc d R w-Ech l n F r

T w gm rc s r r duc d r w- c rm.

T w gm rc s r r w- c rm.

W v ry u c rm c m rc s s x mp s s s r qu r m s r ss d rm.
EXAMPLE 2 M r n R w-Ech l n and R duc d R w-Ech l n F r

As s x mp us r s, m r x r w- c rm s z r s b w c d g 1, w r s m r x r duc d
r w- c rm sz r sb w a da c d g 1. T us, w yr umb rs subs u d r *'s, m rc s
w g yp s r r w- c rm:

M r v r, m rc s w g yp s r r duc d r w- c rm:

I , by s qu c m ry r w p r s, ugm d m r x r sys m r qu s s pu r duc d r w- c

rm, s u s sys m w b v d by sp c r r w s mp s ps. T x x mp us r s s
s u .

EXAMPLE 3 lu i n F ur Lin ar

Supp s ugm d m r x r sys m r qu s sb r duc d by r w p r s gv r duc d

r w- c rm. S v sys m.

( )

(b)
 (c)

(d)

T c rr sp d g sys m qu s s

By sp c , , , .

b)

T c rr sp d g sys m qu s s

S c , , d c rr sp d d g 1's ugm d m r x, w c m d gv b s r p vo s. T d g
v r b s( sc s ) r c df v b s. S v g r d gv r b s rms r v r b gv s

Fr m s rm qu sw s r v r b c b ss g d rb r ry v u , s y , w c d rm s
v u s d gv r b s , , d . T us r r ym ys u s, d g r s u s g v by
rmu s

c)

T r w z r s ds qu ,w c p c s r s rc s s u s (w y?).
T us, w c m s qu d wr c rr sp d g sys m s

H r d gv r b s r , , d , d r v r b s r d .S v g r d gv r b s rms
r v r b sgv s

S c c b ss g d rb r ry v u , , d c b ss g d rb r ry v u , , r r ym ys u s. T
g r s u s g v by rmu s
 d)

T s qu c rr sp d g sys m qu s s

S c s qu c b s s d, r s s u sys m.

limination ethods

W v jus s w sy s s v sys m r qu s c s ugm d m r x s r duc d r w- c rm.

N ww s gv s p-by-s p m o pr c dur c b us d r duc y m r x r duc d r w- c rm. As w
s c s p pr c dur , w s us r d by r duc g w g m r x r duc d r w- c rm.

S p 1. L c m s c um d s c ss r y z r s.

S p 2. I rc g pr ww r r w, c ss ry, br g z r ry p c um u d S p 1.

S p 3. I ry s w p c um u d S p 1 s a, mu p y rs r w by 1/a rd r r duc
d g 1.

S p 4. Add su b mu p s pr w r ws b ws r sb w d g 1 b c m z r s.

S p 5. N w c v r pr w m rx db g g w S p 1 pp d subm r x r m s. C u s
w yu ir m r x s r w- c rm.
 T ir m r x s w r w- c rm. T d r duc d r w- c rm w d w g dd s p.

S p 6. B g gw s z r r w d w rk g upw rd, dd su b mu p s c r w r ws b v r duc

zr s b v d g 1's.

T s m rx s r duc d r w- c rm.

I w us y rs v s ps, b v pr c dur pr duc s r w- c rm d s c d G ss m o . C rry g

pr c dur r ug s x s p d pr duc g m r x r duc d r w- c rm s c d G ss–Jo d m o .

I c b s w r ma ri ha a u iqu r duc d r w- ch l f rm; s, w rr v s m r duc d

r w- c rm r g v m r x m r w r w p r s r v r d. (A pr s r su c b u d r c
“T R duc d R w Ec F rm M r x Is U qu : A S mp Pr ,” by T m sYus r, Ma h ma ic Magazi , V . 57, N .
2, 1984, pp. 93–94.) I c r s , a r w- ch l f rm f a gi ma ri i u iqu : d r s qu c s r w p r sc
pr duc d r r w- c rms.
 Karl Fri drich Gau

Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) w s G rm m m c d sc s.S m m sc d “pr c

m m c s,” G uss r ks w Is c N w d Arc m d s s r gr s m m c sw v r v d. I
r s ry m m cs r m y v r v b c d s pr c c us s G uss—by s w cc u w rk d u
rud m s r m cb r c u d k. O d y, b r w s v r y rs d, s g us b c m pp r s
p r s v ry dr m c w y. H s r w s pr p r g w k y p yr r b r rs u d r s c rg w b y
w c d qu y r m c r r. A d g d d us c cu , G uss rm d s r r w s rr r
r su ds d sw r, w c d w rk d u s d. T s s m s p r s, c ck
c mpu s s w d G uss b c rr c !

I s d c r d ss r G uss g v rs c mp pr u d m r m g br , w c s s v ry
p y m qu s sm ys u s s s d gr . A g 19 s v d pr b m b d Euc d, scr b g r gu r
p yg s v sd s c rc us g s r g dg d c mp ss; d 1801, g 24, pub s d s rs m s rp c ,
Di qui i i Ari hm ica , c s d r d by m y b m s br c v m s m m cs. I p p r
G uss sys m z d s udy umb r ry (pr p r s g rs) d rmu d b s cc c ps rm
u d subj c . Am g s myr d c v m s, G uss d sc v r d G uss r “b -s p d” curv s
u d m pr b b y, g v rs g m r c rpr c mp x umb rs d s b s d r u d m r
m m cs, d v p d m ds c r c r z g sur c s r s c y by m s curv s yc ,d v p d
ry c rm ( g -pr s rv g) m ps, d d sc v r d -Euc d g m ry 30 y rs b r d s w r pub s d
by rs. I p ys cs m d m j r c r bu s ry s s d c p ry c , dw W mW b r dd
u d m w rk cr m g sm. G uss v d r p ,b rm g m r, d cr gr p .

G uss, w w s d p y r g us d r s cr c d m r, m s r d r g gu g s w s , r d x s v y, d
j y d m r gy d b y s bb s. H d s k d c g d w s usu y c d d sc ur g g rm m c s,
p ss b y b c us d r dy cp d r w rk. I s b s d G uss d pub s d s d sc v r s,
curr s m m cs w u d b dv c d by 50 y rs. H w s w u d ub gr s m m c m d r
r .
 Wilh l J rdan

Wilhelm Jordan (1842–1899) w s G rm g r w sp c z d g d sy. H s c r bu s v g r sys ms

pp r d s p pu r b k, Ha d uch d r V rm u g ku d (Ha d k f G d ), 1888.

EXAMPLE 4 Gau –J rdan Eli ina i n

S v by G uss–J rd m .

T ugm dm rx r sys m s

Add g −2 m s rs r w s c d d ur r ws g v s

Mu p y g s c d r w by −1 d dd g −5 m s ws c dr w rd r w d −4 m s ws c dr w
ur r w g v s
I rc g g rd d ur r ws d mu p y g rd r w r su g m r x by gv s r w- c rm

Add g −3 m s rd r w s c dr w d dd g 2 m s s c dr w r su gm rx rs r w
y ds r duc d r w- c rm

T c rr sp d g sys m qu s s

(W v d sc rd d s qu , ,s c w b s s d u m c y by
s u s r m g qu s.) S v g r d g v r b s, w b

I w ss g r v r b s , , d rb r ry v u s r, , d , r sp c v y, g r s u sgv by rmu s

Back- ubstitution

I s s m m s pr r b s v sys m r qu s by us g G uss m br g ugm dm rx

r w- c rm w u c u g w y r duc d r w- c rm. W s sd , c rr sp d g sys m
qu s c b s v d by c qu c d b ck-s bs o .T x x mp us r s d .

EXAMPLE 5 Exa pl 4 lv d b Back- ub i u i n

Fr m c mpu s Ex mp 4, r w- c rm ugm dm rx s

T s v c rr sp d g sys m qu s

w pr c d s ws:

S p 1. S v qu s r d g v r b s.
S p 2. B g gw b m qu d w rk g upw rd, succ ss v y subs u c qu qu s b v
.

Subs u g s c d qu y ds

Subs u g rs qu y ds

S p 3. Ass g rb r ry v u s r v r b s, y.

I w ss g , , d rb r ry v u s r, , d , r sp c v y, g r s u sgv by rmu s

T s gr s w s u b d Ex mp 4.

T rb r ry v u s r ss g d r v r b s r c dp m s. A ug w s g r y us
rs r, , , … r p r m rs, y rs d c c w v r b m s m y b us d.

EXAMPLE 6 Gau ian Eli ina i n

S v

by G uss m d b ck-subs u .

T s s sys m Ex mp 3 S c 1.1. I x mp w c v r d ugm dm rx

r w- c rm
T sys m c rr sp d g sm rx s

S v g r d g v r b s y ds

Subs u g b m qu s b v y ds

d subs u g s c d qu p y ds , , . T s gr s w r su u d by G uss–J rd
m Ex mp 3 S c 1.1.

Homogeneous inear ystems

A sys m r qu s ss d b homog o s c s rms r z r ; s, sys m s rm

Ev ry m g us sys m r qu s sc ss ,s c suc sys ms v , , …, s s u .

T ss u sc d v so o ; r r rs u s, y r c d o v so o s.

B c us m g us r sys m w ys s rv s u , r r y w p ss b s r ss u s:

T sys m s y rv s u .

T sys m s ym ys u s dd rv s u .

I sp c c s m g us r sys m w qu s w u k w s, s y

gr p s qu s r s r ug rg , d rv s u c rr sp ds p rs c rg
(F gur 1.2.1).
 Figur .2.

T r s c s w c m g us sys m s ssur d v g rv s u s— m y, w v r sys m v v s

m r u k w s qu s. T s w y, c s d r w g x mp ur qu s v u k w s.

EXAMPLE 7 Gau –J rdan Eli ina i n

S v w g m g us sys m r qu s by us g G uss–J rd m .

(1)

T ugm dm rx r sys m s

R duc g sm rx r duc d r w- c rm, w b

T c rr sp d g sys m qu s s
 (2)

S v g r d g v r b s y ds

T us, g r s u s

N rv s u s b dw .

Ex mp 7 us r s w mp r p s b u s v g m g us sys ms r qu s. F rs , r
m ry r w p r s rs c um z r s ugm d m r x, s sys m qu s c rr sp d g
r duc d r w- c rm ugm d m r x mus s b m g us sys m [s sys m 2]. S c d, d p d g
w r r duc d r w- c rm ugm d m r x s y z r r ws, umb r qu s r duc d sys m
s s m s r ss umb r qu s rg sys m [c mp r sys ms 1 d 2]. T us, gv
m g us sys m s m qu s u k w sw , d r r r z r r ws r duc d r w- c rm
ugm d m r x, w w v .I ws sys m qu s c rr sp d g r duc d r w- c rm
ugm dm rxw v rm

(3)

w r , , …, r d gv r b s d d s sums (p ss b y d r ) v v r v r b s
[c mp r sys m 3 w sys m 2 b v ]. S v g r d gv r b sgv s

As Ex mp 7, w c ss g rb r ry v u s r v r b s rg - dsd d us b ym ys u s
sys m.

I summ ry, w v w g mp r r m.

THE OREM . 2.

Ah m g u m f li ar qua i wi h m r u k w ha qua i ha i fi i l ma lu i .

N T r m 1.2.1 pp s y m g us sys ms. A m g us sys m w m r u k w s

qu s d b c ss (Ex rc s 28); w v r, sys m s c s s , w v ym ys u s. T s w
b pr v d r.

Computer olution of inear ystems

I pp c s s u c mm c u r rg r sys ms mus b s v d by c mpu r. M s c mpu r g r ms

r s v g suc sys ms r b s d G uss m r G uss–J rd m , bu b s c pr c dur s r
m d d d w suc ssu s s
 R duc g r u d rr rs

M mz g us c mpu r m m ry sp c

S v g sys m w m x mum sp d

S m s m rs w b c s d r d C p r 9. F r d c mpu s, r c s r y c c b
v d d. H w v r, s m c s s s p ss b v d m by v ry g m ry r w p r s r g w y. T us, c
m ds G uss m d G uss–J rd m v b m s r d, r d rm yw s v ry s ps
sp c c pr b ms v d r c s (s Ex rc s 18).

S c G uss–J rd m v ds us b ck-subs u , w uds m sm dw udb m r

c w m ds w v c s d r d.

I c b rgu d ss m s ru r s v g sm sys ms by d s c G uss–J rd m c u y v v s ss

wr g. H w v r, r rg sys ms qu s, sb s w G uss–J rd m m d r qu r s b u 50%
m r p r s G uss m .T s s mp r c sd r w s w rk g c mpu rs.

Exe c se Se 1.2

C ck r r Jus Ask!

W c w g m rc s r r duc d r w- c rm?

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )
()

(g)

( )

()

(j)

W c w g m rc s r r w- c rm?

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )
 ()

I c p r d rm w r m rx s r w- c rm, r duc d r w- c rm, b , r r.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()

I c p r supp s ugm dm rx r sys m r qu s sb r duc d by r w p r s gv

r duc d r w- c rm. S v sys m.

( )

(b)
 (c)

(d)

I c p r supp s ugm dm rx r sys m r qu s sb r duc d by r w p r s gv

r w- c rm. S v sys m.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

S v c w g sys ms by G uss–J rd m .

( )

(b)

(c)
 (d)

S v c sys ms Ex rc s 6 by G uss m .

S v c w g sys ms by G uss–J rd m .

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

S v c sys ms Ex rc s 8 by G uss m .
9

S v c w g sys ms by G uss–J rd m .
0

( )

(b)
 (c)

S v c sys ms Ex rc s 10 by G uss m .

W u us g p c d p p r, d rm w c w g m g us sys ms v rv s u s.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

S v w g m g us sys ms r qu s by ym d.

( )

(b)

(c)

S v w g m g us sys ms r qu s by ym d.
 ( )

(b)

(c)

S v w g sys ms by ym d.

( )

(b)

S v w g sys ms, w r a, , dc r c s s.

( )

(b)

F rw c v u s aw w g sys m v s u s? Ex c y s u ?I ym ys u s?
 R duc

r duc d r w- c rm.

F d w d r r w- c rms
9

S v w g sys m r qu s r u k w g s , , d ,w r , , d
0 .

S w w g r sys m s 18 s u s , , d .

F r w c v u (s) d s sys m qu s

v rv s u s?

S v sys m

r , , d w c s s , .

S v w g sys m r , , d z.

F d c c s a, , c, dds curv s w cc mp y g gur s gr p qu

.

F dc c s a, , c, dds curv s w cc mp y g gur s g v by qu

.
 Figur Ex-25

Figur Ex-26

( ) S w , r duc d r w- c rm

(b) Us p r ( ) s w sys m

has exactly one solution when .

F d c ss r sys m sm r u k w s qu s.

I dc p ss b r duc d r w- c rms
9

( )

(b)

C sd r sys m qu s
0
 D scuss r v p s s s , , d w ( )
sys m s y rv s u , d (b) sys m s rv s u s.

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r by g v g
gc rgum r c u r x mp .

( ) I m r x s r duc d r duc d r w- c rm by w d r s qu c s m ry
r w p r s, r su g m r c s w b d r .

(b) I m r x s r duc d r w- c rm by w d r s qu c s m ry r w
p r s, r su g m r c s m g b d r .

(c) I r duc d r w- c rm ugm dm rx r r sys m s r w

z r s, sys m mus v ym ys u s.

(d) I r s -p r sd s r g , sys m qu s rm d r m
r qu s s r s u s, c rr sp d g c v r x.

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r by g v g
gc rgum r c u r x mp .

( ) A r sys m r qu s v u k w s mus b c ss .

(b) A r sys m v qu s r u k w sc b c ss .

(c) I r sys m qu s u k w s s d g 1's r duc d r w- c

rm s ugm d m r x, sys m s x c y s u .

(d) I r sys m qu s u k w s s w qu s r mu p s
r, sys m s c ss .

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & ons, nc. ll rights reserved.

 R c angu ar arra r a nu b r ari in an c n x h r han a
.3 aug n d a ric r in ar qua i n . In hi c i n w b gin
D X ur ud a rix h r b giving h unda n a d ini i n
h ubj c . W ha h w a ric can b c bin d hr ugh h
OP O ari h ic p ra i n addi i n, ub rac i n, and u ip ica i n.

atrix otation and erminology

I S c 1.2 w us d r c gu r rr ys umb rs, c d augm d ma ric , bbr v sys ms r qu s.

H w v r, r c gu r rr ys umb rs ccur rc x s s w . F r x mp , w g r c gu r rr y w
r r ws d s v c um s m g d scr b umb r urs s ud sp s udy g r subj c s dur g
c r w k:

Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Math 2 3 2 4 1 4 2

History 0 3 1 4 3 2 2

Language 4 1 3 1 0 0 2
I w suppr ss d gs, w r w w gr c gu r rr y umb rs w r r ws ds v
c um s, c d “m r x”:

M r g r y, w m k w gd .

DE F I N I TI ON

Am x s r c gu r rr y umb rs. T umb rs rr y r c d s m r x.

EXAMPLE Exa pl Ma ric

S m x mp s m rc s r
T sz m r x s d scr b d rms umb r r ws ( r z s) d c um s (v r c s) c s.
F r x mp , rs m r x Ex mp 1 s r r ws d w c um s, s s s z s 3 by 2 (wr ). I s z
d scr p , rs umb r w ys d s umb r r ws, d s c dd s umb r c um s. T
r m g m r c s Ex mp 1 v s z s , , , d , r sp c v y. A m r x w y c um s
c d co m m x ( r co m v c o ), d m r x w y r w s c d ow m x ( r ow v c o ). T us,
Ex mp 1 m r x s c um m r x, m r x s r w m r x, d m rx sb r wm rx
d c um m r x. (T rm c r s rm g w w d scuss subs qu c p rs.)

I s c mm pr c c m br ck s r m m r x. T us w m g wr 4 r r [4]. A ug
s m k s mp ss b w r4d s umb r “ ur” r m rxw s ry s “ ur,” s r r y
c us s pr b ms, s c s usu y p ss b w c sm r m c x w c symb pp rs.

W s us c p rs d m rc s d w rc s rs d um r c qu s; us w m g wr

W d scuss g m r c s, s c mm r r um r c qu s s sc s. U ss s d rw s , calar will

r al um r ; c mp x sc rs w b c sd r d C p r 10.

T ry ccurs r wi d c um j m rxAw b d d by . T us g r m rxmg b wr

s

d g r m rx s

(1)

W c mp c ss s d s r d, pr c d g m r x c b wr s

rs b g us d w s mp r d scuss k w sz , d s c d b g us d w sz
d b mp s z d. Usu y, w s m c rd g m rxw rd g s r s; us, r
m r x B w w u d g r y us r ry r w i d c um j, d r m r x C w w u d us .

T ry r wi d c um j m r x A s s c mm yd d by symb . T us, rm r x1 b v ,w
v

d r m rx

w v , , , d .

R w d c um m r c s r sp c mp r c , d s c mm pr c c d m by b d c w rc s rs
r r c p rs. F r suc m r c s, d ub subscr p g r s su c ss ry. T us g r r w
m rx d g r c um m r x b w u d b wr s
Am r x Aw r ws d c um s s c d s m x of o d , d s d d r s , , …, 2 r
s d b m d go A.

(2)

Operations on atrices

S r, w v us d m r c s bbr v w rk s v g sys ms r qu s. F r r pp c s, w v r,
sd sr b d v p “ r m c m r c s” w c m r c s c b dd d, sub r c d, d mu p d us u
w y. T r m d r ss c w b d v d d v p g s r m c.

DE F I N I TI ON

Tw m r c s r d d b y v s m sz d r c rr sp d g r s r qu .

I m rx , d v s m sz , d y , r, qu v y,
r i d j.

EXAMPLE 2 Equali Ma ric

C sd r m rc s

I , , bu r rv u s m rc sA dB r qu , s c r c rr sp d g
r s r qu . T r s v u rw c s c A d C v d r s z s.

DE FI N I TI O N

I A dB r m rc s s m sz , s m s m rx b d by dd g r s B
c rr sp d g r s A, d d ff c s m rx b d by sub r c g r s B r m
c rr sp d g r s A. M r c s d r sz sc b dd d r sub r c d.

I m rx , d v s m sz ,
EXAMPLE 3 Addi i n and ub rac i n

C sd r m rc s

T xpr ss s , , , d r u d d.

DE FI N I TI O N

I A s ym rx d c s y sc r, p od c s m rx b d by mu p y g c ry m rxA
by c. T m r x s s d b sc m p A.

I m rx , ,

EXAMPLE 4 calar Mul ipl

F r m rc s

w v

I s c mm pr c c d by .

I , , …, r m rc s s m sz d , , …, r sc rs, xpr ss rm

sc d comb o , , …, w co ff c s , , …, . F r x mp , A, B, dC r m rc s
Ex mp 4,
s r c mb A, B, d Cw sc rc c s 2, −1, d .

T us r w v d d mu p c m r x by sc r bu mu p c w m r c s. S c m r c s r
dd d by dd g c rr sp d g r s d sub r c d by sub r c g c rr sp d g r s, w u d s m ur d
mu p c m r c s by mu p y g c rr sp d g r s. H w v r, ur s u suc d w ud b
v ry us u r m s pr b ms. Exp r c s dm m c s w g m r us u d m rx
mu p c .

DE FI N I TI O N

I A s m rx dB s m r x, p od c s m rxw s r s r d rm d s
ws. T d ry r w i d c um j ,s g u r wi r m m r x A d c um j r m m r x B.
Mu p y c rr sp d g r s r m r w d c um g r, d dd up r su g pr duc s.

EXAMPLE 5 Mul ipl ing Ma ric

C sd r m rc s

S c A s m rx dB s m r x, pr duc s m r x. T d rm , r x mp , ry
r w 2 d c um 3 , w s g u r w 2 r m A d c um 3 r m B. T , s us r d b w, w mu p y
c rr sp d g r s g r d dd up s pr duc s.

T ry r w1 d c um 4 s c mpu d s ws:

T c mpu s r r m g r s r
T d m r x mu p c r qu r s umb r c um s rs c r A b s m s umb r
r ws s c d c rB rd r rm pr duc .I sc d s s s d, pr duc s u d d. A
c v w y d rm w r pr duc w m rc s sd d s wr d w sz rs c r d,
rg , wr d w sz s c d c r. I , s 3, s d umb rs r s m , pr duc s
d d. T u s d umb rs gv sz pr duc .

(3)

EXAMPLE 6 D r ining Wh h r a Pr duc I D in d

Supp s A, B, dC r m rc sw w g s z s:

T by 3, sd d d s m r x; sd d d s m r x; d sd d d s m r x.
T pr duc s , , d r u d d.

I g r , s m rx d s m r x, , s us r d by s d g 4,

(4)

ry r wi d c um j sgv by

(5)

Partitioned atrices

A m r x c b subd v d d r p o d sm r m r c s by s r g r z d v r c ru s b w s c d
r ws d c um s. F r x mp , w g r r p ss b p r s g r m r x A— rs s p r
A ur s bm c s , , , d ; s c d s p r A sr wm r c s , , d ; d
rd s p r A s c um m r c s , , , d :
 atrix ultiplication by olumns and by ows

S m m s m yb d sr b d p r cu r r w r c um m r x pr duc w u c mpu g r
pr duc . T w g r su s, w s pr s r s x rc s s, r us u r purp s :

(6)

(7)

EXAMPLE 7 Exa pl 5 R vi i d

I A dB r m rc s Ex mp 5, r m6 s c d c um m r x c b b d by c mpu

d r m7 rs r w m r x c b b d by c mpu

I , , …, d r wm rc s A d , , …, d c um m r c s B, ws r m
F rmu s 6 d 7

(8)
 (9)

F rmu s 8 d 9 r sp c c s s m r g r pr c dur r mu p y g p r d m r c s (s Ex rc s s
15, 16 d 17).

atrix Products as Linear ombinations

R w d c um m r c s pr v d r v w y k g b u m r x mu p c . F r x mp , supp s

(10)

I w rds, 10 s us h pr duc f a ma ri A wi h a c lum ma ri x i a li ar c m i a i f h c lum ma ric

f A wi h h c ffici c mi g fr m h ma ri x. I x rc s s w sk r d r s w h pr duc fa
ma ri y wi h a ma ri A i a li ar c m i a i f h r w ma ric f A wi h calar c ffici c mi g fr m y.

EXAMPLE 8 Lin ar C bina i n

T m r x pr duc

c b wr s r c mb c um m r c s

T m r x pr duc

c b wr s r c mb r wm rc s

I ws r m 8 d 10 h j h c lum ma ri f a pr duc i a li ar c m i a i f h c lum ma ric f A wi h

h c ffici c mi g fr m h j h c lum f B.
EXAMPLE 9 C lu n a Pr duc a Lin ar C bina i n

W s w d Ex mp 5

T c um m r c s c b xpr ss d s r c mb s c um m r c s A s ws:

atrix Form of a Linear ystem

M r x mu p c s mp r pp c sys ms r qu s. C sd r y sys m m r qu s
u k w s.

S c w m r c s r qu d y r c rr sp d g r s r qu , w c r p c m qu s s
sys m by s g m r x qu

T m rx sd s qu c b wr s pr duc gv

I w d sg s m r c s by A, x, d b, r sp c v y, rg sys m m qu s u k w s sb
r p c d by s g m r x qu

T m rxA s qu sc d co ff c m x sys m. T ugm dm rx r sys m s b d

by dj gb A s s c um ; us ugm dm rx s
 atrices Defining Functions

T qu w A d gv d s r sys m b s v d r . Bu w c u d s wr s qu s
,w r A d r gv .I sc s ,w w c mpu . I A s , s s u c ss c sw
v ry c um v c r c um v c r , d w m y v w A s d g ru s ws w gv s
m pp d c rr sp d g . T s d s d scuss d m r d s r g S c 4.2.

EXAMPLE 0 A Func i n U ing Ma ric

C sd r w g m r c s.

T pr duc s

s c mu p y g A by c um v c r s c g sg s c d ry c um v c r. F r
m rx

pr duc s

s c mu p y g B by c um v c r s rc g rs ds c d r s c um v c r, s
c g g sg rs ry.

I w v w c um v c r s c g p p , c A s r c p b u
- x s (F gur 1.3.1a) w r s c B s r s gm r m rg p r ug rg g
(F gur 1.3.1 ).
 Figur .3.

ranspose of a atrix

W c c ud ss c by d g w m rx p r s v gs r umb rs.

DE FI N I TI O N

I A s y m r x, spos of A, d d by , s d d b m rx r su s r m
rc g g r ws d c um s A; s, rs c um s rs r w A, s c d c um s
s c d r w A, d s r .

EXAMPLE Tran p

T w g r s m x mp s m rc s d r r sp s s.

Obs rv y r c um s r ws A, bu r ws r c um s A. T us ry r wi
 d c um j s ry r wj d c um i A; s,

(11)

N r v rs subscr p s.

I sp c c s w r A s squ r m r x, r sp s Ac b b d by rc g g r s r
symm r c y p s d b u m d g . I 12 s s w c s b b d by “r c g” A b u s
m d g .

(12)

DE FI N I TI O N

I A s squ r m r x, c of A, d d by , sd d b sum r s m d g
A. T r c A su d d A s squ r m r x.

EXAMPLE 2 Trac a Ma rix

T w g r x mp s m rc s d r r c s.

Exe c se Se 1.3

C ck r r Jus Ask!

Supp s A, B, C, D, d r m rc sw w g s z s:
D rm w c w g m r x xpr ss s r d d. F r s r d d, g v sz r su g
m r x.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()

(g)

( )

S v w g m r x qu r a, , c, d d.

C sd r m rc s

C mpu w g (w r p ss b ).

( )
(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()

(g)

( )

()

(j)

(k)

()

Us g m rc s Ex rc s 3, c mpu w g (w r p ss b ).

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()
 (g)

( )

Us g m rc s Ex rc s 3, c mpu w g (w r p ss b ).

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

()

(g)

( )

()

(j)

(k)

Us g m rc s Ex rc s 3, c mpu w g (w r p ss b ).

( )

(b)
 (c)

(d)

( )

()

Us m d Ex mp 7 d

( ) rs r w

(b) rd r w

(c) s c d c um

(d) rs c um

( ) rd r w

() rd c um

L A dBb m rc s Ex rc s 7. Us m d Ex mp 9

( ) xpr ss c c um m r x s r c mb c um m r c s A

(b) xpr ss c c um m r x s r c mb c um m r c s B

L
9
 ( ) S w pr duc c b xpr ss d s r c mb r wm r c s Aw sc r
c c s c m g r m y.

(b) R s m d Ex mp 8.

H Us r sp s p r .

L A dBb m rc s Ex rc s 7.
0

( ) Us r su Ex rc s 9 xpr ss c r wm rx s r c mb r wm rc s B.

(b) Us r su Ex rc s 9 xpr ss c r wm rx s r c mb r wm rc s A.

L C, D, d b m rc s Ex rc s 3. Us g s w c mpu s s p ss b , d rm ry r w2 d
c um 3 .

( ) S w d r b d d, d r squ r m r c s.

(b) S w A s m rx d sd d, B s m r x.

I c p r, d m r c s A, x, db xpr ss gv sys m r qu s s s g m r x qu
.

( )

(b)

I c p r , xpr ss m r x qu s sys m r qu s.
 ( )

(b)

I A dB r p r d subm r c s, r x mp ,

c b xpr ss d s

pr v d d sz s subm r c s A d B r suc dc d p r s c b p r rm d. T s m d
mu p y g p r d m r c s s c d b ock m p c o . I c p r , c mpu pr duc by b ck
mu p c . C ck y ur r su s by mu p y g d r c y.

( )

(b)

Ad p m d Ex rc s 15 c mpu w g pr duc s by b ck mu p c .

( )

(b)
 (c)

I c p r , d rm w r b ck mu p c c b us d c mpu r m gv p r s. I s , c mpu
pr duc by b ck mu p c .

No S Ex rc s 15.

( )

(b)

( ) S w A s r w z r s dB s ym rx rw c sd d, s s r w z r s.

(b) F d s m r r su v v g c um z r s.

L Ab y m rx d 0b m rx c w s r s sz r .S w , r
9 .

L Ib m rxw s ry r wi d c um j s
0

S w r v ry m r x A.

I c p r, d m rx s s s s dc d . M k y ur sw rs s g r s p ss b by
us g rs r r sp c c umb rs r z r r s.
 ( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

F d m rx w s r ss sy s dc d .

( )

(b)

(c)

C sd r u c d d r m r c s by ,w r

P g rw c c s b w. H w w u d y u d scr b c f?

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)
L Ab m r x. S w u c d d r m r c s by s s s r y
pr p r y, r yr umb rs d d y m r c s w d z.

Pr v : I A dB r m r c s, .

D scr b r d r m ds r c mpu g m r x pr duc , d us r m ds by

c mpu g s m pr duc r d r w ys.

H wm y m rc sAc y u d suc

r c c s , , d z?

H wm y m rc sAc y u d suc

r c c s , , d z?

Am r x B ss d b s oo m rxA .
9

( )
F d w squ r r s .

(b)
H wm yd r squ r r sc y u d ?

(c) D y u k v ry m rx s s squ r r ? Exp y ur

r s g.

L 0d m r x, c w s r s sz r .
0

( ) Is r m r x A suc d ? Jus y y ur sw r.

(b) Is r m r x A suc d ? Jus y y ur sw r.

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r w
gc rgum r c u r x mp .
 ( ) T xpr ss s d r w ys d d, r g rd ss sz A.

(b) r v ry m r x A.

(c) I rs c um A s z r s, s d s rs c um v ry pr duc .

(d) I rs r w A s z r s, s d s rs r w v ry pr duc .

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r w
gc rgum r c u r x mp .

( ) I A s squ r m r x w w d c r ws, AA s w d c r ws.

(b) I A s squ r m r x d AA s c um z r s, A mus v c um

z r s.

(c) I B s m rxw s r s r p s v v g rs, d A s

m rxw s r s r p s v g rs, r s AB d BA r p s v
v g rs.

(d) I m r x sum sd d, A d B mus b squ r .

Supp s rr y

r pr s s rd rs p c d by r d v du s s - d r s ur . T rs p rs
rd rs 4 burg rs, 3 s d s, d 3 r s; s c d rd rs 2 burg rs d 1 s d , d rd
rd rs 4 burg rs, 4 s d s, d 2 r s. Burg rs c s $2 c , s d s $1 c , d r s $1.50
c .

( ) Argu m u s w d by s p rs s m y b r pr s d s u c
,w r s qu rr y g v b v m s c r v c r.

(b) C mpu m u s w d s c s by p r rm g ppr pr mu p c .

 (c) C g m rx r c s w c s c d p rs rd rs dd s d
d 2 r s, d r c mpu c s s.

opyright © 2005 John Wiley & ons, nc. ll rights reserved.

 .4 In hi c i n w ha di cu pr p r i h ari h ic p ra i n
n a ric . W ha ha an h ba ic ru ari h ic r r a
OF
nu b r a h d r a ric , bu a w d n .
MAT XA THM T C

Properties of Matrix Operations

F rr umb rs a d , w w ys v ,w c sc d c mmu a i law f r mul iplica i . F r m r c s,

w v r, AB d BA d b qu . Equ y c d r r r s s: I c pp pr duc AB s d d
bu BA s u d d. F r x mp , s s c s A s m rx dB s m r x. A s , c pp AB d
BA r b d d bu v d r s z s. T s s s u A s m rx dB s m r x. F y, s
Ex mp 1 s ws, s p ss b v v b AB d BA r d d d v s m sz .

EXAMPLE and N dN B Equal

C sd r m rc s

Mu p y g g v s

T us, .

A ug c mmu v w r mu p c s v d m r x r m c, m y m r ws r m c r v d
r m r c s. S m m s mp r s d r m s r summ r z d w g r m.

TH EOREM .4.

Pr p r i Ma rix Ari h ic

A umi g ha h iz f h ma ric ar uch ha h i dica d p ra i ca p rf rm d, h f ll wi g rul f

ma ri ari hm ic ar alid.

()

(b)

(c)
 (d)

()

()

(g)

( )

()

(j)

(k)

()

(m)

T pr v qu s s r m, w mus s w m rx sd s s m sz s m rx
rg sd d c rr sp d g r s w s d s r qu . W xc p ss c v w p r (c),
pr s w s m g r p r .W s pr v p r (d) s us r . T pr ss c v w, w c s
m r c mp c d, s u d x rc s s.

f (d) W mus sw d v sm sz d c rr sp d g r s r qu . T rm
, m r c s B d C mus v s m sz ,s y , d m r x A mus v m c um s, s s s z
mus b rm .T sm k s m r x. I ws s s m r x d,
c s qu y, d v sm sz .

Supp s , , d .W w s w c rr sp d g r s d r
qu ; s,

r v u s i d j. Bu r m d s m r x dd d m r x mu p c ,w v
 A ug p r s m r x dd d m r x mu p c w r d d r p rs m r c s, ss c v
ws ( ) d (c) b us d sums d pr duc s r m rc s s d ABC w u s r g y
p r s s. T s s jus d by c m r wp r s s r s r d, ss c v ws gu r
s m d r su w b b d. I g r , gi a um r a pr duc f ma ric , pair f par h ca i r d r
d l d a wh r wi hi h pr i wi h u aff c i g h d r ul .

EXAMPLE 2 A cia ivi Ma rix Mul iplica i n

As us r ss c v w r m r x mu p c ,c sd r

T us

s , s gu r d by T r m 1.4.1c.

Zero Matrices

A m r x, w s r s r z r , suc s

sc d z om x. A z r m r x w b d d by 0; s mp r mp s z sz ,w s wr r

z r m r x. M r v r, k p gw ur c v us g b d c symb s rm r c sw c um , w w
d z r m rxw c um by 0.

I A s ym rx d 0 s z r m rxw s m sz , s bv us .T m r x 0 p ys muc
s m r s m r x qu s s umb r 0 p ys um r c qu s .

S c w r dy k w s m ru s r m c rr umb rs d c rry v r m r x r m c, w u d b
rdy ssum pr p r s r umb r z r c rry v r z r m r c s. F r x mp , c s d r
w g w s d rd r su s r m c r umb rs.
 I d , . (T s s c d ca c lla i law.)

I , s c rs s 0.

As x x mp s ws, c rr sp d g r su s r g r y ru m rx r m c.

EXAMPLE 3 Th Canc lla i n Law D N H ld

C sd r m rc s

Y us udv r y

T us, ug , s i c rr c c c A r mb sd s qu d wr .As , ,
y d . T us, c c w s v d r m r x mu p c , d s p ss b r pr duc m rc s
b z r w u r c rb gz r .

I sp b v x mp , r r umb r m r pr p r s r umb r 0 d c rry v r z r m r c s.

S m m r mp r s r summ r z d x r m. T pr s r s x rc s s.

TH EOREM .4 .2

Pr p r i Z r Ma ric

A umi g ha h iz f h ma ric ar uch ha h i dica d p ra i ca p rf rm d, h f ll wi g rul f

ma ri ari hm ic ar alid.

()

(b)

(c)

(d) ;

dentity Matrices

O sp c r s r squ r m r c s w 1's m d g d 0's m d g , suc s

Am rx s rm s c d d ym x d sd d by I. I s mp r mp s z sz ,w s wr
r d y m r x.

I A s m r x, , s us r d x x mp ,

T us, d y m r x p ys muc s m r m rx r m c umb r 1 p ys um r c r s ps

.

EXAMPLE 4 Mul iplica i n b an Id n i Ma rix

C sd r m rx

As x r m s ws, d ym rc s rs ur y s udy g r duc d r w- c rms quar m r c s.

TH EOREM .4 .3

If R i h r duc d r w- ch l f rm f a ma ri A, h i h r R ha a r w f z r r R i h id i ma ri .

f Supp s r duc d r w- c rm A s

E r s r w sm r x c sss r y z r s r d s .I , m rxc s z r r ws, d

c s qu y c r ws s d g ry 1. S c s d g 1's ccur pr gr ss v y r r rg sw
m v d w m r x, c s 1's mus ccur m d g .S c r r s s m c um s
s 1's r z r , R mus b . T us, rR s r w z r s r .
 DEFINIT ION

I A s squ r m r x, d m rxB s m s z c b u d suc , A ss d b v b

dB sc d v s A. I suc m r x B c b u d, A ss d b s g .

EXAMPLE 5 V ri ing h Inv r R quir n

T m rx

s c

EXAMPLE 6 A Ma rix wi h N Inv r

T m rx

s s gu r. T s w y,

b y m r x. T rd c um s

T us

Properties of nverses

I sr s b sk w r v r b m rxc v m r v rs . T x r ms ws sw r s
 —a i r i l ma ri ha ac l i r .

TH EOREM .4 .4

If B a d C ar hi r f h ma ri A, h .

f S c B s v rs A, w v . Mu p y g b sd s rg by C g v s . Bu
,s .

As c s qu c s mp r r su , w c w sp k “ ” v rs v r b m r x. I A s v r b , s
v rs w b d d by symb . T us,

T v rs A p ys muc s m r m rx r m c r c pr c p ys um r c r s ps
d .

I x s c w s d v p m d r d g v rs s v r b m rc s ysz ; w v r, w g
r mgv sc d su d rw c m rx s v r b d pr v d s s mp rmu r v rs .

TH EOREM .4 .5

Th ma ri

is invertible if , in which case the inverse is given by the formula

f W v r r d r v r y d .

TH EOREM .4 .6

If A a d B ar i r i l ma ric f h am iz , h i i ri l a d
 f I w c s w , w w v s mu us y s w m rx
s vr b d . Bu . A s m r rgum
s ws .

A ug w w pr v , s r su c b x d d c ud r rm r c rs; s,

A pr duc fa um r f i r i l ma ric i i ri l ,a d h i r f h pr duc i h pr duc f h i r i

h r r rd r.

EXAMPLE 7 Inv r a Pr duc

C sd r m rc s

App y g rmu T r m 1.4.5, w b

As ,

T r r , , s gu r d by T r m 1.4.6.

Powers of a Matrix

N x,w s d p w rs squ r m r x d d scuss r pr p r s.

DEFINI TION

I A s squ r m r x, w d g v g r p w rs A b

M r v r, A s v r b , w d g v g r p w rs b

B c us sd p r s rr umb rs, usu ws xp s d. (W m d s.)

TH EOREM .4 .7

Law Exp n n

If A i a quar ma ri a d r a d ar i g r, h

T x r m pr v d s s m us u pr p r s g v xp s.

TH EOREM .4 .8

Law Exp n n

If A i a i r i l ma ri , h :

() i i ri l a d .

(b) i i ri l a d f r .

(c) F r a z r calar k, h ma ri i i ri l a d .

() S c , m rx s v r b d .

(b) T s p r s s x rc s .

(c) I k s y z r sc r, r su s (l) d (m) T r m 1.4.1 b us wr

imilarly, so that is invertible and .

EXAMPLE 8 P w r a Ma rix
L A d b s Ex mp 7; s,

Polynomial xpressions nvolving Matrices

I A s squ r m r x, s y , d

(1)

s yp y m , w d

w r I s d y m r x. I w rds, s m rx r su s w A s subs u d r 1 d s
r p c d by .

EXAMPLE 9 Ma rix P l n ial

Properties of the Transpose

T x r m ss m pr p r s r sp s pr .

TH EOREM .4 .9

Pr p r i h Tran p

If h iz f h ma ric ar uch ha h a d p ra i ca p rf rm d, h

()
 (b) a d

(c) , wh r k i a calar

(d)

I w k p m d r sp s g m rx rc g s s r ws d c um s, p r s (a), ( ), d (c) s u d b s - v d .
F r x mp , p r (a) s s rc g g r ws d c um s w c v s m r x u c g d; p r ( ) ss r s dd g
d rc g g r ws d c um s y ds s m r su s rs rc g g r ws d c um s d dd g; d
p r (c) ss rs mu p y g by sc r d rc g g r ws d c um s y ds s m r su s rs
rc g g r ws d c um s d mu p y g by sc r. P r (d) s s bv us, s w g v s pr .

f (d) L d s pr duc s d c b b rm d. W v r
r d r c ck d v sm sz , m y . T us yr m s s w c rr sp d g
r s d r s m ; s,

(2)

Applying Formula 11 of ection 1.3 to the left side of this equation and using the definition of matrix
multiplication, we obtain

(3)

To evaluate the right side of 2, it will be convenient to let and denote the th entries of and
, respectively, so

From these relationships and the definition of matrix multiplication, we obtain

This, together with 3, proves 2.

A ug w s pr v , p r (d) s r mc b x d d c ud r rm r c rs; s,

Th ra p f a pr duc fa um r f ma ric i qual h pr duc f h ir ra p i h r r rd r.

N sm r yb w s r su d r su w gT r m 1.4.6 b u v rs pr duc
m r c s.
 nvertibility of a Transpose

T w g r m s b s s r s pb w v rs v r b m rx d v rs s r sp s .

TH EOREM .4. 0

If A i a i r i l ma ri , h i al i ri l a d

(4)

f W c pr v v r b y d b 4 by s w g

But from part ( ) of Theorem 1.4.9 and the fact that , we have

which completes the proof.

EXAMPLE 0 V ri ing Th r .4. 0

C sd r m rc s

App y g T r m 1.4.5 y ds

As gu r d by T r m 1.4.10, s m r c s s s y 4.

Exe c se Se 1.4

C ck r r Jus Ask!

L
S w

()

(b)

(c)

(d)

Us g m rc s d sc rs Ex rc s 1, v r y

()

(b)

(c)

(d)

Us g m rc s d sc rs Ex rc s 1, v r y

()

(b)

(c)

(d)

Us T r m 1.4.5 c mpu v rs s w g m r c s.
 ()

(b)

(c)

(d)

Us m rc sA dB Ex rc s 4 v r y

()

(b)

Us m r c s A, B, dC Ex rc s 4 v r y

()

(b)

I c p r , us gv rm d A.

L A b( ) m rx

C mpu , , d .
(b)
L Ab m rx
9

(c)
I c p r, d .

(d)
()
 (b)

(c)

L , , d .
0

() S w r m rxA Ex rc s 9.

(b) S w r y squ r m r x A.

F d v rs

F d v rs

C sd r m rx

w r .S w A s v r b d d s v rs .

S w squ r m r x A s s s , .

() S w m rxw r w z r sc v v rs .

(b) S w m rxw c um z r sc v v rs .

Is sum w v r b m rc s c ss r y v r b ?

L A d B b squ r m r c s suc .S w A s v r b , .
 L A, B, d0b m r c s. Assum g A s v r b , d m r x C suc

s v rs pr dm rx

(S Ex rc s 15 pr c d g s c .)

Us r su Ex rc s 18 d v rs s w g m r c s.
9

()

(b)

0
() F d z r m r x A suc .

(b) F d z r m r x A suc .

A squ r m r x A s c d symm c d sk w-symm c .S w B s squ r m r x,

() d r symm r c

(b) s sk w-symm r c

I A s squ r m r x d s p s v g r, s ru ? Jus y y ur sw r.

L Ab m rx

D rm w rA s v r b , d s , d s v rs .
 H S v by qu g c rr sp d g r s w s d s.

Pr v :

() p r ( ) T r m 1.4.1

(b) p r (i) T r m 1.4.1

(c) p r (m) T r m 1.4.1

App y p r s (d) d (m) T r m 1.4.1 m r c s A, B, d d rv r su p r (f).

Pr v T r m 1.4.2.

C sd r ws xp s d .

() S w A s y squ r m r x, s ws r v d r g v g rv u s r d .

(b) S w A s v r b , s ws d r g v g rv u s r d .

S w A s v r b dk s y z r sc r, r g rv u s .

9
() S w A s v r b d , .

(b) Exp w yp r ( ) d Ex mp 3 d c r dc r.

Pr v p r (c) T r m 1.4.1.
0
H Assum A s ,B s , dC s .T ry sd s
d ry rg sd s
.V r y .

L A d B b squ r m r c s w s m sz .
 ( ) Gv x mp w c .

(b) F b k cr m rx d y sv d r c c s A d B.
_________ .

L A d B b squ r m r c s w s m sz .

( ) Gv x mp w c .

(b) L A d B b squ r m r c s w s m sz . F b k cr m rx
d y sv d r c c s A d B. _________ .

I r umb r sys m qu s x c y w s u s. F d s g
d r m rc s s sy qu .

H L k rs u s w c r s m d g r z r .

As m rm “I p, q” s g c y qu v sm “I q,
p.” (T s c d s m sc d og c co pos v rs .) F r x mp ,
gc c r p s v s m “I sr g, gr u d s w ” s “I gr u d
s w , s r g.”

() F d gc c r p s v w gs m :I s s gu r, A s
s gu r.

(b) Is s m ru r s ? Exp .

L A dBb m r c s. I d c w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s
Jus y c sw r.

()

(b)

(c)
 (d) .

Assum g m rc s r d v r b ,s v r D.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & ons, nc. All rights reserved.
 .5 In hi c i n w ha d v p an a g ri h r inding h inv r an
C S inv r ib a rix. W ha a di cu h ba ic pr p r i
D HOD FO inv r ib a ric .
F D G

W b g w d sp c yp m rx c b us d c rry u m ry r w p r by m r x
mu p c .

D EF I N I TI O N

A m rx sc d m ym x c b b d r m d ym rx by p r rm g s g
m ry r w p r .

EXAMPLE El n ar Ma ric and R w Op ra i n

Ls db w r ur m ry m r c s d p r s pr duc m.

W m r x A s mu p d l f by m ry m r x , c s p r rm m ry r w p r A.
T s s c w g r m, pr w c s r x rc s s.

TH E O R E M .5.

R w Op ra i n b Ma rix Mul iplica i n

If h l m ar ma ri r ul fr m p rf rmi g a c r ai r w p ra i a d if A i a ma ri , h h pr duc
i h ma ri ha r ul wh hi am r w p ra i i p rf rm d A.
EXAMPLE 2 U ing El n ar Ma ric

C sd r m rx

dc sd r m ry m r x

w c r su s r m dd g 3 m s rs r w rd r w. T pr duc s

w c s pr c s y s m m rx r su s w w dd 3 m s rs r w A rd r w.

T r m 1.5.1 s pr m r y r c r s d w b us d r d v p g s m r su s b u m r c s d sys ms
r qu s. C mpu y, s pr r b p r rm r w p r sdr c yr r mu p y g by
m ry m r x.

I m
ry r w p r s pp d d y m r x I pr duc m ry m r x , r s s c dr w
p r ,w pp d , pr duc s I b ck g . F r x mp , s b d by mu p y g i r w I by
z r c s c, Ic b r c v r d i r w s mu p d by . T v r us p ss b s r s d T b 1.
T p r s rg sd s b r c d v s op o s c rr sp d g p r s .

Tabl

Row Operation on I That Produces E Row Operation on E That Reproduces I

Mu p y r w i by Mu p y r w i by

I rc g r ws i dj I rc g r ws i dj

Add c m s r w i r wj Add m sr wi r wj

EXAMPLE 3 R w Op ra i n and Inv r R w Op ra i n

I c w g, m ry r w p r s pp d d ym rx b m ry m r x ,
sr s r d d y m r x by pp y g v rs r w p r .
T x r mgv s mp r pr p r y m ry m r c s.

TH E O R E M .5.2

r l m ar ma ri i i ri l ,a d h i r i al a l m ar ma ri .

f I s m ry m r x, r su s r m p r rm g s m r w p r I. L b m rx r su s
w v rs s p r s p r rm d I. App y g T r m 1.5.1 d us g c v rs r w p r s
c c c c r, ws

hus, the elementary matrix is the inverse of .

T x r m s b s ss m u d m r s ps m g v r b y, m g us r sys ms, r duc d

r w- c rms, d m ry m r c s. T s r su s r x r m y mp r dw b us d m y m s rs c s.

TH E O R E M .5.3

Equival n a n

If A i a ma ri , h h f ll wi g a m ar qui al , ha i , all ru r all fal .

( ) Ai i ri l .
 (b) ha l h ri ial lu i .

(c) Th r duc d r w- ch l f rm f A i .

(d) A i pr i l a a pr duc f l m ar ma ric .

f W s pr v qu v c by s b s g c mp c s: (a) ( ) (c) (d) (a).

( ) (b) Assum A s v r b d b ys u ; us . Mu p y g b sd s s qu by
m rx gv s , r , r , r . T us, s y rv
s u .

(b) (c) L b m rx rm sys m

(1)

and assume that the system has only the trivial solution. f we solve by Gauss–Jordan
elimination, then the system of equations corresponding to the reduced row-echelon form of
the augmented matrix will be

(2)

T us ugm dm rx

r1c b r duc d ugm dm rx

r 2 by s qu c m ry r w p r s. I w d sr g rd s c um ( z r s) c s m r c s,
w c c c ud r duc d r w- c rm A s .

(c) (d) Assum r duc d r w- c rm A s ,s A c b r duc d by s qu c m ry

r w p r s. By T r m 1.5.1, c s p r s c b cc mp s d by mu p y g by
ppr pr m ry m r x. T us w c d m ry m r c s , , …, suc
 (3)

By heorem 1.5.2, , , …, are invertible. ultiplying both sides of quation 3 on the left
successively by , …, , we obtain

(4)

By heorem 1.5.2, this equation expresses as a product of elementary matrices.

(d) ( ) I A s pr duc m ry m r c s, r mT r ms T r m 1.4.6 dT r m 1.5.2, m rxA s

pr duc v r b m rc s d c s v r b .

ow quivalence

I m r xBc b b d r m m r x A by p r rm g s qu c m ry r w p r s, bv us y w
c g r m B b ck A by p r rm g v rs s s m ry r w p r s r v rs rd r. M r c s c b
b d r m r by s qu c m ry r w p r s r s d b ow v .W s
rm gy, ws r m p r s (a) d (c) T r m3 m rxA s v r b d y s r w qu v
d y m r x.

ethod for nverting atrices

As ur rs pp c T r m 3, w s s b s m d rd rm g v rs v r b m r x.
Mu p y g 3 rg by y ds

(5)

w c s us c b b d by mu p y g succ ss v y by m ry m r c s , , …, .
S c c mu p c by s m ry m r c s p r rms r w p r , ws, by c mp r g
Equ s 3 d 5, h qu c f r w p ra i ha r duc A will r duc . T us w v w g
r su :

T fi d h i r f a i r i l ma ri A, w mu fi d a qu c f l m ar r w p ra i ha r duc A h
id i a d h p rf rm hi am qu c f p ra i ai .

A s mp m d r c rry g u s pr c dur s g v w g x mp .

EXAMPLE 4 U ing R w Op ra i n Find

F d v rs
W w r duc A d y m r x by r w p r s d s mu us y pp y s p r s I pr duc .T
cc mp s sw s dj d ym rx rg sd A, r by pr duc g m r x rm

T w s pp y r w p r s sm rxu sd s r duc d I; s p r sw c v r rg sd
,s m r xw v rm

T c mpu s r s ws:

T us,

O w b k w dv c w r gv m rx s v r b .I m rxA s v r b , c b
r duc d by m ry r w p r s [p r (c) T r m 3]. S d r w y, r duc d r w- c rm A s
s r w z r s. T us, pr c dur s x mp s mp d m rx s v r b , s m
p c mpu s r w z r sw ccur l f id . I c b c c ud d gv m rx s
vr b , d c mpu s c b s pp d.

EXAMPLE 5 h wing Tha a Ma rix I N Inv r ibl

C sd r m rx
App y g pr c dur Ex mp 4 y ds

S c w v b d r w z r s sd ,A s v r b .

EXAMPLE 6 AC n qu nc Inv r ibili

I Ex mp 4 w s w d

s v r b m r x. Fr m T r m 3, ws m g us sys m

s y rv s u .

Exe c se Se 1.5

C ck r r Jus Ask!

W c w g r m ry m r c s?

( )

(b)
 (c)

(d)

( )

()

(g)

F d r w p r w r s r gv m ry m r x d y m r x.

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

C sd r m rc s
 F d m ry m r c s , , , d suc

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

I Ex rc s 3 s p ss b d m ry m r x suc ? Jus y y ur sw r.

I m r x s mu p d by gv m r c s, w m ry r w p r s p r rm d m r x?

( )

(b)

(c)

I Ex rc s s 6–8 us m ds w Ex mp s Ex mp 4 d Ex mp 5 d v rs gv m rx
m rx s v r b , d c ck y ur sw r by mu p c .

( )

(b)

(c)
( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

( )

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)
 ( )

F d v rs c w g m r c s, w r , , , , dk r z r .
9

( )

(b)

(c)

C sd r m rx
0

( ) F d m ry m r c s d suc .

(b) Wr s pr duc w m ry m r c s.

(c) Wr A s pr duc w m ry m r c s.

I c p r , p r rm s dr w p r

by mu p y g A by su b m ry m r x. C ck y ur sw r c c s by p r rm g r w
p r dr c y A.
 ( ) I rc g rs d rd r ws.

(b) Mu p y s c d r w by .

(c) Add w c s c dr w rs r w.

Wr m rx

s pr duc m ry m r c s.

No T r s m r c rr c s u .

( ) F d m ry m r c s , , d suc .

(b) Wr A s pr duc m ry m r c s.

Expr ss m rx

rm ,w r , F, dG r m ry m r c s dR s r w- c rm.

S w

s m ry m r x, s ry rd r w mus b z r .

S w

s v r b r yv u s r s.

Pr v A s m r x, r s v r b m r x C suc s r duc d r w- c rm.

 Pr v A s v r b m rx d B s r w qu v A, B s s v r b .

9
( ) Pr v : I A dB r m r c s, A d B r r w qu v d y A dB v s m r duc d
r w- c rm.

(b) S w A d B r r w qu v , d d s qu c m ry r w p r s pr duc s B r m A.

Pr v T r m 1.5.1.
0

Supp s A ss m u k w v r b m r x, bu y u k w s qu c m ry r w
p r s pr duc s d ym rxw pp d succ ss A. Exp wy uc
us k w rm d A.

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r w
gc rgum r c u r x mp .

( ) Ev ry squ r m r x c b xpr ss d s pr duc m ry m r c s.

(b) T pr duc w m ry m r c s s m ry m r x.

(c) I A s v r b d mu p rs r w A s dd d s c d r w,
r su g m r x s v r b .

(d) I A s v r b d , mus b ru .

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y y ur sw r w
gc rgum r c u r x mp .

( ) I A s s gu r m r x, s ym ys u s.

(b) I A s s gu r m r x, r duc d r w- c rm A s s r w
z r s.
 (c) I s xpr ss b s pr duc m ry m r c s, m g us r
sys m s y rv s u .

(d) I A s s gu r m r x, d B r su s by rc g g w r ws A, Bm y r
m y b s gu r.

D y u k r s m r x A suc

r v u s a, , c, d d? Exp y ur r s g.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, nc. ll rights reserved.

 .6
N In hi c i n w ha ab i h r r u ab u in ar qua i n
and inv r ibi i a ric . Our w rk wi ad a n w h d r ving n
Y M qua i n in n unkn wn .
Q A I N AND
INV IBI I Y

A Basic heorem

I S c 1.1 w m d s m (b s d F gur 1.1.1) v ry r sys m s s u s, r s s u , r s

ym y s u s. W r w p s pr v s u d m r su .

THE OREM . 6.

r m f li ar qua i ha lu i , r ha ac l lu i , r ha i fi i l ma lu i .

f I s sys m r qu s, x c y w g s ru : ( ) sys m s s u s, (b) sys m

s x c y s u , r (c) sys m sm r s u . T pr w b c mp w c s w sys m
s ym ys u s c s (c).

Assum sm r s u , d ,w r d r y w ds c s u s. B c us
d r ds c, m rx s z r ; m r v r,

I w w kb y sc r,

Bu s s ys s s u .S c s z r d r r ym yc c s r k, sys m
s ym ys u s.

olving inear ystems by Matrix Inversion

T us r, w v s ud d w m ds r s v g r sys ms: G uss m d G uss–J rd m .T

w g r m pr v d s wm d rs v gc r r sys ms.

THE OREM . 6. 2

If A i a i ri l ma ri , h f r ach ma ri b, h m f qua i ha ac l lu i , am l ,
.
 f S c , ws s s u .T s w s s ys u ,w w ssum
s rb r ry s u d s w mus b s u .

I s ys u , . Mu p y g b s d s by ,w b .

EXAMPLE lu i n a Lin ar U ing

C sd r sys m r qu s

I m rx rm s sys m c b wr s ,w r

I Ex mp 4 pr c d g s c ,w s w d A s v r b d

By T r m 1.6.2, s u sys m s

r , , .

N m d Ex mp 1 pp s yw sys m s s m y qu s su k w s d c c m rx s
v r b .T sm d s ss c , c mpu y, G uss m , bu s mp r ys s qu s
v v g m r c s.

inear ystems with a Common Coefficient Matrix

Fr qu y, sc c r dw s v g s qu c sys ms

c w c s s m squ r c c m r x A. I A s v r b , s u s

c b b dw m r x v rs d k m r x mu p c s. O c g , w v r, m r c m d s rm
m rx

(1)

w c c c m r x A s “ ugm d” by k m rc s , , …, , d r duc 1 r duc d r w- c

rm by G uss–J rd m .I sw yw c s v k sys ms c .T sm d s dd d dv g
pp s v w A s v r b .
EXAMPLE 2 lving Tw Lin ar a Onc

S v sys ms

( )

(b)

T w sys ms v s m c c m r x. I w ugm sc c m rxw c um s c s s rg

sd s s sys ms, w b

R duc g sm rx r duc d r w- c rm y ds (v r y)

I ws r m s w c um s s u sys m ( ) s , , d s u sys m (b) s ,

, .

Properties of Invertible Matrices

Up w, s w m rxA s v r b , sb c ss ry d m r x B suc

T x r ms ws w pr duc m rxBs sy g ih rc d , rc d ds
u m c y.

THE OREM . 6. 3

L A a quar ma ri .

( ) If B i a quar ma ri ai f i g , h .

(b) If B i a quar ma ri ai f i g , h .
W s pr v p r (a) d v p r ( ) s x rc s .

f ( ) Assum .I w c s w A s v r b , pr c b c mp d by mu p y g b sd s
by b

o show that is invertible, it suffices to show that the system has only the trivial solution (see
heorem 3). et be any solution of this system. If we multiply both sides of on the left by , we
obtain or or . hus, the system of equations has only the trivial solution.

W r w p s dd w m r s m s r qu v ur g v T r m 3.

THE OREM . 6. 4

Equival n a n

If A i a ma ri , h h f ll wi g ar qui al .

( ) Ai i ri l .

(b) ha l h ri ial lu i .

(c) Th r duc d r w- ch l f rm f A i .

(d) A i pr i l a a pr duc f l m ar ma ric .

( ) i c i f r r ma ri b.

() ha ac l lu i f r r ma ri b.

f S c w pr v d T r m3 (a), ( ), (c), d (d) r qu v , w b su c pr v (a) (f) ( )

(a).

( ) (f) T s w s r dy pr v d T r m 1.6.2.

(f) ( ) T s ss - vd :I s x c y s u r v ry m r x b, sc ss r v ry
m r x b.

( ) ( ) I sys m sc ss r v ry m r x b, p r cu r, sys ms
 are consistent. et , , …, be solutions of the respective systems, and let us form an
matrix having these solutions as columns. hus has the form

As discussed in ection 1.3, the successive columns of the product will be

hus

By p r ( ) T r m 1.6.3, ws . T us, A s v r b .

W k w r m r r w rk v r b m rx c rs pr duc v r b pr duc . T w g r m, w c w b
pr v d r, ks c v rs : I s ws pr duc squ r m r c s s v r b , c rs ms v s mus b
vr b .

THE OREM . 6. 5

L Aa dB quar ma ric f h am iz . If i i ri l , h A a d B mu al i ri l .

I ur r w rk w g u d m pr b m w ccur r qu y v r us c x s.

Fund nt l bl : L Ab x d m r x. F d m r c s b suc sys m qu s s

c ss .

I A s v r b m r x, T r m 1.6.2 c mp y s v s s pr b m by ss r g r r m r x b, r
sys m s u qu s u .I A s squ r , r A s squ r bu v r b , T r m 1.6.2 d s
pp y. I s c s s m r x b mus usu y s s y c r c d s rd r r b c ss .T w g x mp
us r s w m m ds S c 1.2 c b us d d rm suc c d s.

EXAMPLE 3 D r ining C n i nc b Eli ina i n

W c d s mus , , d s sy rd r r sys m qu s

b c ss ?
T ugm dm rx s

w c c b r duc d r w- c rm s ws:

I s w vd r m rd r w m rx sys m s s u d y , , d s sy c d

T xpr ss sc d r w y, sc ss d y b s m rx rm

w r d r rb r ry.

EXAMPLE 4 D r ining C n i nc b Eli ina i n

W c d s mus , , d s sy rd r r sys m qu s

b c ss ?

T ugm dm rx s

R duc g s r duc d r w- c rm y ds (v r y)
I sc s r r r src s , , d ; s, gv sys m s u qu s u

r b.

B c us sys m pr c d g x mp s c s s r b, ws r m T r m 1.6.4 A s
vr b .W v r r d r v r y rmu s (3) c s b b d by c cu g .

Exe c se Se 1.6

C ck r r Jus Ask!

I Ex rc s s 1–8 s v sys m by v r g c c m rx d us g T r m 1.6.2.

S v w gg r sys m by v r g c c m rx d us g T r m 1.6.2.
9
 Us r su g rmu s d s u

( ) , ,

(b) , ,

(c) , ,

S v r sys ms Ex rc s 9 us g m d Ex mp 2.
0

I Ex rc s s 11–14 us m d Ex mp 2 s v sys ms p r s s mu us y.

( ) ,

(b) ,

( ) , ,

(b) , ,
 ( ) ,

(b) ,

(c) ,

(d) ,

( ) , ,

(b) , ,

(c) , ,

T m d Ex mp 2 c b us d r r sys ms w ym ys u s. Us m d s v sys ms
b p rs s m m .

( )

(b)

I Ex rc s s 16–19 dc d s b's mus s s y r sys m b c ss .

9

C sd r m rc s
0

( ) S w qu c b r wr s d us s r su s v r x.

(b) S v .

S v w g m r x qu r X.

I c p r , d rm w r m g us sys m s rv s u (w u us g p c d p p r); s
w r gv m rx s vr b .

( )

(b)

L b m g us sys m r qu s u k w s s y rv s u .S w k s
yp s v g r, sys m s s y rv s u .

L b m g us sys m r qu s u k w s, d Qb v r b m r x. S w
s jus rv s u d y s jus rv s u .

L b yc ss sys m r qu s, d b x ds u .S w v ry s u sys m
c b wr rm ,w r s s u .S w s v ry m r x s rm s s u .
 Us p r (a) T r m 1.6.3 pr v p r ( ).

W r src s mus b p c d d r w gm rc s b v r b ?

( )

(b)

(c)

( ) I A s m rx d b s m r x, w c d s w u d y u mp s sur
qu s u qu s u r x?

(b) Assum g y ur c d s r s s d, d rmu r s u rms

ppr pr v rs .

Supp s A s v r b m r x. Mus sys m qu s v u qu

9 s u ? Exp y ur r s g.

Is p ss b v w u Bb g v rs A? Exp y ur r s g.
0

Cr r m by r wr gT r m 1.6.5 c r p s v rm (s Ex rc s 34 S c 1.4).

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & ons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 .7 In hi c i n w ha c n id r c r ain c a a ric ha hav p cia
r . Th a ric ha w ud in hi c i n ar a ng h
i p r an kind a ric nc un r d in in ar a g bra and wi ari in
U an di r n ing hr ugh u h x.
SYMME CM CES

iagonal Matrices

A squ r m r x w c r s m d g r z r sc d d go m x. H r r s m x mp s:

Ag r d g m r x Dc b wr s

(1)

Ad g m rx s v r b d y sd g r s r zr ; sc s v rs 1 s

T r d rs udv r y .

P w rs d g m rc s r sy c mpu ; w v r r d r v r y D s d g m r x1 dk s
p s v g r,

EXAMPLE Inv r and P w r Diag nal Ma ric

I
M r x pr duc s v v d g c rs r sp c y sy c mpu . F r x mp ,

I w rds, mul ipl a ma ri A h l f a diag al ma ri D, ca mul ipl ucc i r w fA h ucc i

diag al ri f D, a d mul ipl A h righ D, ca mul ipl ucc i c lum fA h ucc i diag al
ri f D.

riangular Matrices

A squ r m r x w c r s b v m d g r z r sc d ow g , d squ r m r x
w c r sb w m d g r z r s c d pp g .Am r x s r upp r r gu r r
w r r gu r s c d g .

EXAMPLE 2 Upp r and L w r Triangular Ma ric

Obs rv d g m rc s r b upp r r gu r d w r r gu r s c y v z r sb w d b v
m d g . Obs rv s quar m r x r w- c rm s upp r r gu r s c sz r sb w m
d g .

T w g r ur us u c r c r z s r gu r m r c s. T r d rw d s ruc v v r y
m r c s Ex mp 2 v s d pr p r s.

A squ r m r x s upp r r gu r d y i r ws rsw z r s.

A squ r m r x s w r r gu r d y j c um s r s w z r s.
 A squ r m r x s upp r r gu r d y r .

A squ r m r x s w r r gu r d y r .

T w g r m sss m b s c pr p r s r gu r m r c s.

TH E O RE M .7.

( ) Th ra p f a l w r ria gular ma ri i upp r ria gular, a d h ra p f a upp r ria gular ma ri i

l w r ria gular.

(b) Th pr duc f l w r ria gular ma ric i l w r ria gular, a d h pr duc f upp r ria gular ma ric i upp r
ria gular.

(c) A ria gular ma ri i i r i l if a d l if i diag al ri ar all z r .

(d) Th i r f a i r i l l w r ria gular ma ri i l w r ria gular, a d h i r fa i r i l upp r

ria gular ma ri i upp r ria gular.

P r (a) s v d r m c r sp s g squ r m r x c b cc mp s d by r c g r s b u m
d g ;w m rm pr . W w pr v ( ), bu w w d r pr s (c) d (d) x c p r, w r w
w v s pr v s r su s m r c y.

f (b) W w pr v r su r w r r gu r m r c s; pr r upp r r gu r m r c s s s m r. L
d b w r r gu r m r c s, d b pr duc . Fr m r m rk pr c d g
s r m, w c pr v C s w r r gu r by s w g r . Bu r m d m rx
mu p c ,

f we assume that then the terms in this expression can be grouped as follows:

n the first grouping all of the factors are zero since is lower triangular and in the second
grouping all of the factors are zero since is lower triangular. hus which is what we
wanted to prove.
EXAMPLE 3 Upp r Triangular Ma ric

C sd r upp r r gu r m r c s

T m rxA s v r b ,s c sd g r s r z r , bu m rxB s .W v r r d r c cu
v rs A by m d S c 1.5 ds w

T s v rs s upp r r gu r, s gu r d by p r (d) T r m 1.7.1. W s v r r d r c ck

pr duc s

T s pr duc s upp r r gu r, s gu r d by p r ( ) T r m 1.7.1.

Symmetric Matrices

A squ r m r x A s c d symm c .

EXAMPLE 4 ric Ma ric

T w g m r c s r symm r c, s c c s qu s w r sp s (v r y).

I s sy r c g z symm r c m r c s by sp c :T r s m d g m yb rb r ry, bu s s w
2,“m rr r m g s” r s cr ss m d g mus b qu .

(2)

T s ws r m c r sp s g squ r m r x c b cc mp s d by rc g g r s r symm r c y
p s d b u m d g . Expr ss d rms d v du r s, m r x s symm r c d y
r v u s i d j. As us r d Ex mp 4, d g m r c s r symm r c.

T w g r m ss m g br c pr p r s symm r c m r c s. T pr s r dr c c s qu c s
T r m 1.4.9 d r r r d r.
TH E O RE M . 7.2

If A a d B ar mm ric ma ric wi h h am iz , a d if k i a calar, h :

( ) i mm ric.

(b) a d ar mm ric.

(c) i mm ric.

I s ru , g r , pr duc symm r c m r c s s symm r c. T s w y s ss , A dBb

symm r c m r c s w s m sz .T r m p r (d) T r m 1.4.9 d symm ry, w v

S c d r usu y qu , ws w usu y b symm r c. H w v r, sp c c s w r

, pr duc w b symm r c. I A d B r m r c s suc , w s y A d B comm . I
summ ry: Th pr duc f w mm ric ma ric i mm ric if a d l if h ma ric c mmu .

EXAMPLE 5 Pr duc ric Ma ric

T rs w g qu s s ws pr duc symm r c m r c s i symm r c, d s c d s ws

pr duc symm r c m r c s i symm r c. W c c ud c rs rs qu d c mmu , bu s
s c d qu d .W v r r d r v r y s ss .

I g r , symm r c m r x d b v r b ; r x mp , squ r z r m r x s symm r c, bu v r b .

H w v r, symm r c m r x s v r b , v rs s s symm r c.

TH E O RE M . 7.3

If A i a i ri l mm ric ma ri , h i mm ric.

f Assum A s symm r c d v r b . Fr m T r m 1.4.10 d c ,w v

which proves that is symmetric.

Products and

M r x pr duc s rm d rs v r y pp c s. I A s m r x, s m r x,
s pr duc s d r b squ r m r c s— m r x ssz , d m rx ssz .
Suc pr duc s r w ys symm r c s c

EXAMPLE 6 Th Pr duc a Ma rix and I Tran p I ric

L Ab m rx

Obs rv d r symm r c s xp c d.

L r s x,w w b g r c d s Au d rw c d r v r b . H w v r, sp c c s
w r A s quar , w v w g r su .

TH E O RE M . 7.4

If A i a i r i l ma ri , h a d ar al i ri l .

f S c A s v r b ,s s by T r m 1.4.10. T us d r v r b ,s c y r pr duc s
v r b m r c s.

Exe c se Se 1.7

C ck r r Jus Ask!
D rm w r m rx s v r b ; s , d v rs by sp c .

( )

(b)

(c)

C mpu pr duc by sp c .

( )

(b)

F d , , d by sp c .

( )

(b)

W c w g m r c s r symm r c?

( )
 (b)

(c)

(d)

By sp c ,d rm w r gv r gu r m r x s v r b .

( )

(b)

F d v u s a, , dc r w c A s symm r c.

F d v u s a d rw c A dB r b v r b .

Us gv qu d rm by sp c w r m rc s c mmu .

( )

(b)
 S w A d B c mmu .
9

F d d g m rxA s s s
0

( )

(b)

( ) F c rA rm ,w r D s d g m r x.

(b) Is y ur c rz y p ss b ? Exp .

V r yT r m 1.7.1 r pr duc ,w r

V r yT r m 1.7.1d r m rc sA dB Ex rc s 12.

V r yT r m 1.7.3 r gv m r x A.

( )

(b)

L Ab symm r c m r x.
 ( ) S w s symm r c.

(b) S w s symm r c.

L Ab symm r c m r x.

( ) S w s symm r c k s y g v g r.

(b) I s p y m , s c ss r y symm r c? Exp .

L Ab upp r r gu r m r x, d b p y m . Is c ss r y upp r r gu r? Exp .

Pr v : I , A s symm r c d .

F d 3 ×3 d g m rc sA s sy .
9

L b m r x. D rm w r A s symm r c.
0

( )

(b)

(c)

(d)

O b s s y ur xp r c w 20, d v s g r s c b pp d rmu r d rm w r
s symm r c.

A squ r m r x A s c d sk w-symm c . Pr v :

( ) I A s v r b sk w-symm r c m r x, s sk w-symm r c.
 (b) I A d B r sk w-symm r c, s r , , , d r y sc r k.

(c) Ev ry squ r m r x A c b xpr ss d s sum symm r c m r x d sk w-symm r c m r x.

H N d y .

W s w d x pr duc symm r c m r c s s symm r c d y m r c s c mmu . Is

pr duc c mmu g sk w-symm r c m r c s sk w-symm r c? Exp .

No S Ex rc s 22 r rm gy.

I m rx Ac b xpr ss d s ,w r L s w r r gu r m r x d U s upp r r gu r m r x,
r sys m c b xpr ss d s dc b s v d w s ps:

S p 1. L ,s c b xpr ss d s .S v s sys m.

S p 2. S v sys m r x.

I c p r , us s w -s p m d s v gv sys m.

( )

(b)

F d upp r r gu r m r x s s s

W s m x mum umb r ds c r s symm r c m r x c v ?

Exp y ur r s g.

I v d pr v r m d scr b s w mu p y w d g m r c s.

Supp s A s squ r m r x d D s d g m r x suc .W c y us y

b u m r x A? Exp y ur r s g.
 9
( ) M k up c ss r sys m v qu s v u k w s s w r
r gu r c c m rxw z r s rb w m d g .

(b) D v s c pr c dur r s v g y ur sys m by d.

(c) I v ppr pr m r y ur pr c dur .

I dc w r s m s w ys ru rs m m s s . Jus y c sw r.
0

( ) I s s gu r, s s A.

(b) I s symm r c, s r A d B.

(c) I A s m rx d s y rv s u , s d s .

(d) I s symm r c, s s A.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons nc. ll rights reserved.

Ch p e 1

Supple e y Exe c ses

Us G uss–J rd m s v r d rms d .

Us G uss–J rd m s v r d rms d .

F d m g us r sys m w w qu s r mu p s r d suc

r s u s sys m.

Ab x c gp s, ck s, ddm s s 13 c sw v u 83 c s. H w m y c s c yp
r b x?

F dp s v g rs s sy

F r w c v u (s) ad s w g sys m v z r s u s? O s u ?I ym ys u s?

b ugm dm rx r r sys m. F d rw v u s a d sys m s

( ) u qu s u .

(b) -p r m rs u .
 (c) w -p r m rs u .

(d) s u .

S v r , , d z.

F d m r x K suc gv
9

H ws ud c c s a, , d cb c s s sys m
0

s s u , , d ?

I c p r,s v m r x qu r X.

( )

(b)

(c)

( ) Expr ss qu s
 x fo s .T us s o ob c l o s p
b w .

(b) Us qu b d ( ) xpr ss d rms , , d .

(c) C ck r su (b) by d r c y subs u g qu s r , , d qu s r d

d s mp y g.

I A s dB s , w m y mu p c p r s d w m y dd p r s r d d
c cu m r x pr duc ?

L Ab squ r m r x.

( ) S w .

(b) S w .

F d v u s a, , d c suc gr p p y m p ss s r ug p s (1, 2),

(−1, 6), d (2, 3).

(For Readers Who Have Studied Calculus) F d v u s a, , d c suc gr p p y m

p ss s r ug p (−1, 0) d s rz g (2, −9).

L b m rx c w s r s s 1. S w ,

S w squ r m r x A s s s , s d s .

Pr v : I B s v r b , d y .
9

Pr v : I A s v r b , d r b vr b rb v r b .
0

Pr v A dB r m r c s,

( )

(b)
 (c)

(d)

Us Ex rc s 21 s w r r squ r m r c s A d B suc

Pr v : I A s m rx dB s m rx c w s r s s ,

w r s v r g r s i r w A.

(For Readers Who Have Studied Calculus) I r s m rx

ff bl fu c o s of , w f

S ow f s ff bl fu c o s of s z s of
c s suc s op o sc b p fo ,

( )

(b)

(c)

(For Readers Who Have Studied Calculus) Us p r (c) Ex rc s 24 s w

S ll ssu p o s you k ob g s fo ul .
 F d v us a, , dc w m k qu

d y.

H Mu p y r ug by d qu c rr sp d g c c s p y m s c sd
r su g qu .

I P s m r x suc , sc d c rr sp d g Ho s ho d m x( m d
r Am r c m m c A. S. H us d r).

( ) V r y d c mpu c rr sp d g H us d r m r x.

(b) Pr v H s y H us d r m r x, d .

(c) V r y H us d rm rx u d p r ( )s s s c d s pr v d p r (b).

Assum g s d v rs s x s , pr v w g qu s.

( )

(b)

(c)

9
( ) S w ,

(b) Us r su p r ( ) d

No T s x rc s s b s d pr b m by J M. J s , Th Ma h ma ic T ach r, V . 85, N . 9, 1992.

Copy g © 2005 Jo W l y & So s, I c. All g s s v .

Ch p e 1

Tech l gy Exe c ses

T w g x rc s s r d s g d b s v d us g c gy u y. Typ c y, sw b MATLAB, Ma h ma ica, M p ,

D rv , rM c d, bu m y s b s m r yp r g br s w r r sc c c cu rw s m r g br
c p b s. F r c x rc s y u w d r d r v d cum r p r cu r u y y u r us g. T g
s x rc s s s pr v d y u w b s c pr c cy w y ur c gy u y. O c y u v m s r d c qu s
s x rc s s, y uw b b us y ur c gy u y s v m y pr b ms r gu r x rc s s s.

ci n .

T Numbers and Numerical Operations R d y ur d cum r g d d sp y g umb rs d p r rm g

b sc r m c p r s dd , sub r c , mu p c , d v s , r s g umb rs p w rs, d x r c
r s. D rm w c r umb r d g s scr d sp y d c m umb r. I y u r us g CAS,
w c c s y u c c mpu w x c umb rs r r d c m ppr x m s, r w r suc umb rs
s , , d x c y dc v r m d cm rm. Exp r m w umb rs y ur w c s gu y u y u
v m s r d pr c dur s d p r s.

c i n .2

T Matrices and Reduced Row-Echelon Form R d y ur d cum w rm rc s d w d

r duc d r w- c rm m r x. T us y ur u y d r duc d r w- c rm ugm dm rx
Ex mp 4 S c 1.2.

T Linear Systems With a Unique Solution R d y ur d cum w s v r sys m, d us y ur

u y s v r sys m Ex mp 3 S c 1.1. A s , s v sys m by r duc g ugm dm rx
r duc d r w- c rm.

T Linear Systems With Infinitely Many Solutions T c gy u s v ry w y d r sys ms w y

m ys u s. S w y ur u y d s sys m Ex mp 4 S c 1.2.

T Inconsistent Linear Systems T c gy u sw succ ss u y d y c ss r sys ms, bu yc

s m m sb d r p r g c ss sys m s c s s , r v c v rs . T s yp c y pp s w s m
umb rs ccur c mpu s r s sm r u d rr r m k s d cu r u y d rm
w r r y r qu z r . Cr s m c ss r sys ms d s w y ur u y d s m.

A p y m w s gr p p ss s r ug g v s p s sc d po g po y om r s p s. S m
T c gy u s v sp c c c mm ds r d g rp g p y m s. I y ur u y s s c p b y, r d
d cum d us s ur s v Ex rc s 25 S c 1.2.

c i n .3
T Matrix Operations R d y ur d cum w p r rm b sc p r s m r c s— dd , sub r c ,
mu p c by sc rs, d mu p c m r c s. T p r rm c mpu s Ex mp s Ex mp 3, Ex mp 4,
d Ex mp 5. S w pp s w y u ry p r rm p r m rc sw c ss s z s.

Ev u xpr ss r m rx
T

T Extracting Rows and Columns R d y ur d cum w x r c r ws d c um s r m m r x, d us

y ur u y x r c v r us r ws d c um s r m m r x y ur c c .

T Transpose and Trace R d y ur d cum w d r sp s d r c m r x, d us y ur u y

d r sp s m r x A F rmu (12) d r c m r x B Ex mp 12.

T Constructing an Augmented Matrix R d y ur d cum w cr ugm dm rx r mm rc s

A db v pr v us y b r d. T us y ur u y rm ugm dm rx r sys m
Ex mp 4 S c 1.1 r m m r c s A d b.

c i n .4

T Zero and Identity Matrices Typ g r s m rxc b d us, s m y c gy u s pr v d s r cu s r

r gz r d d y m r c s. R d y ur d cum w d s, d rs m z r d d y
m r c s v r us s z s.

T Inverse R d y ur d cum w d v rs m r x, d us y ur u y p r rm
c mpu s Ex mp 7.

T Formula for the Inverse I y u r w rk g w CAS, us c rm T r m 1.4.5.

T Powers of a Matrix R d y ur d cum w d p w rs m r x, d us y ur u y d v r us

p s v d g v p w rs m rxA Ex mp 8.

L
T

D scr b w pp s m rx w k s w d cr s d y( s, s ).
 By xp r m gw d r v u s , d xpr ss r v rs m rx rm
T

c i n .5

Us y ur c gy u y v r yT r m 1.5.1 s v r sp c c c s s.
T

T Singular Matrices F d v rs m rx Ex mp 4, d s w y ur u yd sw y u ry v r
m r x Ex mp 5.

c i n .6

T Solving by Inversion Us m d Ex mp 4 s v sys m Ex mp 3 S c 1.1.

C mp r s u by G uss m d by v rs rs v r rg m r c s. C y us
T sup r r y rm r ppr c ?

S v r sys m ,gv
T

c i n .7

T Diagonal, Symmetric, and Triangular Matrices M y c gy u s pr v d s r -cu s r r gd g ,

symm r c, d r gu r m r c s. R d y ur d cum w d s, d xp r m w r g v r us
m rc s s yp s.

T Properties of Triangular Matrices C rm r su s T r m 1.7.1 us g s m r gu r m r c s y ur c c .

C rm r su s T r m 1.7.4. W pp s A s squ r ?
T

© 2005 J n W le & S ns, Inc. All s ese ved.

 2

D r inan

I N T R O D U C T I O N : We e ll l w h u c s such s d , wh ch ss c e e l u be
w h e l v lue he v ble . S ce b h d ssu e ly e l v lues, such u c s e desc bed s
e l-v lued u c s e lv ble. h s sec we sh ll s udy he “de e u c ,” wh ch s e l-v lued
u c xv ble he se se h ss c es e l u be w h squ e x . Ou w k
de e u c s w ll h ve p ppl c s he he y sys e s l e equ s d w ll ls le d us
expl c ul he ve se ve ble x.

© 2005 J n W le & S ns, Inc. All s ese ved.