RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS AND RADIATION PYROMETERS

Resistance thermometer is also called RTD (resistance temperature detector). Used to measure
temperatures acuurately.

Working Principle:
In each metallic conductor, their resistance changes when its temperature is changed. By
calculating the variation in resistance, the temperature variations may be calculated. The
thermometer which utilizes this phenomenon is called “resistance thermometer”.

The traditional sensing element of a resistance thermometer consists of a coil of small diameter
wire wound to a precise resistance value. The most common material is platinum, although
nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloys compete with platinum in many applications. The material
must have (i) a continuous and stable relationship between resistance and temperature and (ii)
high thermal coefficient of resistance.
Platnum is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance to temperature relationship over the
largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because the amount
of change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very non-linear at
temperatures over 572 ºF (300 ºC). Copper has a very linear resistance to temperature
relationship, however copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be used over 302ºF
(150ºC).
Platinum is the best metal for RTDs because it follows a very linear resistance to temperature
relationship and it follows the R vs T relationship in a highly repeatable manner over a wide
temperature range. The unique properties of platinum make it the material of choice for
temperature standards over the range of -272.5 ºC to 961.78 ºC.
Construction
The industrial resistance thermometer is a combination of a thermometer bulb, measuring circuit
and an instrument of the automatic balance potentiometric type. Thermometric bulb is made in
various forms and consists of a coil of fine wire wound on insulating material. The resistance
wire is arranged so that a good thermal conductivity is provided and a high rate of heat transfer is
obtained. The windings should be made in such manner that physical strain is negligible as the
wire expands and contracts with change in temperature. The resistance bulb is annealed in order
to stabilize its electrical properties. The Wheatstone bridge with various modifications required
for use with resistance thermometer bulb is the most common method of measurement.

Advantages
1. High accuracy

2. Simplicity

3. Wide operating range

4. Suitable for precision applications

5. Temperature changes as small as 0.03 oF can be measured without difficulty.

Limitation
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above 660 °C it
becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by
impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer.

RADIATION PYROMETERS

Radiation Temperature measurement:

• Basic principle: Mmeasurement of temperature by measuring the energy radiated by hot

body.

Temperature measurement by means of radiation from a hot body has many advantages:

• No direct contact is necessary

• The body may be stationary or moving

• Temperature variation over the surface can be measured

• Practically there is no upper limit to measure temperature

Radiation Principle:

• Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot body as a result of its

temperature.

• This radiation is different from other electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves and
X-rays which do not propagate as a result of temperature.

• Thermal radiation lies in the wavelength region of 0.1 micron to 100 micron. (1
micron=10-6mts)

• Transfer of heat takes place in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions.
Wavelength increases as you go from violet to red and as you go from red to violet wavelength
decreases.

Longer wavelength in the visible region will give you color red and the shorter wavelength will
give you violet color and we will make use of this information later also note that if a body emits
radiations of all wavelength in the visible region, it will appear white.

Black body:

A black body is an idealized body that absorbs all radiation falling on it without transmitting or
reflecting any. (Ex: a cavity)

A black body radiates energy at all spectral wavelengths at a maximum rate corresponding to its
temperature.

Black body is an ideal absorober and ideal emitter (its emissivity is equal to 1) .
Laws of Black body radiation:

Kirchhoff’s law: Anybody in thermal equilibrium emits as much heat radiation as it receives at
any given wavelength and temperature.

Stefan Boltzmann Law:

Total thermal radiation emitted by black body is given

𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4

𝜎is Stefan Boltzmann constant=5.669x10-8 W/m2K4

𝐸𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤/𝑚2

T is the absolute temperature

This law agrees well with the experimental data. Thus it can be used to determine the amount of
radiant energy from a black body.

Between the two black bodies at temperatures T1 and T2

𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) T1>T2

Plank’s Law:

Emissive power of a black body at a given wavelength is given by Planck’s law.

𝐶1
𝐸𝑏𝜆 = 𝐶2
⁄(𝜆𝑇)
𝜆5 𝑒 −1
λ is wavelength of radiation expressed in micrometer

T is absolute temperature of black body expressed in Kelvin

𝐸𝑏𝜆 =Radiant energy is expressed as W/cm2 µm

C 1 =s 37413 watt µm4 /cm2

C2 = 14388 micrometer Kelvin.

Note that this equation relates the radiant intensity with temperature at a given wavelength.

• When this emitted power versus wavelength at various temperatures are plotted , we get
the following plot .
The intensity of radiation varies appreciably with wavelength and the point of maximum
radiation intensity shifts to the shorter wavelength, as the temperature increases .

Wien’s displacement law:

It states that the product of the wavelength at which the maximum intensity happens multiplied
by the temperature corresponding temperature in absolute scale is a constant and that constant is
2898 micrometer Kelvin.

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2898 µ𝑚 − 𝐾

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 =wavelength at which the radiant energy is maximum

• As temperature of a body changes its color changes.

• If you gradually increase the temperature of a metal the intensity of radiation will
increase gradually and its color will change as

Red (long wave length in visible region)→yellow → white (mixture of all wavelengths long
/short wavelengths in the visible region).

At lower temperature color is dull because of longer wavelength and at high temperature the
color is bright because of shorter wavelength.
Radiation temperature measuring devices:

We can measure the total energy of radiation from heated body and can relate temperature with
it. Total radiation pyrometer works on this principle

We can measure spectral radiant intensity of the radiated energy from a heated body at a given
wavelength. Optical pyrometer works on this principle and brightness comparison between two
objects is made to measure unknown temperature.

Total Radiation Pyrometer: working principle

The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually all the radiation from a hot body and focuses
on a hot body and focuses on a sensitive temperature detectors such as
thermocouple, bolometer, thermopile, etc. Total radiation includes both visible and infrared
radiation. EMF will be produced corresponding to the temperature. So, this EMF can be
calibrated in terms of temperature units .Lens are adjusted to focus the radiation on to the
detector.

• It is inexpensive,

• Presence of any absorbing media between the target and the detector, reduces the
radiation received and the pyrometer reads low.
 • Due to the fourth Power Law (q is proportional to T4) the characteristics of total radiation
pyrometer are non-linear and has poor sensitivity in lower temperature ranges. Therefore,
total radiation pyrometers cannot be used for measurement of temperature lower than 600
°C, since errors are introduced at lower temperatures.

• Hence, total radiation pyrometers are used mostly in the temperature range of 1200 °C —
3500 °C.

• Absorption and reflections are avoided by using mirrors instead of lens.

Optical pyrometer: Working principle

In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. The device
compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the object whose temperature is to be
measured, with that of a reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a lamp
whose brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the source
object. For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature of the object,
whatever may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it
is measured using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to the temperature of the source
when calibrated.

Optical Pyrometer – construction

As shown in the figure above, an optical pyrometer has the following components.

• An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.

• A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.

 • A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.

• So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is

fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.

• A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the
band of wavelength.

Working

• The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The
lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb.

• The observer watches the process through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner
that the reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on
the temperature source image. The observer starts changing the rheostat values and the
current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change in
current can be observed in three different ways.

1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.

2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.

3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and temperature
source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as its value is a
measure of the temperature
Advantages of Radiation pyrometer:

Used to measure very high temperature.

High output signal and moderate cost.
No need to have contact with measuring system.
Fast response.

Disadvantage of Radiation pyrometer:

Non-linear scale.
Error will occur.
Emmissivity of target material affects the measurements.

Application of Radiation pyrometer.

Used to measure temperature of moving target.

Used to measure temperature of a target where physical contact is impossible.
Used to measure temperature in corrosive environment.
Used to measure invisible rays from radiations.

Radiation receiving elements:

Thermal detectors are used as sensors. Their hot junction is the radiation sensing surface. Therm
opiles can detect radiation of all wavelengths.

A number of semiconductors are developed to sense the radiation. These are materials of
Si, PbS,
indium antimonides etc. Their response is though instantaneous but it is selective to wavelength.
Silicon is suitable only around 0.8 and lead sulphide around 1 to 2µm. 0.9 µmCO ,HOIt
is important that gases like and dust should not obstruct the path of radiation. The dust
particles scatter the radiation, whereas CO and water vapor selectivity absorbs radiation.
Any instrument built to sense the radiation has to be in an enclosure to avoid dirt, dust and gases
present in industrial environment. Normally a window is provided with some optical materials to
see the
radiating body. The materials should have good transmissivity. All optical materials allow only p
articular
wavelength to pass through it with sufficient intensity. For other wavelengths they are opaque.

Material for window Transmissivity

s
Glasses like quartz, Good in ultraviolet and visible region of wavelength but are opaque to
Pyrex, ruby etc infrared. Glass windows are useful for wavelengths lower than 2.5 .
Beyond wavelength of 2.5µm , transmissivity decreases drastically.
Barium fluoride and They have 60-80% transmissivity in the infrared and visible region..
zinc sulphide
Calcium fluoride It has a very good transmissivity in the infrared and visible region

Limitations of Radiation Pyrometer

1. Availability of optical materials limit on the wavelengths that can be measured.

2.The surface of the hot object should be clean. It should not be oxidized. Scale formation does
notallow to measure radiation accurately.

3.Emissivity correction is required . Change in emissivity with temperature need to be

considered.

Radiation receiving elements:

1) Thermopile (Thermocouples connected in series)
When thermocouples are connected in series, they are called as thermopiles.These thermopiles
are used to measure small temperature differences between the two junctions. The series
arrangement increases sensitivity and gives a large output even for a small temperature
difference. In a series arrangement of thermocouples, the total emf is the sum of the emfs
developed by individual thermocouples. In general, when ‘n’ thermocouples are connected in
series, the total emf E is:
E= E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + ..... + En
The thermopile used as a radiation element is shown in below figures. It consists of a number of
thermocouples connected in series, the measuring junctions of which have been flattened and
blackened to provide better absorption of radiation. The thermopile may possess 8 to 16 or even
more such measuring junction. The reference junction of the thermopile is located at the outer
ring where the individual thermocouples are connected. The thermopile operates from the radiant
energy focused on it. The actual rise in temperature of the measuring junction for steady state
conditions depends on 1. The amount of radiant energy received. 2. The heat loss by radiation
and conduction from the thermopile. The thermopile may be calibrated for radiant energy
absorbed versus emf output and it may be used with an automatic balance potentiometer in the
same manner as a thermocouple.

Figure: Thermocouples images

2) Bolometer:

The bolometer is a resistance thermometer element, and one form is made from a strip of
nickel foil about 0.1 micron in thickness, about 0.5 inch long and of sufficient width to give
about 10 ohms resistance. The strip is thus coated with gold black or platinum black to
increase its absorptivity. The rise in temperature of the strip depends on the amount of radiant
energy absorbed and the heat loss by radiation and conduction. The resulting changing in
resistance can be determined by a wheatstone bridge and indicated by resistance
thermometer.

3) Vacuum thermocouple:

The vacuum thermocouple consists of an evacuated glass envelope in which is supported a

single thermocouple made from fine wire. The measuring junction of thermocouple carries a
receiver of blackened platinum foil and is positioned in the center of the glass envelope. The
reference junction is generally located in the base of the unit. When radiant energy is directed
through the glass envelope and strikes the thermocouple junction, the temperature of the
measuring junction is increased over that of reference junction, and a thermal emf appears
which is calibrated in terms of temperature.