3.4 Soils For Engineering Purposes

Lecture Notes-Advanced Engineering Geology I (Ersc-624) Chapter III Engineering Properties of Rocks and Soils
3.4 Soils for engineering purposes
Soil has a vast application in the construction of various civil engineering works.
Every civil engineering structure, whether it is a building, a bridge or a dam is
founded on or below the surface of earth. Foundations are required to transmit the
load of the structure to soil safely and efficiently. Thus it becomes important to
know the properties of the soils whether or not the soil on which the foundation of
the structure will be laid down are competent enough to bear the load of the
structure without failure. When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil to
spread and form a safe slope, a structure is required to keep the soil at different
levels on its either side. The retaining structure may be a rigid retaining wall or a
sheet pile bulkhead, which is relatively flexible. Soil engineering gives the theories
of earth pressure on retaining structures. If the soil surface is not horizontal, there is
a component of weight of the soil, which tends to move it, downward and this
causes instability of soil slope. A thorough understanding of the shear strength
properties makes it possible to analyze such slope for its stability. The design of
underground structures such as tunnels, shafts and conduits requires evaluation of
forces exerted by the soil on these structures. In case of pavement design the
behavior of the sub-grade soil is very important as far as the safe functioning of the
road is concerned. Therefore, it becomes important to study the index properties of
the soil. Besides the engineering properties of the soil provide an important input
for the safe design of the structure.
3.4.1 Origin of soils
The word ‘soil’ is derived from the latin word solium which means the upper layer of
the earth that may be dug or plowed. Specifically, the loose surface material of the
earth in which pants grow is known as soil. This definition of soil is used in the field
of agronomy where the main concern is in the use of crop growth. The term soil in
engineering is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles,
produced by the disintegration of rocks. The void space between the particles may
contain air, water or both.
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or

chemical decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an
appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the
soils are formed. If after mechanical disintegration of rocks soils stays at the place
of it’s formation just above the parent rock, it is known as residual soil. When the
soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of it’s origin, it is called a
transported soil. The engineering properties of residual soils vary considerably from
the top layer to the bottom layer. Residual soils have a gradual transition from
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relatively fine material near the surface to large fragments of stones at greater
depth. The engineering properties of transported soils are entirely different from the
properties of the rock at the place of deposition.
Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occur due to many

factors such as;
i) Temperature changes – Different minerals of a rock have different

coefficients of thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of
these minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the stresses
induced due to such changes are repeated many times, the particles get
detached from the rocks and soils are formed.
ii) Wedging action of ice - Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks
gets frozen in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more than
that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into pieces when large
stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging action of the ice formed.
iii) Spreading of roots of plants - As the roots of the trees and shrubs gow in
the cracks and fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments of
the rock are forced apart and disintegration of rocks occur.
iv) Abrasion – As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of the
rock, abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the formation of the soil.
When Chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place,

original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions.
The soil formed do not have the properties of the parent rock. The following
chemical processes generally occur in nature;
i) Hydration – In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals and

results in the formation of a new chemical compound. The chemical reaction
causes a change in volume and decomposition of rock into small particles.
ii) Carbonation – It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon-di-
oxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid. The
carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition.
iii) Oxidation - Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combines with minerals
in rocks. Oxidation results in decomposition of rocks.
iv) Solution - Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when
they get dissolved in water. Chemical reaction takes place in the solution
and the soils are formed.
v) Hydrolysis – It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into
H and OH- ions. The hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as
+
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calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils are formed with a
new chemical decomposition.
Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals which will

result into clayey soils.
3.4.2 Volume and weight relationships in soils
A soil mass consists of material that represents three states of matter. Most of the
soil mass is composed of solids. The solids are usually mineral material, although
organic material may be present. The space between the individual solid grains is
occupied by either air, a gas or water. A unit mass of soil can be divided into these
component parts on the basis of either volume or weight relationships among these
states of matter. Fig. 3.24 is a representation of volume and weight relationships.
This conceptual view, or pha-se diagram, enables certain physical characteristics to

be determined. These descry-iptive characteristics enables to determine the
engineering properties of of a particular soil.
The basic properties are unit
weight, specific gravity, poro-
sity, void ratio, water content
and degree of saturation.
These descriptive cha racteri-
stics enable most weight and
volume relation-nships to be
determined.
Unit weight Fig. 3.24 Phase diagram of asoil mass representing the
volume and weight components for air, water
and solids
Unit weight or soil density is a
basic measurement. Using the phase diagram, a unit of soil would have a specific
weight and volume (Fig. 3.25(a)). The weight would include the air and water
present as well as the solids. The unit weight is obtained by the formula;
Wt
  ……….3.65
Vt
where, Wt is the weight of material and Vt is the volume of material.
This unit weight is also referred to as the moist unit weight of the soil (m).
If the soil had been completely dried in an oven, the unit weight would be the
volume and weight of the air and solids (Fig. 3.25(b)). This gives a dry unit weight
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(d). Completely saturation of the soil would replace the volume occupied by air with
water (Fig. 3.25(c)). The resulting unit weight is the saturated unit weight (sat).
Specific gravity
The specific gravity of solid particles (G) is defined as the ratio of the mass of an
equal volume of water at 4o C. Thus the specific gravity is given by ;
s
G …… 3.66
w
where, s is the mass density of solids i.e. ratio between mass of solids (M s) and
volume of solids (Vs).
w is the mass density of water at 4o C which is 1 gm/ml or 1000 kg/m3.
The specific gravity of solids for most natural soils falls in the general range of 2.65
to 2.80, the small values are for coarse grained soils. Table 3.28 gives the average
values for different soils.
Porosity and void ratio
Wt Ww  Ws Both air and water within a soil

m   ……
Vt Vv  Vs occupy the spaces between the
3.67 solid particles. Two measures exist
to represent this space, porosity and
void ratio. Porosity(n) represents the
proportion of the total volume to the
mass occupied by space;
Wt Ws
d   …… Vv
Vt Vv  Vs n X 100
VT
3.68
…….3.70
where; Vv is the volume of voids and

VT is the total volume.
Wt Ww  Ws
 sat   …… Void ratio (e) expresses the
Vt Vv  Vs
relationship between the volume of
3.69 space and the volume of solids
Fig. 3.25 (a) Phase diagram representing within the volume of the total mass.
moist unit weight of soil. (b) Phase diagram
representing dry unit weight of soil. (c) Phase Vv
e
diagram representing saturated unit weight of VS
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soil. …….3.71
where; Vv is the volume of voids and Vs is the volume of the solids.
Table 3.28 Typical values of specific gravity (G)
S.No Soil Type Specific Gravity

1 Gravel 2.65 – 2.68
2 Sand 2.65 – 2.68
3 Silty sands 2.66 – 2.70
4 Silt 2.66 – 2.70
5 Inorganic clays 2.68 – 2.80
6 Organic soils Variable, may fall below 2.00
Source: Arora, 1997
Porosity will range in value from 0  n  1. Void ratio has a possible range of 0
< e < . Each property can be expressed in terms of the other property;
e
n ……..3.72
1 e
n
e ……..3.73
1 n
Using specific gravity, weight measurements can be used to determine these

volume relationships. Porosity is computed by;
d
n  1 ……..3.74
62.4GS
Void ratio is defined by;
62.4G S
e ……..3.75
d
where, n is the porosity, e is the void ratio, Gs is the specific gravity of the soil and
d is the dry density.
Water Content
The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of
solids.
Ww
w x100 ……..3.76
WS
where; Ww is the weight of the water and Ws is the weight of the solids.
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Table 3.29 Some porosity and void ratio values for different soils
Voids
Void ratio Porosity (%)
emax ecr emin nmax nmin
loose dense loose dense
Granular Materials
Uniform Materials
a) Equal spheres (theoretical 0.92 - 0.35 47.6 26.0
values)
b) Standard Ottawa Sand 0.80 0.75 0.50 44.0 33.0
c) Clean Uniform Sand (fine or 1.00 0.80 0.40 50.0 29.0
medium)
d) Uniform Inorganic Silt 1.10 - 0.40 52.0 29.0
Well Graded Materials
a) Silty Sand 0.90 - 0.30 47.0 23.0
b) Clean fine to coarse Sand 0.95 0.70 0.20 49.0 17.0
c) Micaceous Sand 1.2 - 0.40 55.0 29.0
d) Silty sand and Gravel 0.85 - 0.14 46.0 12.0
Mixed Soils
Sandy or Silty Clay 1.8 - 0.25 64.0 20.0
Skip-graded Silty Clay with stones or rock 1.0 - 0.20 50.0 17.0
fragments
Well graded Gravel, Sand, Silt and Clay mixture 0.70 - 0.13 41.0 11.0
Clay Soils
Clay (30% - 50% clay sizes) 2.4 - 0.50 71.0 33.0
Colloidal Clay (-0.002 mm: 50%) 12.0 - 0.60 92.0 37.0
Organic soils
Organic Silt 3.0 - 0.55 75.0 35.0
Organic Clay (30% - 50% clay sizes) 4.4 - 0.70 81.0 41.0
Source; Johnson, R.B and Degraff, J.V, 1991
The water content of the fine grained soils, such as silts and clays, is generally
more than that of the coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sands. The water
content of some of the fine grained soils may be even more than 100%, which
indicates that more than 50% of the total mass is that of water. The water content
of the soil is an important property. The characteristic of a soil, especially a fine
grained soil, change to a marked degree with a variation of its water content.
Standard testing can determine the optimum water content (w o). This value is the
water content that will produce a maximum dry density for a given soil under a
certain compacted effort.
Degree of saturation
Degree of saturation (S) defines the proportion of total space in the soil mass
containing water. It is computed as;
V
S w ……..3.76
Vv
where, Vw volume of water and Vv is the volume of voids.
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A saturated soil contains only a volume of voids and a volume of water. This is
100% of saturation. At the other end of the range of possible values, saturation can
be 0%. The soil is completely dry at this value, with the volume of voids occupied
only by air. This volume relationship can be determined using weight measurement
by;
WGS
S ……..3.77
e
where; W is the water content, S, degree of saturation, G s is specific gravity of the

soil and e is the void ratio.
3.4.3 Index Properties of soils
The main engineering properties of soils are permeability, compressibility and

shear strength. Permeability indicates the facility with which water can flow through
soils. It is required for estimation of seepage discharge through earth masses.
Compressibility is related with the deformations produced in soils when they are
subjected to compressive loads. Compression characteristics are required for
computation of the settlements of structures founded on soils. Shear strength of soil
is its ability to resist shear stresses. The shear strength determines the stability of
slopes, bearing capacity of soils and the earth pressure on retaining structures.
The test required for determination of engineering properties of soils are generally
elaborate and time consuming. Sometimes, the geotechnical engineer or a
engineering geologist is interested to have some rough assessment of the
engineering properties of soils without conducting elaborate tests. This is possible if
index properties are determined. The properties of soils which are not of primary
interest but which are indicative of the engineering properties are known as index
properties. Simple tests, which are required to determine the index properties are
known as classification tests. The soils are classified and identified based on their
index properties. The main index properties of coarse-grained soils are particle size
and the relative density. However, for fine grained soils, the main index properties
are Atterberg’s limits and the consistency.
The index properties give some information about the engineering properties.
However, design of large, important structures should be done only after
determination of engineering properties.
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Particle Size Analysis
The particle size analysis also known as mechanical analysis or gradation analysis,
is a method of separation of soils into different fractions based on the particle size.
It expresses quantitatively the proportions, by mass, of various sizes of particles
present in a soil. It is shown graphically on a particle size distribution curve.
The mechanical analysis is done in two stages; (i) Sieve analysis and (ii)
Sedimentation analysis. The sieve analysis is meant for coarse grained soils
(particle size greater than 75 microns) which can easily pass through a set of
sieves. The second analysis is used for fine-grained soils (particle size smaller than
75 microns). Particle size smaller than 0.2 micron cannot be determined by the
sedimentation method. These can be determined by an electron microscope or by
X-ray diffraction technique. However, such analysis is of little practical importance
in soil engineering.
Sieve Analysis
The soil is sieved through a set of sieves. Sieves are generally made of spun brass
and phosphor bronz or stainless steel sieve cloth. The sieves are designated by the
size of square opening, in mm or microns. The diameter of the sieve is generally 15
to 20 cm. There are various standards for sieves, each standard have different
sieve sizes. Some commonly used standards are American Standard, British
Standard and Indian Standard. Table 3.30 presents the various sieve sizes as per
American Standard.
Table 3.30 Various sieve sizes as per American Standard
Sieve No Opening (mm) Sieve No Opening (mm)

- 75 40 0.425
- 63 50 0.3
- 50 70 0.212
- 31.5 80 0.177
- 25.0 100 0.149
½ 12.5 120 0.125
4 4.699 140 0.106
5 4.00 170 0.09
6 3.35 200 0.075
8 2.36 230 0.063
16 1.18 270 0.053
30 0.60 325 0.045
The sieve analysis is done for coarse grained soils. The coarse grained soils can
be sub-divide into; (a) Gravel fraction (size > 4.75 mm as per India Standard and
Size > 4.699 mm as per American Standard), (b) Sand fraction (0.075mm < size <
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4.75 mm as per Indian Standard and 0.075mm < size < 4.699 mm as per American
Standard).
For sieve analysis all sieves are stacked one over another with decreasing size
from top to bottom. At top a lid or cover is placed and at the bottom a collection pan
is placed (Fig. 3.26).
Dry Sieve Analysis
For dry sieve analysis the soil

sample is taken as per the particle
size (Table 3.31). The soil for the
sieve analysis must be oven dried at
105o – 110o C for 24 hours. The soil
should not contain any lumps. If soil
contain organic matter it must be air
dried not the oven dried. The sample
is sieved through a 4.75 mm sieve.
The sample portion retained on the
4.75 mm sieve is the gravel fraction.
The gravel fraction is sieved using a
Fig. 3.26 Stack of sieves
Table 3.31 Quantity of soil required for sieve analysis
S.No Maximum particle size Quantity

1. 80 mm 60 kg
2. 20 mm 6.5 kg
3. 4.75 mm 0.5 kg
set of coarse sieves greater than 4.75 mm. The weight of soil retained on each
sieve is obtained.
The soil sample less than 4.75 mm is sieved using a set of fine sieves. The soil
sample is kept in the top sieve and the set of sieves in decreasing order of sizes is
kept on a mechanical shaker. The top sieve is taken as per the maximum particle
size and it is followed by sizes in decreasing order of sizes with the bottom most as
75 micron. At the top sieve a cover or lid and at the bottom a collection pan is
placed. Normally, 10 minutes shaking is sufficient. The mass of soil retained on
each sieve and on pan is obtained to the nearest 0.1gm. Dry sieve analysis is
suitable for cohessionless soils with little and no fines (fines means particle size
less than 75 microns).
Wet Sieve Analysis
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If the soil contains more than 5% of the fine particles a wet sieve analysis is
required. The soil sample is oven dried at 105 o – 110o C for 24 hours. Adried
sample is taken in a tray and soaked in water. If deflocculation is required, sodium-
hexa-metaphosphate at the rate of 2 gm per litre of water is added. The sample is
well stirred and left for a soaking period of at least one hour. The slurry is then
sieved through a 4.75 mm sieve, and washed with a jet of water. The material
retained in a sieve is the gravel fraction. It is dried in an oven for 24 hours at 105 o –
110o C temperature and sieved through a set of coarse sieves. Material passing
through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through a 75 micron sieve. The material is washed
with a jet of water. The material retained on 75 micron sieve is collected and dried
in an oven. It is than sieved through a set of fine sieves of sizes 2 mm, 1 mm, 600 ,
425, 212, 150 and 75. Thus the material retained on each sieve is weighed.
The weight of the material collected in the collection pan is also weighed. The
material retained on each sieve as a percent of total sieved material is given as;
M1 M2 M
P1  x100 , P2  x100 , ………….., Pn  n x100 ………3.78
M M M
where, M1, M2……Mn are the mass of soil retained on each sieve and pan
respectively. ‘M’ is the total mass of the soil retained on all sieves and pan. P 1,
P2……Pn is the percentage of soil retained on each sieve.
The cumulative percentage (C) of material retained on any sieve is equal to the
sum of the percentage of soil retained on the sieve and that retained on all sieves
coarser than that sieve.
C1 = P1, C2 = P1 + P2, C3 = P1 + P2 + P3 . …….3.79
The percentage fine (N) is given as;
N1 = 100 - C1, N2 = 100 - C2, N3 = 100 - C3 . …….3.79
The Particle Size Distribution Curve
The particle size distribution curve, also known as gradation curve, represents the
distribution of particles of different sizes in the soil mass. The percentage finer ‘N’ is
plotted as ordinate (on natural scale) and the particle size as abscissa (on
logarithmic scale). Fig. 3.27 presents sample gradation curves for different soil
types.
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Uniformity of curve
The uniformity of a soil

is expressed qualitati-
vely by a term known
as uniformity coeffic-
ient (Cu) which is given
by;
D60
Cu  …….3.80
D10
where, D60 is the

particle size such that
60% of the soil is finer Fig. 3.27 Sample gradation curves for different soil types.
than this size. D10 is the particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size.
D10 is also known as effective size.
The larger the numeric value ‘Cu’ the more is the range of the particles. Soils with a
value of ‘Cu’ less than ‘2’are uniform soils. Sands with a value of ‘C u’ of ‘6’ or more,
are well graded. Gravels with a value of ‘C u’ of ‘4’ or more are well graded.
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc)
The general shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by another
coefficient known as the coefficient of curvature (C c) or the coefficient of gradation
(Cg).
D  2
Cc  30
…….3.81
D60 xD10
where, D30 is the particle size such that 30% of the soil is finer than this size. D 60 is
the particle size such that 60% of the soil is finer than this size and D 10 is the
particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size.
For a well graded soil, the value of the coefficient of curvature lies between 1 and 3.
Illustrative Example for the Particle Size Distribution Curve
The results of a sieve analysis of a soil are given in Table 3.32. Total mass of
sample is 900 gm. Draw a particle size distribution curve and determine the
uniformity coefficient and the coefficient of curvature.
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Table 3.32 Results of the sieve analysis
Sieve Size 20 10 4.75 2.0 1.0 0.6 425 212 150 75 Pan Total
mm mm mm mm mm mm     gm
Mass of soil
Retained 35 40 80 150 150 140 115 55 35 25 75 900
Solution to Illustrative Example
Calculation for percentage of finer ‘N’ than different sizes is shown in Table 3.33.
Table 3.33 Calculation for percentage of finer ‘N’ than different sizes
Seive Mass Percentage Cumulative Percentage Finer (N) =

Retained (gm) Retained Percentage 100 – (4)
(2)/900 x 100 Retained
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
20 mm 35 3.89 3.89 96.11
10 mm 40 4.44 8.33 91.67
4.75 mm 80 8.89 17.22 82.78
2.0 mm 150 16.67 33.89 66.11
1.0 mm 150 16.67 50.56 49.44
0.6 mm 140 15.56 66.12 33.88
425  115 12.78 78.90 21.10
212  55 6.11 85.01 14.99
150  35 3.89 88.90 11.10
75  25 2.78 91.68 8.32
Pan 75 8.32 100.0
The particle size distribution curve thus prepared is shown as Fig. 3.28.
From Fig. 3.28,

D60 = 1.55 mm
D30 = 0.53 mm
D10 = 0.115 mm
Thus, coefficient of
curvature (Cc) will be;
D  2
Cc  30
D60 xD10
Cc =
(0.53)2/1.55 x 0.115
Cc = 1.58 Fig. 3.28 Gradation curves for Illstrative Example.
D60
The uniformity coefficient (Cu) is determined as; Cu  = 1.55 / 0.115 = 13.48
D10
The soil is well graded, as the value of Cu is more than 6, also Cc lies between 1
and 3.
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Use of Particle Size Distribution Curve
The particle size distribution curve is extremely useful for coarse-grained soils. As
the behavior of fine grained soils (minus 75 ) depends upon the plasticity
characteristic and not on the particle size, its use for fine grained soils is limited.
The various uses of particle size distribution curve are listed below;
(i) The particle size distribution curve is used in the classification of

coarse-grained soils.
(ii) The coefficient of permeability of a coarse-grained soils depends
to a large extent on the size of the particle. An approximate value of the
coefficient of permeability can be determined from the particle size.
(iii) The particle size is used to know the susceptibility of a soil to frost
action.
(iv) The particle size distribution curve is required to design the
drainage filter in embankment dams.
(v) The particle size distribution provides an index to the shear
strength of the soil, generally a well-graded compacted sand has a high
shear strength.
(vi) The compressibility of soil can be judged from its particle size
distribution curve. A uniform soil is more compressible than a well-graded
soil.
(vii) The particle size distribution curve is useful in soil stabilization and
for the design of pavement.
(viii) The particle size distribution curve may indicate the mode of
deposition of a soil. For example, a gap-graded soil indicates deposition by
two different agencies.
Sedimentation Analysis
Soil particles finer than 75  size can not be sieved. The particle size distribution of
such soils is determined by sedimentation analysis. The analysis is base on ‘stokes
law’, which gives the terminal velocity of a small sphere settling in a fluid of infinite
extent. When a small sphere settles down in a fluid, its velocity first increase under
the action of gravity, but the drag forces comes into action, and retards the velocity.
After an initial adjustment period, steady conditions are attained and the velocity
becomes constant. The velocity attained is known as terminal velocity. According to
Stoke’s law the terminal velocity is given by;
s w 2
  D ……..3.82
1.8  
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where, s is the unit weight of soil particle, w is the unit weight of the water,  is the
viscosity of water and D is the diameter of the particle.
18   
D ……..3.83
s w
For a soil particle of size ‘D’falling through a

distance ‘h’, in time ‘t’,
 = h/t
therefore, equation 3.83 may be rewritten as;
h
18   
D t ……..3.84
s w
If the units of ‘’, ‘h’ and time ‘t’ are taken in poise
(1 poise = 0.1 Ns/m2 = 1.02 x 10 -2 kgf.sec/m2),
centimeter and minutes respectively, the diameter
D (mm) of the particle is given by;
Fig. 3.29 Hydrometer Method

h
30   
D t ……..3.85
980(Gs  Gw )
where, Gs is the specific gravity of soil and Gw is the specific gravity of water.
Apparatus/ Material required for Sedimentation Analysis
(i) Hydrometer calibrated at 20o or 27oC.

(ii) Two glass cylinders (more than 1 litre capacity each) – about 7cm in
diameter and 33 cm high marked at 1000 ml volume.
(iii) Deflocculating agent – sodium hexa metaphosphate, sodium carbonate.
(iv) Distilled water.
(v) Stirring apparatus – high speed 5000 rpm.
(vi) Balance – accurate at 0.01 gm and Weigh box.
(vii) Sieve – 75 micron.
(viii) Oven – with a capacity to fix temperature upto 110 o C for 24 hours.
(ix) Thermometer – range upto 50oC, accuracy upto 0.5oC and Stop watch.
Test Procedure
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Take 50 gm of the oven dried soil passing through 75 micron sieve. Place it in an
evaporating dish and add 100 cc distilled water. Add 100 cc deflocculating agent.
Wait for 10 min. Prepare deflocculating agent by properly mixing 33 gm of sodium
hexa-meta-phosphate and 7 gm of sodium carbonate in 1000 ml of distilled water.
Transfer the sample into the container of the stirrer using distilled water until the
container is three fourth filled and then stir it for 10 minutes. Meanwhile, put 100 cc
deflocculating agent with distilled water in 1000 cc hydrometer cylinder. Add
distilled water to bring the level to 1000 cc mark. By keeping palm over the mouth
of the jar with sample inverted it upside down number of times. Put the jar on flat
surface, start the stop watch and gently insert the hydrometer. Observe readings of
hydrometer after ½, 1,2, and 4 minutes. Remove the hydrometer gently, rinse in
distilled water and insert in second jar containing distilled water and deflocculating
agent. Note the temperature of the soil suspension. Re insert the hydrometer in the
suspension and now note the reading at 8, 15, 30 minutes, 1 , 2,4,8 and 24 hours
after shaking. For each of these readings insert the hydrometer in jar No.2 about 30
seconds before the given time to make it stable at the time of taking the
observation. Take the reading of the solution in the sedimentation Jar No.1 also
simultaneously and record them for for deflocculating agent correction. Record the
temperature of suspension once during the first 15 minutes and thereafter at every
subsequent observation.
Corrections
Following corrections are applied in hydrometer observations;
Meniscus Correction (Cm)
Since the soil suspension is opaque, the hydrometer reading are taken
corresponding to the upper level of the meniscus. To determine the correction, pour
about 750 ml of distilled water and deflocculating agent (about 100 cc) in a
sedimentary jar. Insert the hydrometer in it and record the top and bottom readings
of the meniscus formed at the stem of the floating hydrometer. The difference
between these two readings is known as meniscus correction (C m). This correction
is always positive and is constant for a particular hydrometer.
Temperature Correction (Ct)
Take the hydrometer reading in pure distilled water at the corresponding

temperature and calculate the temperature correction (C t) as the difference
between this reading and that corresponding to the density of water at this
temperature. If the temperature of the soil suspension is more than the calibrated
temperature of hydrometer (i.e 20 o or 27oC), the correction (Ct) shyall be positive
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and if the temperature is less than the calibrated temperature of hydrometer, it shall
be negative. Table 3.34 shows the values of C t at different temperature –
hydrometer calibrated at 20oC.
Table 3.34 Values of Ct at different temperature – hydrometer calibrated at 20 oC
Temperature (oC) Correction (g/ml) Temperature (oC) Correction (g/ml)

10.1 -1.27 24.0 0.82
11.0 -1.17 24.5 0.92
12.0 -1.09 25.0 1.03
13.0 -0.99 25.5 1.15
14.0 -0.88 26.0 1.28
15.0 -0.76 26.5 1.40
16.0 -0.64 27.0 1.52
17.0 -0.50 27.5 1.64
18.0 -0.34 28.0 1.78
19.0 -0.19 28.5 1.92
20.0 0.00 29.0 2.06
20.5 0.08 29.5 2.20
21.0 0.18 30.0 2.34
21.5 0.28 30.5 2.47
22.0 0.38 31.0 2.62
22.5 0.47 31.5 2.76
23.0 0.58 32.0 2.95
23.5 0.68
Source: After British Standard 1377: 1975
Correction for Deflocculation agent (Cd)
The addition of dispersing agent in the soil increases the density of the suspension.
Hence the deflocculation agent correction (C d) is always negative. The dispersion
agent correction (Cd) can be determined by noting the hydrometer reading in clear
water and again in the same water after adding 100cc of deflocculating agent. The
difference in two reading will give Cd.
The corrected hydrometer reading (R) is given as;
R = Rh + Cm + Ct - Cd …….3.86
Where, Rh is hydrometer reading, observed at top of the meniscus, C m is the

meniscus correction, Ct is the temperature correction and C d is the deflocculation
agent correction.
Calibration of Hydrometer
Determination of volume (Vh) of the hydrometer - Fill about 750cc of water in a

1000cc graduated jar and record the exact reading on jar. Immerse the hydrometer
in the water and again note the level of water. The difference between the two
observations gives the volume of the hydrometer.
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Determination of cross sectional area (A) of the jar - For determining the cross
sectional area (A) of a 1000 cc jar pour about 500 cc water and note down the top
reading on the scale. Then again pour 250 cc water into the jar and see the
difference into the two levels (say 6.9 cm), let this difference is ‘h’.
Now the cross section area of the jar is A = V/h i.e A = 250/6.9 cm 2.
Calculate the effective depth (He) corresponding to each calibration mark (R h) as;
1  Vh 
He  H  h  …….3.87
2  A
where, ‘He’ is the effective depth (cm); ‘H’ is the length from neck of the bulb to the
graduation mark Rh (cm); ‘h’ is the twice the distance from the neck of hydrometer
bulb to its center of volume (cm); ‘Vh’ is the volume of the bulb (ml) and ‘A’ is the
cross section area of sedimentation jar (cm2).
Calculate the Value of (He) corresponding to each graduated mark (R h) on the stem
of hydrometer and plot the relationship between ‘H e’ and ‘Rh‘ on a graph and
prepare a smooth curve. This curve should be used for finding the effective depth
‘He’ corresponding to different hydrometer reading ‘R h’ obtained during the test.
Observation and Calculation

(i) From each hydrometer observation (Rh), substract 1.0 and multiply the
remaining digits by 1000. For example; if the reading on meniscus is 1.010
then 1.010 – 1.0 = 0.010 x 1000 = 10.
(ii) From the curve prepared earlier (as discussed in calibration of

hydrometer) read the effective depth ‘He’ corresponding to each ‘Rh’ reading.
(iii) Calculate (He / t)0.5 where ‘He’ is effective depth and ‘t’ is the time elapsed.
(iv) Read the viscosity (n) values corresponding to temperature of the soil
solution ( Refer Table 3.35).
(v) Calculate the factor M1 from the relation;
30
M1  …….3.88
980(GS  1)
Where;  is the viscosity at given temperature and G S is the specific gravity of the
soil.
Table 3.35 Viscosity () of water at different temperature (values given in millipoise)
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TempoC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 17.94 17.32 16.74 16.19 15.63 15.19 14.73 14.29 13.87 13.48
10 13.10 12.74 12.39 12.06 11.75 11.45 11.16 10.88 10.60 10.34
20 10.09 9.84 9.61 9.38 9.16 8.95 8.75 8.55 8.36 8.18
30 8.00 7.83 7.67 7.51 7.36 7.21 7.06 6.92 6.79 6.66
40 6.54 6.42 6.30 6.18 6.08 5.97 5.87 5.77 5.68 5.58
50 5.49 5.40 5.32 5.24 5.15 5.07 4.99 4.92 4.84 4.77
60 4.70 4.63 4.56 4.50 4.43 4.37 4.31 4.24 4.19 4.13
70 4.07 4.02 3.96 3.91 3.86 3.81 3.76 3.71 3.66 3.63
80 3.57 3.53 3.48 3.44 3.40 3.36 3.32 3.28 3.24 3.20
90 3.17 3.13 3.10 3.06 3.03 2.99 2.96 2.93 2.90 2.87
100 2.84 2.83 2.79 2.76 2.73 2.70 2.67 2.64 2.62 2.59
1 dyne sec /sqcm = 1 poise : 1 gram, sec/sqcm = 980.7 poise: 1 poise = 1000 milipoises
Calculation of Specific Gravity (GS)
The specific gravity of soil passing 75  sieve ‘GS’ can be determined by using
Pycnometer method (Fig. 3.30).
a) Weigh the pycnometer with its

cap, it must be dry and clean.
b) Take 250 g of oven dried soil,
put it in pycnometer weigh with
cap screwed.
c) Add sufficient quantity of water
to cover the soil and screw the
cap.
d) Stir well and connect the
pycno-meter to vaccume pump for
10–15 minutes. Add more water
and clean it. Fig. 3.30 Pycnometer
e) Thoroughly dry the pycnometer
from outside and weigh it.
f) Remove the soil sample clean the pycnometer and fill it completely with
water and screw it. Clean the bottle from outside and weigh it.
g) Take at least two such readings.
Sample observation table for the determination of specific gravity is presented as

Table 3.36. Specific gravity for different soils is given in Table 3.37.
(vi) Calculate the factor M2 from the relation;
GS
M2  x100 …….3.89
Wd (G S  1)
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Where; GS is the specific gravity of the soil and W d is the mass of dry soil passing
75  sieve.
Table 3.36 Observations for the determination of specific gravity.
S.No Particulars Observations

1. Weight of Pycnometer ‘W1’ (g)
2. Weight of Pycnometer with dry soil ‘W2’ (g)
3. Weight of Pycnometer with dry soil and water ‘W 3’ (g)
4. Weight of Pycnometer full of water ‘W4’ (g)
5. Weight of dry soil (W2 - W1) (g)
6. Weight of an equal volume of water (W2 - W1) - (W3 - W4) (g)
7. Specific Gravity Gs = S.No 5./S.No 6.
Table 3.37 Typical values of Specific gravity for different soils
S.No Soil Type Specific Gravity

1. Gravel 2.65 – 2.68
2. Sand 2.65 – 2.68
3. Silty sands 2.66 – 2.70
4. Silt 2.66 – 2.70
5. Inorganic clays 2.68 – 2.80
6. Organic soils Variable may fall below 2.00
Combined Seive and Sedimentation Analysis
If the soil mass consists of particles of both coarse grained and fine grained soils, a
combined analysis is done. The slurry of the soil is made as mentioned earlier in
wet sieve analysis. The slurry is sieved through a 4.75 mm sieve. The material
retained on the sieve is oven dried and a coarse sieve analysis is done. The
material retained on a 75  sieve is also oven dried and the sieve analysis is done
using the set of the fine sieves. The suspension passing 75  sieve is subjected to
hydrometer test.
The percentage finer than any size can be calculated on the basis of the original
mass of soil taken for a combined analysis. The particle size distribution curve thus
can be prepared for the combined soil which will represent the distribution of
particles of different sizes in the soil mass Fig. 3.27. The percentage finer ‘N’ is
plotted as ordinate (on natural scale) and the particle size as abscissa (on
logarithmic scale).
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Table 3.38 Observations and Calculations for Hydrometer Analysis - A Sample
Date: May 08’2006

Time : 2:30 pm
(a) Percentage of soil passing 75  sieve = 65.5% 30

(b) Mass of dry soil (passing 75  sieve) Wd = 50 g M1  M2 = (GS/ Wd(GS –1))x100 = 3.198
(c) Meniscus correction (Cm) = 0.5
980(GS  1)
(d) Specific Gravity (GS) of soil = 2.67
S.No Time Time Hydro- Corrected Effective Tempe- Cd (He/t)0.5  (poise) Factor Particle Ct R1-Cd+Ct % finer % finer
(hrs. as Elapsed metric Hydrometer Depth rature M1 Size ‘D’ (5)- than than
in (min) Reading Reading (He) (oC) (mm) (8)+(13) w.r.to w.r.to
watch) (Rh) R1=Rh+Cm (9)x(11) mass mass
‘Wd’ ‘Wd’
M2x(14) M2x(14)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
1 1000 0.5 29.5 30.0 7.83 29.0 2.5 3.96 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.05 0.2 27.7 88.58 58.0
2 1001 1 28.0 28.5 8.50 29.0 2.5 2.92 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.036 0.2 26.2 83.78 54.8
3 1002 2 26.0 26.5 9.25 29.0 2.5 2.15 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.026 0.2 24.2 77.39 50.7
4 1004 4 23.0 23.5 10.62 29.0 2.5 1.63 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.020 0.2 21.2 67.80 44.4
5 1008 8 21.0 21.5 11.25 29.0 2.5 1.19 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.015 0.2 19.2 61.40 40.2
6 1015 15 18.0 18.5 12.50 29.0 2.5 0.91 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.011 0.2 16.2 51.81 33.9
7 1030 30 16.0 16.5 13.25 29.0 2.5 0.66 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.008 0.2 14.2 45.41 29.7
8 1100 60 12.5 13.0 14.81 29.0 2.5 0.50 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.006 0.2 10.7 34.22 22.4
9 1200 120 11.5 12.0 15.25 29.0 2.5 0.36 8.18x10-3 0.122 0.004 0.2 9.7 31.02 20.3
10 1400 240 8.5 9.0 16.50 30.0 3.0 0.26 8.00x10-3 0.121 0.0037 0.5 6.5 20.79 13.6
11 1800 480 7.0 7.5 17.12 30.0 3.0 0.19 8.00x10-3 0.121 0.0023 0.5 5.0 15.99 10.5
12 2000 1440 5.0 5.5 17.75 29.5 2.5 0.11 8.09x10-3 0.122 0.0013 0.35 3.35 10.7 7.0
* Multiply the value given in column (11) by 10-1 Source: Mittal, S and Shukla, J.P., 2003 “Soil Testing for Engineers”, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, India
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Plasticity Characteristics of Soils
The plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo deformation without cracking or

fracturing. A plastic soil can be moulded into various shapes when it is wet.
Plasticity is an important index property of fine grained soils, especially clayey soils.
Plasticity in soils is due to presence of clay minerals. The clay particles carry a
negative charge on their surfaces. The water molecules are dipolar and are
attracted towards the clay surface. The phenomenon is known as adsorption of
water. Plasticity of the soil is due to adsorbed water. The clay particles are
separated by layers of adsorbed water which allow them to slip over one another.
Consistency Limits or Atterbergs Limits
The consistency of a fine grained soil is the physical state in which it exists. It is
used to denote the degree of firmness of a soil. Consistency of a soil is indicated by
such terms as soft, firm or hard.
In 1911, a Swedish agriculture engineer Atterberg mentioned that a fine grained

soil can exist in four states; namely, liquid, plastic, semi-solid or solid-state. The
water contents at which the soil changes from one state to the other are known as
consistency limits or Atterberg limits.
Liquid State
The water content at which the soil changes

from the liquid state to the plastic state is
known as liquid limit. Liquid limit is the
water content at which the soil has such a
small shear strength that it flows to close a
groove of standard width when jarred in a
specified manner. The liquid limit is
determined in the laboratory either by
Casagrande’s apparatus or by cone penet- Fig. 3.31 Casagrande’s Apparatus
rometer method.
Casagrande’s Method
Casagrande’s apparatus consists of a brass cup which drops through a height of 1

cm on a hard rubber base when operated by the handle (Fig. 3.31). For the
determination of liquid limit of a soil sample about 100 g of the specimen passing
through 425  sieve is thoroughly mixed with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of the liquid limit apparatus. Later, the
soil mix is leveled so as to have a maximum depth of 1 cm. Draw the grooving tool
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through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the groove tool
perpendicular to the cup. Now rotate the handle of the casagrande apparatus at a
rate of about 2 revolutions per seconds and the number of blows are counted till the
two parts of the soil sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove. Further,
take about 10 g of soil near the closed groove and determine the water content of
the soil by oven drying method.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Determination of Moisture content
Take about 10 gm of soil near the closed groove in a metal container and weigh
with lid. Remove the lid of the container and place the container in the oven set at
105o –110oC. Dry the soil specimen in oven till its mass is constant. Now weigh the
specimen with container and lid. Remove the soil specimen and clean the metallic
container properly and weigh the empty container with lid.
Table 3.39 Observation for moisture content
S. No Particulars 1 2 3
1. Container No. 12
2. Weight of container with lid W1 (gm) 22.50
3. Weight of container + wet soil W2 (gm) 55.10
4. Weight of container + dry soil W3 (gm) 49.31
5. Weight of moisture WW (gm) 5.79
6. Weight of dry soil WS(gm) 26.81
7. Moisture content W% 21.6
The moisture content (W) is calculated as;
W = ((W2-W3)/ (W3-W1)) x 100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
By altering the water content of the soil and repeating the procedure, as discussed
above, obtain at least 5 readings in the range 20 –35 blows. The liquid limit is
determined by plotting the graph on the semi-logarithmic graph between the
number of blows as abscissa on a logarithmic scale and the corresponding water
content as ordinate on simple linear scale. From the graph the water content
corresponding to 25 blows shows the liquid limit (Fig. 3.32).
Liquid limit by one point method
For this method make a paste of 60 gm sample at a suitable water content so that
test results lie between suitable water content so that test results lie between 15 –
30 blows for soils with liquid limit less than 50 % and range from 20-30 blows for
higher liquid limit.
WL = W C1 …….. 3.90
Where, WL is the liquid limit, W is the water content (%) corresponding to N blows
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and C1 depends on N blows, Table 3.40 gives the values of C 1 for N blows value in
the range 15-35.
Table 3.40 Values of ‘C1 ‘corresponding to ‘N’ blows
Blows (N) C1 Blows (N) C1

15 0.950 26 1.004
16 0.956 27 1.008
17 0.962 28 1.011
18 0.968 29 1.015
19 0.973 30 1.018
20 0.978 31 1.022
21 0.983 32 1.025
22 0.987 33 1.028
23 0.992 34 1.031
24 0.996 35 1.034
25 1.000
Liquid Limit determination by

Cone Penetrometer method
Cone Penetrometer apparatus

consists of a stainless steel
cone having an apex angle of
30o and a length of 35 mm.
The cone is fitted at the lower

end of the rod which is fitted
with a disc at its top. The total
mass of the cone, sliding rod
and the disc is 80 gm. Fig. 3.32 Determination of liquid limit
Test Procedure
About 120 gm of dried sample passing 425  sieve is taken in a dish and mixed
with distilled water to form a uniform paste. The soil pat is placed in a cup of 50 mm
internal diameter and 50 mm height. The cup is filled with sample, taken care so as
not to entrap air. Excess soil is removed and the surface of the soil is leveled up.
The cup is placed below the cone, and the cone is gradually lowered so as to just
touch the surface of the soil in cup. The graduated scale is adjusted to zero. The
cone is released and allowed to penetrate the soil for 30 seconds. The water
content at which the penetration is 25 mm is the liquid limit. Since it is difficult to
obtain the penetration of 25 mm exactly, liquid limit is determined as;
WL = WY + 0.01(25-Y)(WY+15) ……..3.91
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Where, Y is the penetration (in mm) when the

water content is WY and WL is the liquid limit.
The above equation is applicable provided the

depth of penetration ‘Y’ is between 20 – 30
mm.
Plastic Limit
Plastic limit is the water content below which

the soil stops behaving as a plastic material. It
Fig. 3.33 Cone Penetrometer begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of
soil of 3mm diameter.
Test Procedure
About 15 gm of oven dried soil specimen passing through 425  sieve is taken and
mixed thoroughly with distilled water until the soil mass becomes plastic enough to
be easily molded into a ball with fingers.
Take a portion of the ball and roll it on a glass plate with the palm of the hand to
form the soil mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length. Take
care that the diameter should be around 3 mm. When a diameter of 3 mm is
reached, the soil is remolded again into a ball. This process of rolling and remolding
is repeated until the thread starts just crumbling.
The crumbled threads are kept for water content determination. Repeat this test for
3 times and the average value of water content will give plastic limit.
Plasticity Index
The plasticity index may be calculated as the difference of liquid limit and plastic
limit;
Plasticity Index, I p = WL - W P ……3.92
Liquidity Index
Liquidity Index, IL = (W - WP)/ Ip x 100 ……3.93
Where, ‘W’is the water content of the soil in natural condition. I P is the plasticity
index and WP is the plastic limit.
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When the soil is at its liquid limit, it’s liquidity index is 100% and it behaves as a
liquid. When the soil is at the plastic limit, its liquidity index is zero.
Fig. 3.34 shows the Atterberg limits and the states of soil consistency defined by
them (from USBR, 1968)
Consistency Index
Consistency Index, IC = (WL - W)/
Ip x 100 ……3.93
Where, ‘W’is the water content of

the soil in natural condition. IP is
the plasticity index and WL is the
liquid limit. The consistency index Fig. 3.34 Atterberg limits and the states of soil
indicates the consistency (firm- consistency defined by them (from USBR, 1968)
ness) of the soil.
It shows nearness of the water content of the soil to its plastic limit. A soil with a
consistency index of zero is at the liquid limit. A soil at water content equal to the
plastic limit has a consistency index of 100%, indicating that soil is firm.
Measurement of Consistency
Consistency of a soil is its resistance to deformation. For quantitative measurement

of consistency, it is related to compressive strength. The unconfined compressive
strength (qu) of a soil is equal to the failure load per unit area when a standard
cylindrical specimen is tested in an unconfined compressive testing machine.
Table 3.41 presents consistency in terms of consistency index and unconfined

compressive strength (qu).
Sensitivity
A cohesive soil in its natural state of occurrence has a certain structure. When the
structure is disturbed, the soil become remolded and its engineering properties are
changed. Sensitivity (St) of a soil indicates its weakness due to remolding.
St = (qu)u / (qu)r …….. 3.94
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Where, (qu)u is the unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed clay and (q u)r
is the unconfined compressive strength of remolded clay. Table 3.42 presents the
classification of soils based on sensitivity.
Table 3.41 Consistency in terms of consistency index and unconfined compressive
strength (qu).
S.No Consistency Consistency Unconfined Characteristic of soil

Index (%) compressive
strength (qu)
(kN/m2)
1 Very soft 0 - 25 < 25 Fist can be pressed into soil.
2 Soft 25 - 50 25 - 50 Thumb can be pressed into soil.
3 Medium 50 - 75 50 - 100 Thumb can be pressed with pressure.
4 Stiff 75 - 100 100 - 200 Thumb can be pressed with great
difficulty.
5 Very stiff > 100 200 - 400 The soil can be readily indented with
thumb nail.
6 Hard > 100 > 400 The soil can be indented with difficulty by
thumb nail.
Table 3.42 Classification of soils based on sensitivity.
S.No Sensitivity Soil Type

1 < 1.0 Insensitive
2 1.0 – 2.0 Little sensitive
3 2.0 – 4.0 Moderately sensitive
4 4.0 – 8.0 Sensitive
5 8.0 – 16.0 Extra sensitive
6 > 16.0 Quick
For most clays sensitivity lies between 2 and 4. In case of sensitive clays
remoulding causes a large reduction in strength.
Activity of soils
Activity (A) of the soil is the ratio

of the plasticity index and the
percentage of the clay fraction
(soil fraction passing 2 sieve).
A = Ip / F …….. 3.95
Where, Ip is plasticity index and

F is clay fraction.
Activity of a soil is a measure of

the water holding capacity of
clayey soils.
Fig. 3.35 Plot between clay fraction and
plasticity index
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The change in the volume of clay soil during swelling or shrinkage depends on activity. A
number of sample of a particular soil are taken and their plasticity index and clay fractions
are determined.
If a plot is drawn between
the clay fraction (as
abscissa) and the plasticity
index (as ordinate), the
slope of the line thus
obtained gives the activity
of the soil (Fig. 3.35).
Table 3.43 Classification of

soils
based on activity.
S.No Activity Soil

type
1 A < 0.75 Inactive
2 A = 0.75 to Normal
1.25
3 A > 1.25 Active
Fig. 3.36 Chart for determining the activity level of

a soil mass.
3.4.4 Soil Classification for Engineering Use
Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the
soils in a particular group have similar behaviour. It is a sort of labelling of soils with
different labels. As there is a wide variety of soils covering earth, it is desirable to
systematize or classify the soils into broad groups of similar behaviour. It is more
convenient to study the behaviour of groups than that of individual soils. For a soil
classification system to be useful to the geotechnical engineers, it must have the
following basic requirements;
(i) It should have a limited number of groups.
(ii) It should be based on the engineering properties which are most

relevant for the purpose for which the classification has been made.
(iii) It should be simple and should use the terms which are easily
understood.
If the classification of a soil has been done according to some standard

classification system, its properties and behaviour can be estimated based on the
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experience gained from similar soils elsewhere. However the engineering

properties thus, estimated by classification system are indicative only. For final
design of large structures, the detailed engineering properties should be
determined by conducting elaborate tests on undisturbed samples.
Unified Soil Classification
The United Soil Classification system (USC) was developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (USAE) and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) assisted
by Dr. A. Casagrande and based on his earlier Airfield Classification (Casagrande,
1948). The USC classification was published in 1953 by both agencies (USAE,
1953; USBR, 1953). It has since been adopted by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) as the standard classification of soils for engineering
purposes (ASTM,1983). It is equally accepted and utilised worldwide.
The USC system is a textural-plasticity classification scheme. Soil are divided into
two major groups (Table 3.44), coarse grained and fine grained soils, using the
sieve No. 200 as the size criteria. When more than half of the soil sample is larger
than the No. 200 sieve (0.075mm), it is classified as coarse grained and is further
subdivided by sieving and gradation. When more than half of the soil sample is
smaller than sieve No 200, it is classified as fine grained and is subdivided primarily
by liquid limit values and degree of plasticity. The presence of organic matter is an
additional classification factor for fine grained soils.
Paired letter symbols are used for each soil group in the USC system. The first
symbol refers the predominance particle size. The second symbol for coarse
grained soils refers to gradation for clean (little or no fines) soils and the presence
of silt and clay size particles for soils with appreciable amounts of fines. The
second symbol for fine grained soils sub-divided on the basis of low (L) or high (H)
plasticity. Table 3.45 summarizes these symbols.
Laboratory determination of liquid limit and plasticity indexes for a soil sample
permits assignment of fine grained soils (including the fine fraction of coarse
grained soils) to the proper group by use of the ‘plasticity chart’, or ‘A-Line diagram’
(Casagrande, 1948), as illustrated by Fig. 3.37. Field test procedures may be used
to estimate the group to which a fine grained soil should be assigned prior to more
definitive laboratory testing. The tests are measures of crushing strength, dilatancy
and toughness, all measures of relative proportions of silt and clay sizes and
plasticity. The three tests are summarized and related to USC groups in Table 3.46
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The USC system includes typical soil names with the classification system. Soils
that are intermediate between two groups may be identified symbolically by
combined notations such as SM-ML and SC-CL.
The USC system uses both the particle size analysis and plasticity characteristics
of soils. In this system, the soils are classified into 15 groups (Table 3.44). The soils
are first classified into two broad categories.
Table 3.44 Unified soil classification system (USC)
Group
Major Division Typical Names Classification criteria
Symbol
(b) More than 12% passing No. 200, GM, GC, SM, SC(a) Less than 5% passing No. 200, GW, GP, SW, SPPercentage of fines
Coarse Grained Well graded Cu > 4
GW
soils. (More than Clean gravels CC = 1 to 3
50% retained on Gravel Poorly graded Not meeting both criteria for
No. 200 sieve GP
gravels GW
( 0.075 mm)) Atterberg
Gravel (50%
Limits below
or more of
A-Line or
coarse GM Silty gravels
plasticity
fraction Atterberg
index less
retained on Limits in
Gravels than 4
No. 4 sieve hatched
( 4.75 mm)) with fines Atterberg
area GM-
Limits above
GC
A-Line or
GC Clayey gravels
plasticity
index greater
than 7
Sands (more Well graded Cu > 6
SW
than 50% of Clean sands CC = 1 to 3
coarse sands Poorly graded Not meeting both criteria for
SP
fraction sands SW
passing No. 4 Sands Atterberg Atterberg
sieve (4.75 with fines Limits below Limits in
mm) A-Line or hatched
SM Silty sands
plasticity area SM-SC
index less
than 4
SC Clayey sands Atterberg
Limits above
A-Line or
plasticity
index greater
than 7
III-80
(c) 5 to 12% passing No. 200 use of dual symbols as GW-GM,

SP-SC
Inorganic silts or
ML
low plasticity
Inorganic clays
Silts and clays Liquid Limit
CL of low to medium
50% or less.
plasticity
Fine Grained
Organic silts of
Soils. (50% or OL
low plasticity
more passing Consult Plasticity chart (Fig. 3.37)
Inorganic silts or
No. 200 sieve MH
high plasticity
(0.075 mm)
Inorganic clays
Silts and clays Liquid Limit CH
of high plasticity
greater than 50%
Organic clays of
OH medium to high
plasticity
Peat, muck and
Highly Organic Soils PT other highly Visual-manual identification
organic soils
(Johnson and Degraff, 1991)
Table 3.45 Key to symbols used by USC system
Primary Group Symbol Modified Group Symbol

G - Gravel size W - Well-graded coarse materials
S - Sand size P - Poorly graded coarse materials
M - Silt size M - Silt fines
C - Clay size C - Clay fines
O - Organic material L - Low plasticity
H - High plasticity
Coarse-grained soils – If
more than 50% of soil is
retained on sieve No. 200
( 0.075 mm), it is
designated as coarse
grained soils. There are 8
groups of coarse grained
soils.
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Fine-grained soils – If
more than 50% of soil
passes sieve 200 ( 0.075
mm), it is designated as
Fig. 3.37 Plasticity chart for classification of fine grained

soils from Atterberg limits.
fine grained soils. There are 6 groups of fine grained soils.
Table 3.46 Summary of field tests for assignment of fine grained soils to USC Groups
Identification procedures on fraction smaller than No. 40 sieve size ( 0.42mm)

Dry strength Dilatancy (Reaction Toughness
Fine grained
(Crushing to shaking) (Consistency
soils more Silts and clays characteristic) near Plastic Limit)
than half of Liquid limit less None to slight
material is Quick to slow None ML
than 50
smaller than Medium to high None to very slow Medium CL
No. 200 sieve Slight to medium Slow Slight OL
size. Silts and clays Slight to medium Slow to none Slight to medium MH
Liquid limit High to very high None High CH
greater than 50 Medium to high None to very slow Slight to medium OH
Readily identified by colour, odor, spongy feel and frequently by PT
Highly organic soils fibrous texture.
Coarse-grained soils – The coarse grained soils are designated as gravel (G) if
50% or more of coarse fraction (plus 0.075 mm) is retained on No. 4 (4.75 mm)
sieve, otherwise it is termed as sand (S).
If the coarse grained soils contains less than 5% fines and are well graded (W),
they are given the symbols GW and SW, and if poorly graded (P), symbols GP and
SP. The criteria for well graded are given in Table 3.44. If the coarse grained soils
contain more than 12% fines, these are designated as GM, GC, SM or SC, as per
criteria given. If the percentage of fines is between 5 to 12 % dual symbols such as
GW-GM, SP-SM, are used.
Fine-grained soils – Fine grained soils are further divided into two types: (i) Soils of
low compressibility (L) if the liquid limit is 50% or less. These are given the
symbols ML, CL and OL. (ii) Soils of high compressibility (H) if the liquid limit is
more than 50%. These are given the symbol MH, CH and OH. The exact type of
soil is determined from the plasticity chart (Fig. 3.37). The A-Line has the equation
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IP = 0.73 (wl-20). It separates the clays from silts. When the plasticity index and the
liquid limit plot falls in the hatched portion of the plasticity chart, the soil is given
double symbol CL-ML.
The inorganic soil ML and MH and the organic soils OL, OH plot in the same zones
of the plasticity chart. The distinction between the inorganic and organic soils is
made by oven drying. If oven drying decreases the liquid limit by 30% or more, the
soil is classified organic (OL or OH); otherwise, inorganic (ML or MH).
Highly Organic soils – Highly organic soils are identified by visual inspection. These
soils are termed peat (PT).
Other Soil Classifications
In addition to the USC system, an engineering soil classification was developed by

the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads in 1928. It is the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Classification of highway
subgrade materials (AASHO, 1961). It is also a textural-plasticity classification that
uses sieved fractions and Atterberg limits for assignment of soils to seven main
groups and several sub-groups (Table 3.47). The classification is more specific
than the USC system in the limits placed on size ranges and amounts and ranges
of liquid limits and plasticity indexes for fines.
Rather than using the No. 4 sieve (4.75mm) of the USC system as the upper limit
of the sand size range, the AASHTO classification uses the No. 10 sieve (2.0 mm)
as the upper size limit of sand. However, the No. 200 sieve (0.075mm) used in the
USC system is retained to separate the finer fractions from sand.
Other soil classification systems are Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

classification, British Standard Code of Practice CP2001 and Indian Standard
Classification System (ISC).
Comparison of AASHTO and USC System
AASHTO System was mainly designed to workout the suitability of the sub-grade of
the highways only. USC System is for determining the suitability of soils for general
use. Both the systems, however, have the same basis. They classify the soils
according to the particle size analysis and the plasticity characteristics. Both the
systems divide the soils into two major categories, namely coarse grained and the
fine grained soils. The major differences between the two systems are as follows;
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(i) According to AASHTO system, a soil is termed fine-grained if more than

35% passes No. 200 (0.075mm) sieve, whereas in the USC system, if more
than 50% passes that sieve. In this respect , the AASHTO system is
somewhat better because the soil behaves as fine-grained when the
percentage of fines is 35%, and the limit of 50% in USC system is some
what higher.
Table 3.47 AASHTO Classification of Soils
General Classification Granular Materials (35% or less passing No. 200 sieve (0.075 Silt clay Materials More than
mm) 35% passing No. 200 Sieve
(0.075 mm)
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
Classification A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
(a) Sieve analysis
Percent passing
50
(i) 2.00 mm (No.10)
max.
30 50 51
(ii) 0.425mm (No 40)
max. max. min.
15 25 10 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36
(iii) 0.075 mm (No.200)
max. max. max. max. max. max. max. min min. min. min.
(b) Characteristics of
fraction passing
0.425 mm No.40)
40 41 40 41 40 41 40 41
(i) Liquid Limit
max. min. max. min. max. max. max. min.
N.P.
10 10 11 11 10 10 11 11
(ii) Plasticity index 6 max.
max. max. min. min. max. max. max. min*
(c) Usual types of
Stone fragments Fine
significant constituent Silty or Clayey Gravel Sand Silty soils Clayey soils
Gravel and Sand Sand
materials.
(d) General rating as
Excellent to good Fair to poor
subgrade.
* If plasticity index is equal to or less than (Liquid limit – 30), the soil is A-7-5 (i.e. PL > 30%)
If plasticity index is greater than (Liquid limit – 30), the soil is A-7-6 (i.e. PL < 30%)
(ii) In AASHTO system, sieve No. 10 (2.0 mm size) is used to divide the soil
into gravel and sand, whereas in USC, sieve No. 4 (4.75 mm size) is used.
(i) In USC system the gravely and sandy soils are clearly separated,
whereas in AASHTO system, clear demarcation is not done. The soil A-2 in
the latter system contains a large variety of soils.
(ii) Symbols used in USC system are more descriptive and are more easily
remembered than those in AASHTO system.
(iii) Organic soils are also classified as OL, OH and as Peat (PT) if highly
organic in USC system. In AASHTO system, there is no description for
organic soils.
(iv) USC system is more convenient to use than the AASHTO system.
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Table 3.48 Approximate equivalence between AASHTO and USC system
AASHTO System USC System (most probable)

A-1-a GW, GP
A-1-b SW, SM, GM, SP
A-2-4 GM, SM
A-2-5 GM, SM
A-2-6 GC, SC
A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC
A-3 SP
A-4 ML, OL, MH, OH
A-5 MH, OH, ML, OH
A-6 CL
A-7-5 OH, MH, CL, OL
A-7-6 CH, CL, OH
(Arora, K.R., 1997)
3.4.5 General characteristics of soils of different groups
General characteristics of soils of different groups as classified by USC system are

given in Table 3.49. The information given in the Table should be considered as a
rough guidance about the engineering properties of soils. For complete information,
elaborate tests should be conducted in order to determine the engineering
properties of the soils.
Table 3.49 General engineering properties of the soils
Soil Group Permeability Compressibility Shear strength Workability

(a) Gravels
GW Pervious Negligible Excellent Excellent
GP Very pervious Negligible Good Good
GM Semi-pervious to Negligible Good Good
impervious
GC Impervious Very low Good to fair Good
(b) Sands
SW Pervious Negligible Excellent Excellent
SP Pervious Very low Good Fair
SM Semi-pervious to Low Good Fair
impervious
SC Impervious Low Good to fair Good
(c) Low and medium plasticity silt and clays
ML, MI Semi-pervious to Medium Fair Fair
impervious
CL,CI Impervious Medium Fair Good to Fair
OL, OI Semi-pervious to Medium Fair Fair
impervious
(d) High plasticity silts and clays
MH Semi-pervious to High Fair to poor Poor
impervious
CH Impervious High Poor Poor
OH Impervious High Poor Poor

(Arora, K.R., 1997)
3.4.6 The Engineering Properties of Soils
The suitability of soil for a particular use depends on its response to that use.
Suitability usually depends on one or more engineering properties of a soil. These
III-85
properties are determined through the use of the physical characteristics and there
interrelationships. The performance of engineering works will depend on the correct
assessment of engineering properties to determine suitability and to predict
performance of a soil for its intended use. Two engineering properties are
especially important to many types of engineering works and situations involving
soils. The first property is the degree to which soil will change volume under a
applied load. This is termed as compressibility. A structure placed on a highly
compressible soil is likely to suffer settlement damage as the soil decreases under
the application of this static load. The second engineering property is shear
strength. This property is the resistance of soil to sliding of one mass against
another.
Compressibility
Construction often involves the use of soil to make a structure or the placement of a
structure made of other materials on a soil foundation. In either case, the
compressibility of the soil used is an important consideration. Compressibility is the
decrease in volume of a soil mass as a consequence of either natural or artificial
means. This volume change is primarily due to a change in the volume of voids. To
a lesser extent, it can also result from a change in the volume of solids.
Consolidation is the form of compressibility that occurs under a static load.

Consolidation is basically the process of driving water from the voids in a soil mass.
If consolidation is not taken into consideration, it can lead to settlement that may
seriously damage the structure being founded on the soil.
Compaction is an artificial densification of soil. It is a basic requirement whenever

soil is used as a construction material. Reducing the volume of voids for this
purpose is commonly accomplished by vibrating or loading and unloading the soil
mass. The moisture content has a significant role in compaction of the soil. Altering
the moisture of the soil during the compaction effort can facilitate in obtaining
maximum compaction.
Consolidation of soil
When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force its volume decreases. The
property of the soil due to which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive
forces is known as the compressibility of soil. The compression of soils can occur
due to one or more of the following causes.
(i) Compression of solid particles and water in voids.

(ii) Compression and expulsion of air in the voids.
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(iii) Expulsion of water in the voids.
Compression of solid particles is negligibly small. Compression of water in the

voids is also extremely small, as the water is almost incompressible in the range of
stresses involved in soil engineering. Therefore, the main cause of compression is
due to the expulsion of water from the voids and due to decrease in the volume of
voids.
As the consolidation of soils occurs, the water escapes. The solid particles shift
from one position to the other by rolling and sliding and thus attain a closer packing.
Settlement of structure is its vertical, downward movement due to a volume

decrease of the soil. The settlement is the gradual sinking of a structure due to
compression of the soil below. A study of consolidation characteristics is extremely
useful for forecasting the magnitude and time of the settlement of the structure.
The consolidation of the soil can be sub-divided into three types;
(i) Initial consolidation - When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a

decrease in volume occurs due to expulsion and compression of air in voids.
A small decrease in volume also occurs due to compression of solid
particles. The reduction in volume of the soil just after the application of the
load is known as initial consolidation or initial compression. For saturated
soils, the initial consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles.
(ii) Primary consolidation - After initial consolidation, further reduction in

volume occurs due to expulsion of water from voids. When a saturated soil is
subjected to a pressure, initially all the applied pressure is taken up by water
as an excess pore water pressure, as water is almost incompressible as
compared with solid particles. A hydraulic gradient develops and the water
starts flowing out and a decrease in volume occurs. The decrease depends
on the permeability of the soil and is, therefore, time dependent. This
reduction in volume is called primary consolidation.
(iii) Secondary consolidation - The reduction in volume continues at a very

slow rate even after the excess hydrostatic pressure developed by the
applied pressure is fully dissipated and the primary consolidation is
completed. This additional reduction in volume is called secondary
consolidation.
Consolidation Test
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Consolidation of soil is the process of compression by gradual reduction of pores

under a steady applied pressures. The main purpose of the consolidation test is to
obtain soil data required for predicting the rate and amount of settlement of
structures. The data can also be used to develop void ratio (e) versus pressure (p)
curve generally for cohesive soils.
The object of the conso-

lidation test is to obtain the
compressibility i.e.
consolidation character-
ristic of a soil by one
dimension consolidation
using consoledometer
apparatus.
Apparatus Required
Fig. 3.38 Section of Floating Ring consolidation cell
(i) Consolidation ring – The ring of minimum 60 mm diameter and 20 mm
height, made of non-corrosive material having a smooth and highly polished
inner surface. For convenience in preparation of soil specimen, the ring is
provided with the cutting edge.
(ii) Porous Stone (2 nos.) – (a) bottom stone of 65 mm diameter to support
consolidation ring and top stone of 59 mm diameter each with 12 mm
thickness. (b) Both of 59 mm diameter and thickness as 12 mm.
(iii) Consolidation cell – It is a container made of non-corrosive material to
place the consolidation ring containing soil specimen. A water filling system
is attached with the base plate of the cell to saturate the soil specimen.
(iv) Dial Gauge – Having a least count of 0.002 mm and a minimum travel
capacity of 10 mm.
(v) Loading Ram – Comprises of a counter balanced loading beam and a
weigh hanger. The device should be capable of applying vertical load to the
soil specimen through a suitable loading yoke.
(vi) Set of weights – The weight should be slotted type to give a loading
sequence of 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 kg/ cm 2 to the test
specimen.
(vii) Jack – To eject the soil from the sampling tubes.
(viii) Jig – For holding the consolidation ring above the sampling tube for direct
jacking method.
(ix) Trimming equipment – Metallic straight edge, trimming knife and wire
saw.
(x) Balance – 0.01g accuracy.
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(xi) Density bottle - !00 cc capacity.

(xii) Vacuum pump.
(xiii) Dish 2 nos.
(xiv) Oven – Thermostatically controlled between 105 o – 110o C.
(xv) Stop watch.
Observations from the test
The void ratio (e) of a soil specimen under any applied pressure (p) may be
computed using the following relationship;
e = (H – Hs) / Hs …….3.96
Where, H is the height of soil specimen at the end of each pressure increment (cm)
HS is equivalent height of solids (cm), which is determined as follows;
WS
HS  …….3.97
G. w . A
Where, ‘WS’ is the dry weight of the specimen (g), ‘G’ is the specific gravity of the
solid particles, ‘w’ is the unit weight of water (g/cc) and ‘A’ is the cross-sectional
area of the soil specimen (cm2).
From the test observations ‘e – log p’ curve is prepared (Fig. 3.39). Later coefficient
of volume change (mv) and compression index (CC) is computed as;
H 1
mV  . …….3.98
H i 
The CC is the slope of the straight line portion of the e-logp curve as shown in Fig.
3.39. which is determined as;
ei  e f
CC 
  …….3.99
log10  f 
 i 
where, i is the initial pressure, f is the final pressure, ei is the void ratio at initial
Pressure and ef is the void
ratio at final pressure.
For determination of mV
between any two selected
pressures, we need values
III-89
of H, Hi and . From the

plot (Fig. 3.39) let us select
two pressures say, 5.04 and
10.08 kg/cm2 for which
corresponding thickness of
sample are 1.857 and 1.783
cm, respectively. The chan-
ge in thickness (H) = 1.857
– 1.783 = 0.074 cm. The
Fig. 3.39 void ratio (e) verses pressure plot

The initial thickness (Hi) of the sample for this pressure is 1.857 cms. The
increment of pressure () = 10.08 – 5.04 = 5.04 kg/cm2.
Hence, mV = 0.074 / (1.857 x 5.04) = 7.91 x 10-2 cm2/kg.
The value of CC is determined between 2 points where curve gets straightened

(Fig. 3.39).
i is the initial pressure (5.04 kg/cm2)

f is the final pressure (20.16 kg/cm2)
ei is the void ratio at initial Pressure (0.549)
ef is the void ratio at final pressure (0.432)
Thus, CC = (0.549 – 0.432) / log(20.16 / 5.04) = 0.194
The approximate value of C C may also be computed as per Indian Standard (IS
8009 (Part 1), 1976 ;
CC = 0.3 (eo – 0.27) ….3.100
Where, eo = initial void ratio = (G. w / d) –1
Also, CC = 0.009 (wl –10)
Consolidation settlement
The consolidation settlement SC of a normally consolidated clay soil may be

calculated as;
III-90
H ( P  P )
SC  CC log10 o ….3.101
1  e0 Po
where, H is the thickness of the clay layer, e o is the initial void ratio at mid-height of
layer, CC is the compression index, Po is the initial effective overburden pressure at
mid-height of layer and P is the pressure increment.
The consolidation settlement SC of a precompressed clay soil may be computed as;
SC = P. mV . H ….3.102
Where, mV is the coefficient of volume compressibility.
Compaction of soils
Compaction means pressing the soil particles close to each other by mechanical
methods. Air during compaction is expelled from the void space in the soil mass
and therefore, the mass density is increase. Compaction of a soil is done to
improve its engineering properties. Compaction generally increases the shear
strength of the soil, it means that the stability and the bearing capacity of the soil
will improve. It is also useful in reducing the compressibility and permeability of the
soil.
Compaction is an entirely different process than the consolidation. Even though the
two processes are responsible for reduction in the volume of the soil mass, still
these processes are different on account of;
(i) Consolidation is a gradual process of reduction of volume under

sustained, static loading, whereas compaction is a rapid process of
reduction of volume by mechanical means such as rolling, tamping and
vibration.
(ii) Consolidation causes a reduction in volume of a saturated soil due to

squeezing out of water from the soil, whereas in compaction, the volume of a
partially saturated soil decreases because of expulsion of air from voids at
the unaltered water content.
(iii) Consolidation is a process which occur in nature when the saturated soil
deposits are subjected to static loads caused by the weight of the buildings
and other structures. In contrast , compaction is an artificial process which is
done to increase the density of the soil to improve its properties before it is
put to any use.
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Compaction of Cohesive Soils - Role of Moisture In Compaction
The water plays an important role in the compaction of fine grained soils. The water
acts as a lubricant and facilitate in expulsion of air from the voids and movement of
the soil grains in the voids. If water is more it hinders the movement of soil grains
as it occupies the voids. Therefore, the moisture content should be optimum so as
to obtain the maximum benefits of compaction.
Cohesive soils follow the principles of òptimum moisture content’ as described by

proctor. The compacted effort is measured by the energy imparted to a unit volume
of the soil. In the laboratory it is controlled by the free fall under gravity of a rammer
of known weight through a specified height and a specified number of times on a
given soil volume. In the field compaction is imparted by a number of passes of a
roller of specified type, weight and dimensions on a soil layer of specified thickness.
The mode of compaction and type of roller used, exert an appreciable influence on
the òptimum moisture content’ and the maximum dry density even with the same
compacted effort.
The standard proctor compaction has been found to approximate to the actual field
compaction achieved by 12 passes of the standard 20 tonne dual drum roller on 20
to 22.5 cm loose layers compacted to about 15 cm thickness.
Determination of Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
The first laboratory compaction test was developed by Proctor in 1933 and still
widely used. In a standard proctor test a cylindrical mould is employed. The mould
has the dimension; diameter – 100 mm, high – 127.3 mm in capacity – 1000 cc.
About 2.5 kg of air dry sample of soil passing no. 4 US standard Sieve is thoroughly
mixed with a measured quantity of water. It is than kept into the mould in three
layers of approximately equal thickness. Each layer is compacted by 25 blows of
standard rammer weighing 2.6 kg and falling freely from a height of 310 mm. The
total compaction effort imparted is 12375 ft lbs/ft 3 of the soil. Weight and moisture
compact of the soil in the mould is determined. If the moist unit weight is `t’ and the
moisture content `w’ the dry unit weight `d’ is given by;
t
d = 1  W
……..3.103
A number of such tests are performed with different moisture contents. A curve is
plotted between the moisture content and the dry unit weight of the compacted soil.
The peak of the curve gives the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture
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content. The specifications

for compaction of cohesive
material in earth dams are
generally based on standard
proctor compaction and
require attainment of dry
density equal to 100% or
slightly less of proctor dry
density.
Modified Proctor Test
Modified proctor test is

applied to specify the desired
Fig. 3.40 Optimum Moisture Content
dry density where very heavy
compaction equipment is used. The test is made in standard mould of 2250 ml
capacity. Soil is compacted in 5 equal layers and 56 blows of 4.89 kg are used for
compaction. For compaction rammer is dropped from 450 mm on each layer and
compacted effort is 56, 250 ft lbs/ft 3, which is 4.6 times of standard proctor test.
Thus, higher compaction effort results in higher dry density and a lower optimum
moisture content.
G
d = w ……..3.104
1 e
eS GW
W = , e ……..3.105
G S
Where; ‘d’ is the dry unit weight, ‘G’ is the specific gravity of soil grains, ‘e’ is the
void ratio, ‘w’ is the unit weight of the water, ‘W’ is the moisture content and ‘S’ is
the Saturation ratio of the soil.
Substituting for è’ from eq. 3.105
G . w
d = GW ……..3.106
1 
S
From eq. 3.106 it is possible to obtain the relationship between dry density and
moisture content at a constant saturation rate. For a given compaction, as the
moisture content is increased beyond optimum, the percentage of air in voids
remains almost constant.
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Compaction of Non Cohesive Soils
Cohesionless soils falling under the classification GW, GP, SW and SP do not
respond to conventional rolling. Vibrations are the most effective method of
compaction for these soils. Maximum effect is obtained if the frequency of
vibrations is close to the natural frequency of the sand layer. Vibratory smooth
drum rollers, 5 to 15 tonnes in weight, with a vibration frequency of 1100 to 1500
pulses per minute are commonly used for field compaction of sand and gravel. 2 to
4 passes of the roller traveling at a speed 2.5 km/h are adequate to compact layers
of 30 to 35 cm compacted thickness. As an alternative, but less effective method is
to water then makes a few passes with a heavy crawler tractor.
Tests by Lewis on compaction of fine, medium and coarse sands by vibration at

various moisture contents indicate that approximately the same degree of
compaction could be achieved in either a dry or fully saturation condition.
Compaction of Cohesive Soils In Field
The rolling is employed to achieve the specified dry density. For rolling compaction
two types of rollers are used;
1) Sheep foot rollers

2) Pneumatic rubber tyred rollers
Sheeps Foot Rollers
Sheeps foot rollers can either be towed by crawler or be self propelled. The basic
feature of sheeps foot roller is the `feet’ or prismatic attachment welded to the
cylindrical drum of the roller. Two drums are mounted on the frame side by side.
The outside diameter of each drum is 5 ft and length is 5 to 6 ft. The weight of the
roller is 6000 kg/m of drum length. The feet are uniformly spaced 9 in center to
center. The feet extend 9 – 11 from the drum surface.
Pneumatic Rubber Tyred Rollers
These consist of an assembly of tyred wobble wheels on two axles, front and back
staggered so as to cover the full width. The wheels are mounted to have freedom in
dependent vertical movement. A cart supported on the axles can be loaded with
stones to give the required loading. Common type of Pneumatic roller used for
compaction in embankment dams are 50 tonnes roller with a tyre pressure 80 to
100 psi. 4 to 6 passes of the roller on layer 22.5 cm compacted thickness are
usually adequate to obtain the specified compaction.
III-94
Shear Strength of Soils
The shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before
the failure. Soils are seldom subjected to direct shear. However, the shear stresses
develop when the soil is subjected to direct compression. Although shear stresses
may also develop when the soil is subjected to direct compression. Although shear
stresses may also when the soil is subjected to direct tension, but these shear
stresses are not relevant, as the soil in this case fails in tension and does not fail in
shear. In field, soils are seldom subjected to tension, as it causes opening of cracks
and fissures. Thus the shear failure of a soil mass occurs when the shear stresses
induced due to the applied compressive loads exceed the shear strength of the soil.
In soils failure occurs by relative movements of the particles and not by breaking of
the particles.
Shear strength is the principal engineering property which controls the stability of a
soil mass under loads. It governs the bearing capacity of soils, the stability of
slopes in soils and the earth pressure against retaining structures. All the problems
of soil engineering are related in one way or other with the shear strength of the
soil. Shear strength is one of the most complex engineering property of the soil.
Different Types of Tests and Drainage Conditions
The following tests are used to measure the shear strength of a soil;
(i) Direct shear test (iii) Triaxial Compressive test

(ii) Unconfined Compressive test (iv) Shear vane test
The shear test must be conducted under appropriate drainage conditions that
simulate the actual field problem. In shear tests, there are two stages;
(i) Consolidation stage in which the normal stress (or confining pressure) is
applied to the specimen and it is allowed to consolidate.
(ii) Shear stage in which the shear stress is applied to the specimen to shear
it.
Depending upon the drainage conditions, there are three types of tests as
explained below;
(i) Unconsolidated – undrained Condition - In this type of test, no drainage

is permitted during the consolidation stage. The drainage is also not
permitted in shear stage.
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As no time is allowed for consolidation or dissipation of excess pore water

pressure, the test can be conducted quickly in few minutes. The test is
known as ‘unconsolidated-undrained test’ (UU test) or quick test (Q-test).
(ii) Consolidated – Undrained condition – In a consolidated undrained test,

the specimen is allowed to consolidate in the first stage. The drainage is
permitted until the consolidation is completed.
In the second stage when the specimen is sheared , no drainage is

permitted. The test is known as consolidated – undrained test (CU test). It is
also called a R-test.
The pore water pressure can be measured in the second stage if the
facilities for its measurement are available.
(iii) Consolidated – Drained condition – In a consolidated drained test, the

drainage of the specimen is permitted in both the stages. The sample is
allowed to consolidate in the first stage. When the consolidation is
completed, it is sheared at a very slow rate to ensure that fully drained
conditions exist and the excess pore water is zero. The test is known as a
consolidated drained test (CD test) or drained test. It is also known as the
slow test.
Mode of Application of Shear Force
The shear force in a shear test is applied either by increasing the shear
displacement at a given rate or by increasing the shearing force at a given rate.
Accordingly, the shear tests are either strain-controlled or stress controlled.
(i) Strain controlled tests: In a strain controlled test, the test is conducted in
such a way that the shearing strain increases at a given rate. Generally the
rate of increase of the shearing strain is kept constant, and the specimen is
sheared at a uniform rate.
The shear force acting on the specimen is measured indirectly using a

proving ring. The rate of shearing strain is controlled manually or by a gear
system attached to the electrical motor. Most of the shear tests are
conducted as strain controlled. The stress strain characteristic are easily
obtained in these tests, as the shape of the stress-strain curve beyond the
peak point can be observed only in a strain-controlled test. A strain
controlled test is easier to perform than a stress controlled test.
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(ii) Stress – Controlled tests: In a stress controlled test, the shear force is
increased at a given rate. Usually, the rate of increase of the shear force is
maintained constant. The shear load is increased such that the shear
stresses increase at a uniform rate. The resulting shear displacement are
obtained by means of a dial gauge.
Stress controlled tests are performed for conducting shear tests at a very
low rate, because an applied load can easily be kept constant for any given
period of time. Further, the load can be conveniently applied and removed.
The stress controlled test represents the field conditions more closely.
Direct Shear test
A direct shear test is conducted on a soil specimen in a shear box which is split into
two halves along a horizontal plane at its middle ( Fig. 3.41). The shear box is
made up of brass or gunmetal. It is either square or circular in plan. A square box of
size 60 x 60 x 50 mm is
commonly used. The box
is divided horizontally
such that the dividing
plane passes through
the centre. The two
halves of the box are
held together by locking
Fig. 3.41 Direct shear test pins. Suitable spacing
screws to separate the two halves are also provided. The spacing screws are fixed
to the upper half and they butt against the top of the lower half.
The box is provided with the gripper or the grid plates, which are toothed and fitted
inside. The gripper plates are plain (without perforation) for undrained tests and
perforated for drained test. Porous stones are placed at the top and bottom of the
specimen in drained test. A pressure pad of brass or gun metal is fitted at the top of
the box to transmit the normal load to the sample. The normal load from the loading
yoke is applied on the top of the specimen through a steel ball bearing upon the
pressure pad.
The lower half of the box is fixed to the base plate which is rigidly held in position in
a large container. The large container is supported on rollers. The container can be
pushed forward at a constant rate by a geared jack which works as a strain
controlled device. The jack can be operated manually or by an electric motor. A
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loading frame is used to support the large container. It has the arrangement of a
loading yoke and a leaver system for applying the normal load.
Test Procedure - Direct shear test can be performed on disturbed or un-disturbed

soil samples.
For un-disturbed Sample – Specimen of required size (6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm) shall

be prepared from a natural undisturbed chunk. Weigh the mould empty and with
the specimen also.
For Remoulded Specimen / Disturbed Sample – The dried soil passing through
2.36 mm sieve size is compacted at a desired density into the shear box after
keeping both the halves of the shear box together by means of the fixing screws.
To ensure the correct density of sample, take the weight of sample as multiplication
of volume of soil (90cm3, if the shear box size is 6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm) and desired
density. Divide the sample into two equal parts. One half of sample should be fully
consumed into lower half of the box and other half should be fully consumed in
upper half of the shear box. Gentle tamping to the soil sample should be done while
filling in the shear box. Keep the base plate, grid plate or porous stone before
compacting the specimen in the shear box.
For undrained test – For undrained test place the plain grid plate (non-perforated)
below the porous stone. Care should be taken to see that serrations of grid are at
right angle to the direction of shear. For consolidation of specimen and testing at
drained condition, keep the perforated grid instead of plain grid to enable the pore
water of specimen to pass through. Weigh the box with soil specimen to determine
the density of specimen. Place the shear box inside the container and keep it on
the loading frame.
Place a ball on the loading pad and mount the loading yoke on it. Adjust the dial
gauge on the loading pad to record the vertical movement and other dial gauge on
container to observe the shear movement. Put the weight on the loading yoke to
apply the normal stress of desired intensity. Apply the shear load at a constant rate
of strain by a motorised gear arrangement. Record the readings of proving ring dial
gauge and shear and vertical movement dial gauge at every minute. Continue the
test till specimen fails or at arrival of shear displacement of approximately 1.2 cm in
case of 6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm shear box. Repeat the test for different normal stress.
At least 3 such tests are required to determine the stress strain characteristics and
the shear strength parameters of the soil sample.
Laboratory Vane Shear Test
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The undrained shear strength of soft clays can be determined in a laboratory by a

vane shear test. The apparatus consists of a vertical steel rod having four thin
stainless steel blades (vanes) fixed at its bottom end. The height ‘H’ of the vane
should be equal to twice the overall diameter ‘D’. The diameter and the length of
the rod are recommended as 2.5 mm and 60 mm respectively. For conducting the
test in the laboratory, a specimen of size 38 mm
diameter and 75 mm height is taken in a container,
which is fixed properly to the base. The vane is
gradually lowered into the specimen till the top of the
vane is at a depth of 10 to 20 mm below the top of the
specimen. The reading of the strain indicator and
torque indicator are taken. Torque is applied gradually
to the upper end of the rod at the rate of about 6 o per
minute (i.e. 0.1o per second). The torque acting on the
specimen is indicated by a pointer fixed to the spring.
The torque is continued till the soil fails in shear. The
shear strength of the soil specimen is derived by using
the following formula;
T
S ……..3.107
 (D H / 2  D3 / 6
2
Fig. 3.42 Vane shear Where, ‘S’ is the shear strength in kg/cm2, ‘T’ is the
torque in cm-kg, ‘D’ overall diameter of the vane (cm) and ‘H’ is the height of the
vane in cm.
The vane shear test can be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil. After the
initial test , the vane is rotated rapidly through several revolutions such that the soil
becomes remoulded. The test is repeated on the remoulded soils and the shear
strength in remoulded state is determined. Thus, sensitivity is determined as;
( S )undisturbed
Sensitivity ( St )  ……..3.108
( S )remoulded
Illustrative Example
A 15 cm long and 7.5 cm in diameter vane was penetrated into soft clay. Recorded
failure torque was 500 kg-cm. Subsequently, the vane was rotated rapidly so as to
completely remould the soil. The remoulded soil was sheared at a torque of 200 kg-
cm. Calculate the cohesion (c) of clay in natural and remoulded states also
determine the sensitivity of the clay soil.
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Solution: For natural State, Torque, T = 500 kg-cm

D = 7.5 cm H = 15 cm
Now, using Formula;
T
S
 (D H / 2  D3 / 6
2
500
S S = 0.323 kg/cm2.
 (7.5 x15 / 2  7.53 / 6
2
Therefore, S = C = 0.323 kg/cm2 (as  = 0)
For Remoulded State, Torque, T = 200 kg-cm

D = 7.5 cm H = 15 cm
Now, using Formula;
200
Sr  Sr = 0.129 kg/cm2.
 (7.5 x15 / 2  7.53 / 6
2
Therefore, Sr = C = 0.323 kg/cm2 (as  = 0)
( S )undisturbed
Sensitivity ( St )  = 0.323 / 0.129 = 2.49
( S )remoulded
Since the value of Sensitivity is 2.49 therefore, the soil is Moderately sensitive.
Triaxial Compression Test
A triaxial compression testing apparatus is the most versatile test so far available
for shear testing of soils. In this method a soil specimen, cylindrical in shape is
subjected to direct stresses acting in three mutually perpendicular directions. In the
common cylindrical specimen tests, the major principal stress ‘1’ is applied in the
vertical direction and the other two principal stresses ‘2’ and ‘3’ (‘2’=‘3’) are
applied in the horizontal directions by the fluid pressure all around the specimen.
The test are performed on cylindrical specimens of diameters 38, 50, 70 and 100
mm. The height of the specimen should be equal to the twice of its diameter. The
ratio of diameter of the specimen and the maximum size of particles in the soil
specimen should not be less than 5. The diameter of the soil specimen to be tested
should be selected according to the nature of the soil and the maximum size of the
particle present in the sample. The specimen size should also be decided taking
into consideration the type of project. Generally, a diameter of 38 mm is suitable for
homogeneous fine grained soils.
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The main objective of the Triaxial compressive test is to determine the shear
strength parameters of the soil.
- ediately without any consolidation
and without allowing any drainage of
water. In this way, no drainage or
dissipation of pore water pressure
from soil specimen takes place
during the entire testing time.
This test is conducted for field

problems where critical stresses are
developed in a saturated soil mass
so rapidly that moisture content
Fig. 3.43 Schematic diagram of a triaxial cell does not appreciably change e.g.
bearing capacity of foundations on
Type of tests and their application saturated homogeneous clays
immediately after construction, earth
Following are the types of triaxial shear pressure agains bracings in
tests depending on the drainage conditions;
temporary excavations, stability of
Unconsolidated – Undrained Test – In this side slopes, short term stability of
test all round pressure is applied to the soil embankments and earth dams
specimen after being set in the triaxial cell, during construction.
and the shearing processes is started imm-
Consolidated – Undrained Test – The soil specimen in this case is consolidated

under a specified initial stress (which should be equal to the actual overburden
pressure acting at the depth from where the sample has been taken), by allowing
drainage of pore water from the sample before starting the actual shear test. The
sample thereafter is subjected to shear test and no drainage or dissipation of pore
water pressure from the sample is permitted.
This test is conducted for field problems where soil has consolidated under the
foundation pressure during construction or under its own weight and thereafter the
loads on the foundations increases quickly resulting in rapid change of critical
stresses allowing no further change in moisture content, e.g. stability of
consolidated earth dams and slopes of cohesive soils at rapid draw-down of water
where pore water does not get time to drain out of the voids.
Consolidated – Drained Test – In this test the soil specimen is subjected to

drainage and full consolidation throughout the test, thereby no pore pressure is
III-101
developed at any stage of test i.e. the shearing test is performed at a very slow
strain rate (0.001 mm/ minute).
This test is conducted for field problems where stresses develop within soil mass
sufficiently slowly and the changes in moisture content can take place e.g., final
bearing capacity of soils, where the foundations are constructed more slowly than
the consolidation of soil, strength of sandy soils or clay embankment where
drainage channels have been constructed.
The importance of shear test can be realized from the principle of effective stress,
which states that magnitude of shear strength is a unique function of effective
stress. Thus, this relation can be expressed by the following relation;
S = C’(t – ut) tan ……..3.109
Where, C’is the cohesion, ’ is the angle of shearing resistance, t is the total
normal stress existing on plane of failure at the time of failure and u t is the pore
water pressure at the time of failure.
For evaluating c’ and ’, at

least three specimen
should be tested.
Finally, based on the

observations for normal
and confining stresses a
Mohr diagram is drawn
from which cohesion and
Fig. 3.44 Mohr diagram to determine ‘c’and ’
angle of shearing friction is
determined.
Permeability of soils
The property of a soil which permits flow of water through it, is called the
permeability. In other words, the permeability of a soil is the ease with which water
can flow through it. A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it easily.
In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and water can not easily flow
through it. However, such completely impervious soil does not exist in nature, as all
the soils are pervious to some degree. Practically, a soil is termed impervious when
the permeability is extremely low.
Permeability is a very important engineering property of a soil. A knowledge of

permeability is essential in a number of soil engineering problems, such as
III-102
settlement of buildings, yield of wells, seepage through and below the earth
structures. The permeability of soils is also required in the design of filters used to
prevent piping in hydraulic structures.
The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy’s law. In 1856, Darcy
demonstrated experimentally that for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the
velocity of flow (v) is given by;
v = k.i ……..3.110
where, ‘k’ is the coefficient of permeability, ‘i’ is the hydraulic gradient.
The velocity of flow is also known as the discharge velocity or the superficial
velocity. Equation 3.110 is known as Darcy’s law. The discharge can be obtained
by multiplying the velocity of flow (v) by the total cross-sectional area (A) normal to
the direction of flow. Thus,
q = v. A = k.i .A ……..3.111
The area ‘A’ includes both the solids and the voids. The coefficient of permeability
can be defined using eq. 3.110. If the hydraulic gradient is unity, the coefficient of
permeability is equal to the velocity of flow. In other words, the coefficient of
permeability is defined as the velocity of flow, which would occur under unit
hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of permeability is measured in mm/sec, cm/sec,
m/sec, m/day or any other velocity units. The coefficient of permeability depends
upon the particle size and upon many other factors. Table 3.50 gives the typical
values of the coefficient of permeability of different soils.
According to USBR, the soils having the coefficient of permeability greater than 10 -3
mm/sec are classified as pervious and those with a value less than 10 -5 mm/sec as
impervious. The soil with a coefficient of permeability between 10 -5 to 10-3 mm/sec
are designated as semi pervious.
Determination of coefficient of permeability
The coefficient of permeability of a soil can be determined by following laboratory

test methods;
Constant Head Permeability Test
The coefficient of permeability of a relatively more permeable soil can be

determined in a laboratory by the constant head permeability test. The test is
conducted in an instrument known as constant head permeameter. It consist of a
III-103
metallic mould, 100 mm internal diameter, 127.3 mm effective height and 1000 ml
capacity. The mould is provided with a detachable extension collar, 100 mm
diameter and 60 mm high, required during compaction of soil. The mould is
provided with a drainage base plate with a recess for porous stone. The mould is
fitted with a drainage cap having an inlet valve and an air release valve. Fig. 3.45
Table 3.50 Typical values of the coefficient of permeability of different soils.
S.No Soil Type Coefficient of permeability (mm/sec) Drainage

properties
1. Clean gravel 10+1 to 10+2 Very good
2. Coarse and medium sand 10-2 to 10+1 Good
3. Fine sands, loose silt 10-4 to 10-2 Fair
4. Dense silt, clayey silts 10-5 to 10-4 Poor
5. Silty clay, clay 10-8 to 10-5 Very poor
(Source: Arora, K.R., 1997)
shows a schematic sketch for ‘constant

head permeameter’. The soil sample is
placed inside the mould between two
porous discs. The porous discs should be
at least ten times more permeable than the
soil. The porous discs and the water tubes
should be deaired before these are placed
in the mould. It is essential that the sample
is fully saturated. The water is allowed to
flow out from the drainage base for some
time till the steady state is established. The
water head is maintained constant in the
mould chamber. Now if the cross-section
area of the specimen is (A), the discharge
is given by; q = k.i.A
Fig. 3.45 Constant head permeameter
or q = k.h/L. A or k = qL / Ah
where, ‘L’ is the length of specimen and ‘h’ is the head causing flow.
The discharge (q) is equal to the volume of water collected divided by the time.
Variable head permeability test
For relatively less permeable soils, the quantity of water collected in the graduated
jar of the constant head permeability test is very small and can not be measured
accurately. For such soils, the variable head permeability test is used. The
III-104
permeameter mould is the same as that used in the constant head permeability
test. A vertical, graduated stand pipe of known diameter is fitted to the top of
permeameter. The sample is placed between two porous discs. The whole
assembly is placed in a constant head chamber filled with water to the brim at the
start of the test.
The test is started by allowing the water in

the stand pipe to flow through the sample to
the constant head chamber from which it
over flows and spills out. As the water flows
through the sample the water level in the
stand pipe falls. The time required for the
water level to fall from a known initial head
(h1) to a known final head (h 2) is determined.
The head is measured with reference to the
level of water in the constant-head chamber.
The coefficient of permeability is given as;
230aL
k log10 (h1 / h2 ) …….3.112
At
where, ‘a’ is the cross sectional area of the Fig. 3.45 variable head permeameter
stand pipe, A is the cross sectional area of the sample and t = (t 1 – t2) is the time
interval during which the head reduces from h 1 to h2.
******
III-105
References
Agarwal, C.K., Mehrotra, V.K. and Mitra, Subhash, 1991, “Need of Long Term Evaluation of Rock
Parameters in the Himalayas Proc.”, 7th International Congress Rock Mech., Aachen, Germany.
Arora, K.R., 1997, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard Publishers Distributers,
Delhi, India
Anbalagan, R, Sharma, S & Raghuvanshi, T. 1992 "Rock mass stability evaluation using modified
SMR approach". Sixth National Symposium on Rock Mechanics, pp 258 - 268.
Bieniawski, Z.T., 1989, “Engineering Rock Mass Classifications”, John Willey and Sons, New York.
Goodman, R.E., 1989, “Introduction to Rock Mechanics”, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Hoek, E and Bray, J.W., 1997, “Rock Slope Engineering”, E&FN Spon and Imprint of Chapman and
Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 811 N, UK.
Johnson, R.B and Degraff, J.V, 1991 “Principles of Engineering Geology”, John Wiley and Sons,
New York..
Krynine, D. P and Judd, W.R, 2001 “Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics”, Mc Graw
Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,U.S.A
Mittal, S and Shukla, J.P., 2003 “Soil Testing for Engineers”, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, India
Palmstorm, A. 1982, “The Volumetric Joint Count – a Useful and Simple Measure of the degree of
Jointing IV Int. Cong., IAEG, New Delhi, India, pp. V 221-V228.
Ranjan, G. and Rao, A.S.R., 2002 “ Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics”, New Age International
Publishers, New Delhi.
Singh, B, and Goel, R.K., 1998, “Software for Engineering Control of Landslide and Tunnelling
Hazard”, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Netherlands.
Notes compiled by ;
Dr.Tarun K.Raghuvanshi,
Assistant Professor,
Deptt. of Earth Sciences,
Addis Ababa University
ADDIS ABABA, Ethiopia
E-mail: tarunraghuvanshi@yahoo.com
Web page: http://tkraghu.tripod.com
III-106

3.4 Soils For Engineering Purposes

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Lecture Notes-Advanced Engineering Geology I (Ersc-624) Chapter III Engineering Properties of Rocks and Soils

3.4 Soils for engineering purposes

3.4.1 Origin of soils

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or

Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occur due to many

i) Temperature changes – Different minerals of a rock have different

When Chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place,

i) Hydration – In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals and

Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals which will

3.4.2 Volume and weight relationships in soils

This conceptual view, or pha-se diagram, enables certain physical characteristics to

Porosity and void ratio

Wt Ww  Ws Both air and water within a soil

where; Vv is the volume of voids and

where; Vv is the volume of voids and Vs is the volume of the solids.

Table 3.28 Typical values of specific gravity (G)

S.No Soil Type Specific Gravity

Using specific gravity, weight measurements can be used to determine these

Void ratio is defined by;

where; W is the water content, S, degree of saturation, G s is specific gravity of the

3.4.3 Index Properties of soils

The main engineering properties of soils are permeability, compressibility and

Particle Size Analysis

Table 3.30 Various sieve sizes as per American Standard

Sieve No Opening (mm) Sieve No Opening (mm)

Dry Sieve Analysis

For dry sieve analysis the soil

Table 3.31 Quantity of soil required for sieve analysis

S.No Maximum particle size Quantity

Wet Sieve Analysis

C1 = P1, C2 = P1 + P2, C3 = P1 + P2 + P3 . …….3.79

The percentage fine (N) is given as;

N1 = 100 - C1, N2 = 100 - C2, N3 = 100 - C3 . …….3.79

The Particle Size Distribution Curve

The uniformity of a soil

where, D60 is the

Coefficient of Curvature (Cc)

Illustrative Example for the Particle Size Distribution Curve

Table 3.32 Results of the sieve analysis

Solution to Illustrative Example

Seive Mass Percentage Cumulative Percentage Finer (N) =

From Fig. 3.28,

Cc = 1.58 Fig. 3.28 Gradation curves for Illstrative Example.

Use of Particle Size Distribution Curve

(i) The particle size distribution curve is used in the classification of

For a soil particle of size ‘D’falling through a

therefore, equation 3.83 may be rewritten as;

Fig. 3.29 Hydrometer Method

Apparatus/ Material required for Sedimentation Analysis

(i) Hydrometer calibrated at 20o or 27oC.

Following corrections are applied in hydrometer observations;

Meniscus Correction (Cm)

Temperature Correction (Ct)

Take the hydrometer reading in pure distilled water at the corresponding

Table 3.34 Values of Ct at different temperature – hydrometer calibrated at 20 oC

Temperature (oC) Correction (g/ml) Temperature (oC) Correction (g/ml)

Correction for Deflocculation agent (Cd)

The corrected hydrometer reading (R) is given as;

Where, Rh is hydrometer reading, observed at top of the meniscus, C m is the

Determination of volume (Vh) of the hydrometer - Fill about 750cc of water in a

Observation and Calculation

(ii) From the curve prepared earlier (as discussed in calibration of