(Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications

RF DESIGN
LAB MANUAL
 CONTENTS

S. No; List of experiments

1. Design and characterization of RF low pass filter using lumped elements

2. Design and characterization of RF high pass filter using lumped elements

3. Design and characterization of RF band pass filter using lumped elements

4. Design and characterization of RF low pass filter using microstrip lines

5. Design and characterization of RF high pass filter using microstrip lines

6. Design and characterization of RF band stop filter using microstrip lines

7. Stability analysis of microwave transistor

8. Gain and noise figure circles for amplifier design

9. Design of passive matching networks

10. Design of microwave amplifier

11. Case Study :To understand the concept of electromagnetic interference (EMI) in
electronic equipments.

12. Case Study : To understand the concept of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

in electronic equipments.
 Experiment No. 1

Aim: Design and characterization of RF low pass filter using lumped elements

Problem statement:

1. Design a maximally flat response low pass filter, having cut-off frequency of 1 GHz and at
least 20 dB insertion loss at 2 GHz.

2. Deisgn a equal ripple response low pass filter, having 3 dB ripple in passband for N=5 and
cut- off frequency of 1 GHz.

Software/apparatus : LT Spice software

Theory:
A Low Pass Filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all unwanted high
frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by the circuits
designer. A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance, inductance or resistance
intended to produce high attenuation above a specified frequency and little or no attenuation
below that frequency. The frequency at which the transition occurs is called the “cut-off” or
“corner” frequency.
The simplest low pass filters consist of a resistor and capacitor but more sophisticated low pass
filters have a combination of series inductors and parallel capacitors.

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio

In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined by its insertion loss, or power loss
ratio, PLR:

The insertion loss in dB:

Maximally flat: This characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and
is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given
filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified by
Consider the two-element low-pass filter prototype, we will derive the normalized element
values, L and C, for a maximally flat response.We assume a source impedance of 1 ohm, and a
cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec. The desired power loss ratio will be, for N = 2,

Fig 1. Low-pass filter for N=2.

Fig2. Ladder circuits for low-pass filter prototypes and their element definitions. (a) Prototype beginning with a shunt element.
(b) Prototype beginning with a series element.
Equal ripple: If a Chebyshev polynomial is used to specify the insertion loss of an Nth order
low-pass filter as

then a sharper cutoff will result, although the passband response will have ripples of amplitude 1
+ k2, as shown in Figure 8.21, since TN (x) oscillates between ±1 for |x|21.Thus k2 determines the
passband ripple level. For large x,

so for ω >>ωc the insertion loss becomes

For an equal-ripple low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec, the power loss ratio is

where 1 + k2 is the ripple level in the passband. Since the Chebyshev polynomials have the
property that

Power loss ratio equation shows that the filter will have a unity power loss ratio at ω = 0 for N
odd,
but a power loss ratio of 1 + k2 at ω = 0 for N even. Thus, there are two cases to consider,
depending on N.

T2(x) = 2x2 – 1, Thus PLR becomes:

At w=0

Equating coefficients of w2 and w4, from where we can calculate values of C and L:

For odd N, it can be shown that R = 1.

FILTER TRANSFORMATIONS

The low-pass filter prototypes of the previous section were normalized designs having a
source impedance of Rs = 1 ohm and a cutoff frequency of ωc = 1 rad/sec. Here we show
how these designs can be scaled in terms of impedance and frequency, and converted to
give high-pass, bandpass, or bandstop characteristics. Several examples will be presented
to illustrate the design procedure.

Impedance and Frequency Scaling

Impedance scaling: In the prototype design, the source and load resistances are unity (except
for equal-ripple filters with even N, which have nonunity load resistance). A source
resistance of R0 can be obtained by multiplying all the impedances of the prototype design
by R0. Thus, if we let primes denote impedance scaled quantities, the new filter component
values are given by
Frequency scaling for low-pass filters: To change the cutoff frequency of a low-pass prototype
from unity to ωc requires that we scale the frequency dependence of the filter by the factor 1/ωc,
which is accomplished by replacing ω by ω/ωc:

New element values are given by:

When both impedance and frequency scaling are required

Fig 3. Process of filter design by insertion loss method

Procedure :

1. The order of the filter is calculated, if N is not given.

2. For the given N, lumped element values are seen from the table given above for the
maximally flat or equal ripple response. This gives low pass prototype design for given
order of the filter.
3. The prototype element values are scaled using frequency scaling and impedance scaling
formulae discussed above.
4. The low pass filter design for given N and cut-off frequency is obtained and is
implemented in LT spice software
5. The low pass filter design for maximally flat response and equal ripple response is
simulated in LT spice software and the results are visualized.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 2
Aim: Design and characterization of RF high pass filter using lumped elements

Problem Statement : Design a high pass filter for maximally flat response with N=4, and cut-off
frequency of 1 GHz.

Software/apparatus : LT spice software

Theory :
A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than a
certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.
The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design. A high-pass filter is
usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-
cut filter. High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-
zero average voltages or radio frequency devices. They can also be used in conjunction with
a low-pass filter to produce a bandpass filter.

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio

In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined by its insertion loss, or power loss
ratio, PLR:

The insertion loss in dB:

Maximally flat: This characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and
is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given
filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified by

Consider the two-element low-pass filter prototype, we will derive the normalized element
values, L and C, for a maximally flat response.We assume a source impedance of 1 ohm, and a
cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec. The desired power loss ratio will be, for N = 2,
 Fig 1. Low-pass filter for N=2.

Fig2. Ladder circuits for low-pass filter prototypes and their element definitions. (a) Prototype
beginning with a shunt element. (b) Prototype beginning with a series element.
Impedance and Frequency Scaling for high pass filter

Low-pass to high-pass transformation: The frequency substitution can be used to convert a low-
pass response to a high-pass response is:

New impedances of lumped elements become:

Procedure :

1. The order of the filter is calculated, if N is not given.

2. For the given N, lumped element values are seen from the table given above for the
maximally flat or equal ripple response. This gives low pass prototype design for given
order of the filter.
3. The prototype element values are scaled using frequency scaling and impedance scaling
formulae discussed above.
4. The high pass filter design for given N and cut-off frequency is obtained and is
implemented in LT spice software
5. The high pass filter design for maximally flat response is simulated in LT spice software
and the results are visualized.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 3

Aim: Design and characterization of RF band pass filter using lumped elements

Problem Statement: To design a band pass filter with N=5, centre frequency of 3 GHz and
bandwidth percentage 15%.

Software/apparatus : LT spice software

Theory:
A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain
range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range. An example of
an analogue electronic band-pass filter is an RLC circuit (a resistor–inductor–capacitor circuit).
These filters can also be created by combining a low-pass filter with a high-pass filter.
Bandpass is an adjective that describes a type of filter or filtering process; it is to be
distinguished from passband, which refers to the actual portion of affected spectrum. Hence, one
might say "A dual bandpass filter has two passbands." A bandpass signal is a signal containing a
band of frequencies not adjacent to zero frequency, such as a signal that comes out of a bandpass
filter.

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio

In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined by its insertion loss, or power loss
ratio, PLR:

The insertion loss in dB:

Maximally flat: This characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and
is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given
filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified by

Consider the two-element low-pass filter prototype, we will derive the normalized element
values, L and C, for a maximally flat response.We assume a source impedance of 1 ohm, and a
cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec. The desired power loss ratio will be, for N = 2,
 Fig 1. Low-pass filter for N=2.

Fig2. Ladder circuits for low-pass filter prototypes and their element definitions. (a) Prototype
beginning with a shunt element. (b) Prototype beginning with a series element.
Impedance and Frequency Scaling for band pass filter

If ω1 and ω2 denote the edges of the passband, then a bandpass response can be obtained using
the following frequency substitution

Δ is the fractional bandwidth of the passband. The center frequency, ω0, could be chosen as the
arithmetic mean of ω1 and ω2, but the equations are simpler if it is chosen as the geometric
mean:

Fig 3. Bandpass and bandstop frequency transformations. (a) Low-pass filter prototype response for ωc = 1. (b)
Transformation to bandpass response. (c) Transformation to bandstop response.
Low-pass response is given as follows:

The new filter elements are determined by

which shows that a series inductor, Lk , is transformed to a series LC circuit with element values

Similarly,

which shows that a shunt capacitor, Ck , is transformed to a shunt LC circuit with element values

The low-pass filter elements are thus converted to series resonant circuits (having a low
impedance at resonance) in the series arms, and to parallel resonant circuits (having a high
impedance at resonance) in the shunt arms. Notice that both series and parallel resonator
elements have a resonant frequency of ω0.
Procedure :

1. The order of the filter is calculated, if N is not given.

2. For the given N, lumped element values are seen from the table given above for the
maximally flat or equal ripple response. This gives low pass prototype design for given
order of the filter.
3. The prototype element values are scaled using frequency scaling and impedance scaling
formulae discussed above.
4. The band pass filter design for given N and cut-off frequency is obtained and is
implemented in LT spice software
5. The band pass filter design for maximally flat response is simulated in LT spice software
and the results are visualized.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 4

Aim: Design and characterization of RF low pass filter using microstrip lines

Problem statement : Design a low pass RF filter using microstrip lines for N=5 and cut-off
frequency of 3 GHz.

Software/apparatus: AWR software

Theory: A Low Pass Filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all
unwanted high frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by
the circuits designer. A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance, inductance or
resistance intended to produce high attenuation above a specified frequency and little or no
attenuation below that frequency. The frequency at which the transition occurs is called the “cut-
off” or “corner” frequency.
The simplest low pass filters consist of a resistor and capacitor but more sophisticated low pass
filters have a combination of series inductors and parallel capacitors.

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio

In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined by its insertion loss, or power loss
ratio, PLR:

.
The insertion loss in dB:

Maximally flat: This characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and
is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given
filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified by

Consider the two-element low-pass filter prototype, we will derive the normalized element
values, L and C, for a maximally flat response.We assume a source impedance of 1 ohm, and a
cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec. The desired power loss ratio will be, for N = 2,
Solving equations element values for N=2 is obtained as L=C=/
Similarly element values can be obtained for a low pass prototype for different values of N.

FILTER IMPLEMENTATION

The lumped-element filter designs discussed in the previous sections generally work well at low
frequencies, but two problems arise at higher RF and microwave frequencies. First, lumped
element inductors and capacitors are generally available only for a limited range of values, and
can be difficult to implement at microwave frequencies. Distributed elements, such as open
circuited or short-circuited transmission line stubs, are often used to approximate ideal lumped
elements. In addition, at microwave frequencies the distances between filter components is not
negligible. The first problem is treated with Richards’ transformation, which can be used to
convert lumped elements to transmission line sections. Kuroda’s identities can then be used to
physically separate filter elements by using transmission line sections. Because such additional
transmission line sections do not affect the filter response, this type of design is called redundant
filter synthesis. It is possible to design microwave filters that take advantage of these sections to
improve the filter response; such nonredundant synthesis does not have a lumped-element
counterpart.

Richards’ Transformation
The transformation

maps the ω plane to the Ω plane, which repeats with a period of ω/vp = 2π. This
transformation was introduced by P. Richards to synthesize an LC network using open- and
short-circuited transmission line stubs. Thus, if we replace the frequency variable ω with, we can
write the reactance of an inductor as

and the susceptance of a capacitor as

These results indicate that an inductor can be replaced with a short-circuited stub of length
β and characteristic impedance L,while a capacitor can be replaced with an open-circuited stub of
length β and characteristic impedance 1/C. A unity filter impedance is assumed. Cutoff occurs at
unity frequency for a low-pass filter prototype; to obtain the same cutoff frequency for the
Richards’-transformed filter,shows that

which gives a stub length of = λ/8, where λ is the wavelength of the line at the cutoff frequency,
ωc. At the frequency ω0 = 2ωc, the lines will be λ/4 long, and an attenuation pole will occur. At
frequencies away from ωc, the impedances of the stubs will no longer match the original
lumped-element impedances, and the filter response will differ from the desired prototype
response. In addition, the response will be periodic in frequency, repeating every 4ωc.
 Fig 1. Richard’s transformation a) of an inductor, b) of a capacitor

Kuroda’s Identities
The four Kuroda identities use redundant transmission line sections to achieve a more practical
microwave filter implementation by performing any of the following operations:
_ Physically separate transmission line stubs
_ Transform series stubs into shunt stubs, or vice versa
_ Change impractical characteristic impedances into more realizable values

The additional transmission line sections are called unit elements and are λ/8 long at ωc; the unit
elements are thus commensurate with the stubs used to implement the inductors and capacitors of
the prototype design.

The four Kuroda identities are illustrated, where n2 = 1 + Z2/Z1.

Fig 2. Four Kuroda’s identities.

Procedure :

1. The order of the filter is calculated, if N is not given.

2. For the given N, lumped element values are seen from the table given above for the
maximally flat or equal ripple response. This gives low pass prototype design for given
order of the filter.
3. The prototype elements are converted into respective transmission lines (open/short)
based on Richard’s transformation.
4. Series stubs are replaced by shunt stubs in the design using Kuroda’s indentites.
5. The microstrip line prototype is thus obtained for Z0=1 and wc=1, where lengths of
transmission lines are λ/8 at wc=1.
6. Impedance and frequency scaling is then achieved by multiplying all characteristic
impedances of the transmission lines by given Z0 and by scaling lengths of the lines as
λ/8 at given w.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 5

Aim: Design and characterization of HPF using microstrip lines

Problem Statement: Design a high pass filter with equal ripple response, with ripple 0f 0.1dB.
The filter has cut-off frequency of 3 GHz with N=3.

Software/apparatus : AWR software

Theory:
A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than a
certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.
The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design. A high-pass filter is
usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-
cut filter.

High pass prototype:

Fig 1. High pass prototype

Optimum Distributed High Pass Filter

Fig 2. Optimum distributed HPF

Fig. 3 Distributed HPF response

Design equations for optimum HPF:

Fig4. Design of HPF using microstrip shunt short-circuitedstubs

Procedure:

1. Calculate order of the filter if N is not given.

2. For calculated/given value of N, high pass prototype element values are obtained as per
table1.
3. Element values are obtained for a specific electrical length of short-circuited shunt stubs.
4. A high pass prototype is thus obtained for specific electrical lengths of the stubs and the
lines at given cut-off frequency.
5. The characteristic impedances of stubs and lines are obtained by de-mormalising the
obtained element values.
6. The final design of HPF is then obtained, which is implemented and simulated on AWR
software.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 6

Aim: Design and characterization Band stop filter using microstrip lines

Problem statement: To design a band stop filter for N=3, centre frequency of 4 GHz and 3 dB
bandwidth of 50%.

Software/apparatus: AWR software

Theory:

A band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes most frequencies unaltered, but
attenuates those in a specific range to very low levels.[1] It is the opposite of a band-pass filter.
A notch filter is a band-stop filter with a narrow stopband (high Q factor).

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio

In the insertion loss method a filter response is defined by its insertion loss, or power loss
ratio, PLR:

The insertion loss in dB:

Maximally flat: This characteristic is also called the binomial or Butterworth response, and
is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest possible passband response for a given
filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified by

Consider the two-element low-pass filter prototype, we will derive the normalized element
values, L and C, for a maximally flat response.We assume a source impedance of 1 ohm, and a
cutoff frequency ωc = 1 rad/sec. The desired power loss ratio will be, for N = 2,
 Fig 1. Low-pass filter for N=2.

Fig2. Ladder circuits for low-pass filter prototypes and their element definitions. (a) Prototype
beginning with a shunt element. (b) Prototype beginning with a series element.
Impedance and Frequency Scaling for band stop filter

If ω1 and ω2 denote the edges of the passband, then a bandpass response can be obtained using
the following frequency substitution

Δ is the fractional bandwidth of the stopband. The center frequency, ω0, could be chosen as the
arithmetic mean of ω1 and ω2, but the equations are simpler if it is chosen as the geometric
mean:

Fig 3. Bandpass and bandstop frequency transformations. (a) Low-pass filter prototype response for ωc = 1. (b)
Transformation to bandpass response. (c) Transformation to bandstop response.
After this transformation, element values of low pass filter are transformed as follows:
Series inductor is replaced by a shunt combination of inductor and capacitor with new element
values given as:

While shunt capacitor is replaced by series combination of inductor and capacitor with new
element values as:

The low-pass filter elements are thus converted to series resonant circuits (having a low
impedance at resonance) in the series arms, and to parallel resonant circuits (having a high
impedance at resonance) in the shunt arms. Notice that both series and parallel resonator
elements have a resonant frequency of ω0.

Fig 4. Low pass filter prototype transformation to band-stop filter

Filter Implementation:

Richard’s transformation of λ/8 yields tangent value of 1 at f=fo, rather than the maximum.
Therefore for stopband design l=λ/4 will be considered which yields tangent at infinity.
Now the cut-off frequency of low pass prototype at Ω=1 has to be transformed into lower and
upper cut-off frequencies of the band stop filter. This is done by introducing bandwidth factor of
bf as:
 is stop bandwidth and as the center frequency.
Multiplying Richard’s transform of line lengths λ/4 by bf yields following expression for lower
and upper cut-off frequencies of band stop filter.

Thus using above transformations, band stop filter can be implemented using micorstrip lines
through low-pass filter prototype. The series stubs are then transformed into shunt stubs using
Kuroda’s identities to obtain final filter design.

Procedure:

1. Calculate the characteristic impedances of stubs and lines in the microstrip filter deisgn
using above formulae.
2. Start AWR and open a new schematic.
3. Calculate line widths based on characteristic impedance and length based on calculated
electrical length.
4. Implement the overall design in the AWR software.
5. Simulate and analyze the design.
6. Plot the simulated results of the designed filter.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No: 7

Aim: Stability analysis of microwave transistor

Problem statement: Draw stability circles of microwave transistor for source and load side and
identify the stable and unstable regions of operation.

Software/apparatus: AWR software

Theory:
In the microwave transistor, oscillation is possible if either the input or output port impedance
has a negative real part; this would then imply that |Ԏin| > 1 or |Ԏout| > 1. Because Ԏin and Ԏout
depend on the source and load matching networks, the stability of the amplifier depends on ԎS
and ԎL as presented by the matching networks. Thus, we can define two types of stability:

 Unconditional stability: The network is unconditionally stable if |_in| < 1 and

|Ԏout| < 1 for all passive source and load impedances (i.e., |ԎS| < 1 and |ԎL | < 1).

 Conditional stability: The network is conditionally stable if |Ԏin| < 1 and |Ԏout| < 1
only for a certain range of passive source and load impedances. This case is also
referred to as potentially unstable

Note that the stability condition of an amplifier circuit is usually frequency dependent since the
input and output matching networks generally depend on frequency. It is therefore possible for
an amplifier to be stable at its design frequency but unstable at other frequencies. Careful
amplifier design should consider this possibility. We must also point out that the following
discussion of stability is limited to two-port amplifier circuits and where the scattering
parameters of the active device can be measured without oscillations over the frequency band of
interest.

Stability Circles

Applying the above requirements for unconditional stability gives the following conditions that
must be satisfied by ԎS and ԎL if the amplifier is to be unconditionally stable:

If the device is unilateral (S12 = 0), these conditions reduce to the simple results that |S11| < 1
and |S22| < 1 are sufficient for unconditional stability. Otherwise, the inequalities define a range
of values for ԎS and ԎL where the amplifier will be stable.
Finding this range for ԎS and ԎL can be facilitated by using the Smith chart and plotting the
input and output stability circles. The stability circles are defined as the loci in the
ԎL (or S) plane for which |Ԏin| = 1 (or |Ԏout| = 1). The stability circles then define the
boundaries between stable and potentially unstable regions of ԎS and ԎL . ԎS and ԎL must
lie on the Smith chart (|ԎS| < 1, |ԎL | < 1 for passive matching networks).
We can derive the equation for the output stability circle as follows.

Squaring both the sides

This represents the equation of a circle where :

Similarly
Given the scattering parameters of the transistor, we can plot the input and output stability circles
to define where |Ԏin| = 1 and |Ԏout| = 1. On one side of the input stability circle we will have
|Ԏout| < 1, while on the other side we will have |Ԏout| > 1. Similarly, we will have |Ԏin| < 1 on
one side of the output stability circle, and |Ԏin| > 1 on the other side. We need to determine
which areas on the Smith chart represent the stable region, for which |Ԏin| < 1 and |Ԏout| < 1.

Fig1 . Output stability circles for a conditionally stable device a) |S11|<1, b)|S11|>1

Procedure :
1. Open AWR software and a new schematic in it.
2. Choose a microwave transistor from the library of AWR software whose stability has ti
be tested.
3. Choose a biasing point of the transistor and its operating frequency.
4. Read the S-parameters of the microwave transistor for chosen biasing point and operating
frequency.
5. Draw input and output stability circles of the device on a smith chart graph for the
selected operating frequency.
6. As discussed above, for |S11|<1, region outside the stability circle is stable, while for
|S11|>1, region inside the stability circle and inside the smith chart is the stable region.
7. Draw the stability circles manually on the smith chart using the above discussed formulae
and verify the results.

Conclusion :
 Experiment No 8

Aim: Gain and noise figure circles for amplifier design

Problem Statement: To draw gain circles and noise figure circles of amplifier at chosen
operating frequency.

Software/apparatus: AWR software

Theory:
In many cases it is preferable to design for less than the maximum obtainable gain, to improve
bandwidth or to obtain a specific value of amplifier gain. This can be done by designing the input
and output matching sections to have less than maximum gains; in other words, mismatches are
purposely introduced to reduce the overall gain. The design procedure is facilitated by plotting
constant-gain circles on the Smith chart to represent loci of ԎS and ԎL that give fixed values of
gain (GS and GL ). To simplify our discussion, we will only treat the case of a unilateral device.

For many transistors |S12| is small enough to be ignored, and the device can be assumed to be
unilateral. This greatly simplifies the design procedure. The error in the transducer gain caused
by approximating |S12| as zero is given by the ratio GT/GTU. It can be shown that this ratio is
bounded by:

where U is defined as the unilateral figure of merit:

Normalised gain factors are given by:

For foxed values of gs and gl, represent circles in Ԏs and ԎL planes, given by :

Simplifying gives:

This represents the equation of a circle with:

Similarly

The centers of each family of circles lie along straight lines given by the angle of S11* or S22*.
Note that when gS (or gL ) = 1 (maximum gain), the radius RS (or RL ) = 0, and the center
reduces to S11* (or S22*), as expected. In addition, it can be shown that the 0 dB gain circles
(GS = 1 or GL = 1) will always pass through the center of the Smith chart. These results can be
used to plot a family of circles of constant gain for the input and output sections. Then ԎS and
ԎL can be chosen along these circles to provide the desired gains. The choices for ԎS and ԎL are
not unique, but it makes sense to choose points close to the center of the Smith chart to minimize
mismatch, and thus maximize bandwidth. Alternatively, as we will see in the next section, the
input network mismatch can be chosen to provide a low-noise design.
Procedure:

1. Open AWR software and a new schematic in it.

2. Choose a microwave transistor from the library of AWR software whose stability has ti
be tested.
3. Choose a biasing point of the transistor and its operating frequency.
4. Read the S-parameters of the microwave transistor for chosen biasing point and operating
frequency.
5. Draw power gain circle at given operating frequency and noise figure circle for given
F(noise figure).
6. Draw gain circle and noise figure circles using above discussed formulae on the smith
chart and verify.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 9

Aim: Design of passive matching networks

Problem Statement: Design passive matching networks for a two-port device (amplifier) for
given Ԏs=0.872∟123⁰ and ԎL=0.876∟61⁰.

Software/Apparatus: AWR software

Theory:
In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input impedance of
an electrical load or the output impedance of its corresponding signal source to maximize the
power transfer or minimize signal reflection from the load.
In the case of a complex source impedance ZS and load impedance ZL, maximum power transfer
is obtained when Zs is complex conjugate of ZL. Where ZS represents the characteristic
impedance of a transmission line, minimum reflection is obtained when Zs is equal to ZL.
Impedance matching to minimize reflections is achieved by making the load impedance equal to
the source impedance. If the source impedance, load impedance and transmission
line characteristic impedance are purely resistive, then reflection-less matching is the same as
maximum power transfer matching.
Impedance matching or tuning is important for the following reasons:
_ Maximum power is delivered when the load is matched to the line (assuming the generator
is matched), and power loss in the feed line is minimized.
_ Impedance matching sensitive receiver components (antenna, low-noise amplifier, etc.)
may improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the system.
_ Impedance matching in a power distribution network (such as an antenna array feed
network) may reduce amplitude and phase errors.

As long as the load impedance, ZL, has a positive real part, a matching network can always
be found. Many choices are available, however, and we will discuss the design and performance
of several types of practical matching networks. Factors that may be important in the selection
of a particular matching network include the following:

_ Complexity—As with most engineering solutions, the simplest design that satisfies the
required specifications is generally preferable. A simpler matching network is usually
cheaper, smaller, more reliable, and less lossy than a more complex design.

_ Bandwidth—Any type of matching network can ideally give a perfect match (zero
reflection) at a single frequency. In many applications, however, it is desirable to match
a load over a band of frequencies. There are several ways of doing this, with, of course,
a corresponding increase in complexity.
_ Implementation—Depending on the type of transmission line or waveguide being used,
one type of matching network may be preferable to another. For example, tuning
stubs are much easier to implement in waveguide than are multisection quarter-wave
transformers.

_ Adjustability—In some applications the matching network may require adjustment to

match a variable load impedance. Some types of matching networks are more amenable than
others in this regard.

MATCHING WITH LUMPED ELEMENTS (L NETWORKS)

The reactive elements may be either inductors or capacitors, depending on the load impedance.
Thus, there are eight distinct possibilities for the matching circuit for various load impedances. If
the frequency is low enough and/or the circuit size is small enough, actual lumped-element
capacitors and inductors can be used. This may be feasible for frequencies up to about 1 GHz or
so, although modern microwave integrated circuits may be small enough such that lumped
elements can be used at higher frequencies as well. There is, however, a large range of
frequencies and circuit sizes where lumped elements may not be realizable. This is a limitation of
the L-section matching technique

Fig 1. a) L matching network for ZL inside 1+jx circle, b) for ZL outside 1+jx circle

SINGLE-STUB TUNING
Another popular matching technique uses a single open-circuited or short-circuited length
of transmission line (a stub) connected either in parallel or in series with the transmission feed
line at a certain distance from the load, as shown in Figure 5.4. Such a single-stub tuning circuit
is often very convenient because the stub can be fabricated as part of the transmission line media
of the circuit, and lumped elements are avoided. Shunt stubs are preferred for microstrip line or
stripline, while series stubs are preferred for slotline or coplanar waveguide.

In single-stub tuning the two adjustable parameters are the distance, d, from the load to the stub
position, and the value of susceptance or reactance provided by the stub. For the shunt-stub case,
the basic idea is to select d so that the admittance, Y , seen looking into the line at distance d
from the load is of the form Y0 + j B. Then the stub susceptance is chosen as −j B, resulting in a
matched condition. For the series-stub case, the distance d is selected so that the impedance, Z,
seen looking into the line at a distance d from the load is of the form Z0 + j X. Then the stub
reactance is chosen as −j X, resulting in a matched condition.

For transmission line media such as microstrip or stripline, open-circuited stubs are easier
to fabricate since a via hole through the substrate to the ground plane is not needed. For
lines like coax or waveguide, however, short-circuited stubs are usually preferred because
the cross-sectional area of such an open-circuited line may be large enough (electrically) to
radiate, in which case the stub is no longer purely reactive.

b)
Fig 2. a) Sinlge stub matching using shunt stub, b) using series stub
Procedure :
1. Calculate length of line and stub based on above discussed concept on the Smith chart for
single stub matching.
2. Electrical lengths of transmission line and stub must be obtained in terms of λ.
3. From the calculated electrical lengths, physical lengths should be calculated.
4. For the chosen characteristic impedance of lines, line width should be calculated
5. Or calculate lumped element values for L network matching design.
6. Implement the matching network in the circuit design.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 10

Aim: Design of microwave amplifier

Problem Statement : To design a microwave amplifier for a given operating frequency and
operating bias condition of the chosen transistor

Software/Apparatus: AWR software

Theory:
After the stability of the transistor has been determined and the stable regions for ԎS and ԎL
have been located on the Smith chart, the input and output matching sections can be designed.
Since G0 is fixed for a given transistor, the overall transducer gain of the amplifier will be
controlled by the gains, GS and GL , of the matching sections. Maximum gain will be realized
when these sections provide a conjugate match between the amplifier source or load impedance
and the transistor. Because most transistors exhibit a significant impedance mismatch (large |S11|
and |S22|), the resulting frequency response may be narrowband. For increasing the overall
bandwidth of the amplifier, we may have to design for less than maximum gain, with a
corresponding improvement in bandwidth.
We know that maximum power transfer from the input matching network to the transistor will
occur when there is conjugate impedance matching.

In addition, with conjugate matching and lossless matching sections, the input and output ports
of the amplifier will be matched to Z0.
In the general case with a bilateral (S12 _= 0) transistor, Ԏin is affected by Ԏout and vice versa,
so the input and output sections must be matched simultaneously. Using these relations gives the
necessary equations:
Solutions to ԎS and ԎL equrions are only possible if the quantity within the square root is
positive, and it can be shown that this is equivalent to requiring K > 1. Thus, unconditionally
stable devices can always be conjugately matched for maximum gain, and potentially unstable
devices can be conjugately matched if K > 1 and |Δ| < 1. The results are much simpler for the
unilateral case. When S12 = 0, ԎS = S11* and ԎL = S22*, then maximum transducer gain
reduces to

The maximum transducer power gain occurs when the source and load areconjugately matched
to the transistor. If the transistor is unconditionally stable, so that K > 1, the maximum
transducer power gain can be simply rewritten as follows:

This result can be obtained by substituting ԎS and ԎL into GTmax and simplifying. The maximum
transducer power gain is also sometimes referred to as the matched gain. The maximum gain
does not provide a meaningful result if the device is only conditionally stable since simultaneous
conjugate matching of the source and load is not possible if K < 1. In this case a useful figure of
merit is the maximum stable gain, defined as the maximum transducer power gain with K = 1.
Thus,
The maximum stable gain is easy to compute and offers a convenient way to compare the
gain of various devices under stable operating conditions.

Procedure:

1. Start AWR software and open new schematic in it.

2. Choose a microwave transistor to start with amplifier design ( here AT6163 transistor by
Avago company is chosen ).
3. Choose a biasing point of the transistor and for the operating point, select a frequency
operation.
4. Note down the S-parameters of the transistor for chosen operating frequency and biasing
condition.
5. Calculate load and source reflection coefficients using the above discussed formulae.
6. For the calculated load and source reflection coefficients, design load and source
matching networks respectively using smith chart.
7. Implement the designed matching networks on AWR software, at source and load side of
the transistor.
8. Verify the results of the designed amplifier.

Conclusion:
 Experiment No 11

Aim: To understand the concept of electromagnetic Interference (EMI) in electronic circuits.

Problem statement:
Batch 1: A case study on : “Power supplies as EMI coupling source
Batch 2: A case study on: “ Different EMI coupling modes
Batch 3: A case study on : “Electronic equipment and system EMI
Batch 4 : A case study on: “Natural and Nuclear sources of EMI
 Experiment No 12

Aim : To understand the concept of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) in electronic

equipments.

Problem statement:
Batch 1: A case study on: “EMC specifications, standards and measurements”
Batch 2: A case study on: “Shielding for EMC: effectiveness and considerations”
Batch 3: A case study on: “Techniques used in EMI diagnostics and fixes”
Batch 4: A case study on : “Importance of grounding for achieving EMC”