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Characterization of Fly Ash Bituminous Concrete Mixes

Article  in  Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering · December 2010

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000125

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 Performance Characteristics of Bituminous
Concrete with Industrial Wastes as Filler
Satish Chandra 1 and Rajan Choudhary 2
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Abstract: Granite and marble dust from the stone industry and fly ash from thermal power plants are waste products that are produced in
large quantities in India. The physical properties of these materials meet the requirements laid for fillers in Indian specifications. This study
explores the possible use of these three industrial wastes, along with hydrated lime and conventional stone dust from quartzite, as filler in
bituminous construction. Different test procedures are used to examine the void and clay content in the five fillers. Bituminous concrete (BC)
mixes were designed according to the Marshall method at four different percentages of the five types of fillers. The performance of bitu-
minous concrete mixes is studied through moisture susceptibility, static creep, flexural fatigue, and wheel-tracking tests. The results suggest
that marble dust, granite dust, and fly ash have good potential for their use as filler in bituminous mixes. Among the three industrial wastes,
marble dust is the most promising filler and will prove to be very economical also, as mixes with marble dust have the lowest optimum binder
content (OBC). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000730. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Concrete; Asphalts; Fatigue; Binders (material); Industrial wastes; Fly ash; Recycling; India; Fills.
Author keywords: Filler; Bituminous concrete; Rutting; Fatigue; Optimum Binder content.

Introduction There is great pressure on the different construction sectors

In dimensional stone production, India is the third-largest player
in the world (Rathore 2003). Marble and granite are the most
commonly used stones in residential buildings, and the state of
Rajasthan in West India is the hub of stone activity in India,
accounting for approximately 65% of India’s stone production.
The fine granite powder generated at the processing and polishing
plants for marble and granite stone has no commercial value and is
considered a waste. The disposal off this waste powder has become
a severe problem for the whole dimensional stone industry. The
volume of this waste generated every year is so huge (approxi-
mately 10 million tons per year) that in a short time it fills every
available dumping space created for this purpose. These stone
powder dumps impose serious threats to the physical, chemical,
and biological components of the environment.
India is also a major producer and consumer of energy. It is the
world’s eleventh-largest energy producer and the sixth-largest
energy consumer. Coal is the dominant commercial fuel, meeting
half of the commercial primary energy demand and a third of the
total energy needs. Currently, approximately 69% of India’s elec-
tricity is generated from coal, and it produces approximately
140 million tons of fly ash annually. It is estimated that the coal
requirement and generation of fly ash in 2030 would be approxi-
mately 1,800 million tons and 600 million tons, respectively
(Choudhary 2006).
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India (corresponding author). E-mail:
satisfce@iitr.ernet.in
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 15, 2012; approved on
November 6, 2012; published online on November 8, 2012. Discussion
period open until April 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 11, November 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 0899-
1561/2013/11-1666-1673/$25.00.
of India, including the highway sector, to explore the possibility
of using these waste materials in construction works to preserve
natural resources and to mitigate the environmental problems
and land fill issues related to these wastes. Granite and marble dust
from the stone industry and fly ash from thermal power plants meet
the physical requirements for fillers in India in accordance with
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH 2001) spec-
ifications. However, there are very limited studies on the use of
these materials as filler in bituminous mixes (Swami 2002; Chandra
et al. 2002). These studies also do not fully suggest or regret the use
of fly ash and marble dust as filler, and the findings are generally
based on the results of Marshall tests only. The present study was
undertaken to explore the possibility of using the three industrial
wastes, namely, marble dust, fly ash, and granite dust in bituminous
concrete (BC) mix and to study their effect on strength and perfor-
mance parameters of the mix.
Background Literature
Ishai et al. (1980) investigated six types of fillers with a wide range
of properties and two types of mixtures: sand asphalt and bitumi-
nous concrete. They performed rheological tests on filler-bitumen
mastic samples and mechanical tests on different sets of bituminous
concrete samples. A basic model was adopted in which the bitu-
minous mixture is composed of two components: an aggregate-
bitumen system and a filler-bitumen system (mastic). The model
was analyzed through weight-volume relationship, and the opti-
mum mastic needed to obtain the optimal mechanical behavior of
the mixture was determined. Craus et al. (1981) investigated the
role of fillers in the long-term durability of bituminous concrete
mixes. Durability tests were conducted on mixes consisting of one
type of aggregate, one gradation, and six types of filler. Durability
potential was assessed by testing the mixture during and after
14 days of immersion in a 60°C water bath. The results indicated
that the properties of filler have a pronounced effect on the durabil-
ity potential of the mixture. Chari and Jacob (1984) studied the

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Fig. 1. Grain-size distribution of filler materials
influence of lime and stone dust fillers on fatigue performance
of bituminous concrete mixes. Of the two fillers, lime had a sub-
stantial influence on fatigue properties, although static strength
remained more or less the same for both fillers.
Suhaibani et al. (1992) investigated the effect of filler type
and content on rutting potential of bituminous concrete. Kandhal
(1993) discussed laboratory and field evaluation of several waste
materials used in bituminous mixes. A general overview of these
waste materials, including previous research on their potential for
use in bituminous pavements, is included in this study. Kandhal
(1993) suggested that recycling of waste materials in highway con-
struction should be encouraged, and demonstration projects should
be undertaken to evaluate the performance of bituminous pave-
ments containing waste materials. Fwa and Aziz (1995) performed
a series of tests in Singapore to arrive at an acceptable bituminous
mix by using incinerator residue as a partial replacement for the
aggregate. Mix design analysis and stability, durability, and mois-
ture susceptibility tests were performed on the mixes. The mixes
containing incinerator residue showed higher values of stability and
better resistance to moisture. Fwas and Aziz (1995) recommended
using portion of incinerator residue passing a sieve size of 0.3 mm
to replace the corresponding sizes of granite aggregate in the stan-
dard local design mix. Baig and Wahhab (1998) investigated the
effectiveness of using hedmanite (rock wool natural fibers) as filler
in improving the performance of asphalt concrete pavements and
to compare hedmanite with lime (as filler) modified mixes and
the conventional asphalt mix containing crushed stone filler. Lime
modified mixes showed better resistance to fatigue and rutting than
other mixes. Katamine (2000) tested three wearing course mixes
with three different samples of oil shale fillers, which contained
three different oil contents, and a standard mixture containing lime-
stone filler. The Marshall test results indicated that the incorpora-
tion of oil shale filler instead of limestone filler does not alter the
optimum binder content of the mixes nor increase the stability or
the Marshall quotients of the mixes. Taha et al. (2002) used cement
Table 1. Characterization of Filler Materials
Plasticity Fineness
Filler type index modulus
Stone dust 3.0 4.25
Marble dust 4.0 2.54
Granite dust 3.0 3.38
Fly ash Nonplastic 1.72
Hydrated lime Nonplastic — 63.96
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1666-1673.
bypass dust (CBPD), a by-product of Portland cement industry,
as filler. Three different asphalt concrete mixtures were prepared
using lime (control) and 5 and 13% CBPD substitution for lime or
fine aggregate. They found that the substitution of 5% CBPD for
lime will essentially produce the same optimum binder content as
the control mixture without any negative effect on asphalt concrete
properties. However, using 13% CBPD for lime and fine aggregate
will require higher optimum asphalt content and will produce an
uneconomical mix. Karasahin and Terzi (2007) used marble dust
as filler in asphalt concrete mixes. The Marshall and plastic defor-
mation tests showed that limestone and marble dust gave almost the
same results. Marble dust had higher values of plastic deformation
and hence was suggested for low traffic volume roads. Sharma et al.
(2010) have shown that the presence of high calcium oxide in fly
ash is an important parameter governing the strength characteristics
of bituminous mixes, and up to 7% fly ash can be used as filler in
BC mixes.
Experimental Program
Three industrial wastes—marble dust, granite dust, and fly ash
materials—are used as filler in this study. Hydrated lime, which is
generally used as an antistripping agent, is also used as one of
the fillers in this study. Conventionally used stone dust of quartzite
rock is included to prepare control mixes for comparison of results.
These fillers were characterized by tests such as particle-size analy-
sis and plasticity index. The grain size distribution of filler materials
is shown in Fig. 1. Rigden voids according to British standard
BS 812 EN 1097-4 [British Standards Institution (BSI) 1999]
and German filler test according to National Asphalt Pavement
Association (NAPA 1999) were conducted to estimate the voids in
compacted filler. The clay content in different fillers was estimated
through methylene blue (MB) test in accordance with International
Slurry Seal Association (ISSA). Table 1 shows the results of differ-
ent physical tests on fillers.
This study investigates bituminous concrete, which is the most
commonly used wearing course in India. Aggregates of quartzite
type were procured from a local stone crusher, and the grading used
to prepare the mix is in accordance with specifications of MoRTH
(2001) (Table 2). VG30 (60=70 penetration grade) bitumen was
used throughout the study. The Marshall method of mix design
as given in Manual series MS-2 (Asphalt Institute 1997) was used
to determine the optimum bitumen content (OBC). The filler (pass-
ing a 0.075-mm sieve) content in the mix was varied from 4.0 to
8.5% in step of 1.5%. The following tests were conducted on BC
mixes at OBC.
Moisture Susceptibility Tests
Some fines make bituminous mixes susceptible to moisture-
induced damage (Kandhal 1981). It is expected that the character-
istics and quantity of the filler would affect the adhesion of the
filler-bitumen binder to larger mineral particles. With the use of
Rigden MB German filler Specific
voids (%) value test value gravity
33.67 6.37 85 2.569
38.86 4.50 70 2.695
46.43 2.25 65 2.788
37.59 0.63 75 2.226
0.25 31 2.372
 Table 2. Aggregate Gradation for Bituminous Concrete Marshall density. The sinusoidal wave shape loading of 0.1 s mag-
Recommended Grading adopted nitude was applied to the beam. The frequency of loading was
range (MoRTH 2001) (% passing) 10 Hz. The failure of the specimen was considered at the point
when it had reduced its stiffness to 50% of the initial value.
Indian Standards sieve Cumulative % by weight of
size (mm) total aggregate passing
The beam fatigue tests as indicated in EN 12697-24 (BSI 2004)
were carried out at 25°C at strain levels of 500, 700, and
26.5 100 100 900 μm. Although these strains are higher than those expected
13.2 79–100 90 in a heavy-duty pavement, they were selected to reduce the total
9.5 70–88 79
testing time.
4.75 53–71 62
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2.36 42–58 50
1.18 34–48 41
0.600 26–38 32 Results and Discussion
0.300 18–28 23
0.150 12–20 16 The results of the laboratory investigations on BC mixes with dif-
0.075 (filler) 4–10 4.0, 5.5, 7.0, and 8.5 ferent types and content of fillers are discussed in the following
sections.

larger quantity of fines or improper fines, adhesion may become Design of BC Mixes
critical. The moisture susceptibility of the bituminous concrete As mentioned earlier, the Marshall method of mix design as given
mixes with five fillers and four filler proportions of each was in MS-2 (Asphalt Institute 1997) was used to determine the OBC
evaluated in accordance with AASHTO T283 (AASHTO 1989). in a mix. The OBC was selected at 4% air voids and the Marshall
The loss of adhesion of the aggregates with bitumen was studied stability, flow value, voids filled with bitumen (VFB), and voids in
by measuring the tensile strength ratio (TSR) of BC mixes. Indirect mineral aggregate (VMA) were checked to be within the specified
tensile strength (ITS) of the mix is determined before and after con- limits at this binder content. Fig. 2 shows the variation in OBC with
ditioning of Marshall specimens. The TSR is then determined as filler content for different fillers. As shown in Fig. 2, the marble
the ratio of original strength and retained strength after accelerated dust has the minimum OBC, and the hydrated lime has the maxi-
moisture and freeze-thaw conditioning. mum at all the filler contents. The optimum binder content de-
creases with the increase in filler content. However, the decrease is
Static Creep Test very marginal for granite dust. Because the aggregate gradation and
source are the same in all the mixes, the changes in OBC are attrib-
The uniaxial static creep test as indicated in BS 598-111 (BSI 1995)
uted to the type of filler and its content only. Fillers with particles
was used to compare the rutting potential of bituminous mixes with
smaller than the film thickness are generally expected to act as
different fillers. This test is conducted by applying a static load to
bitumen extender also. The film thickness is measured on the basis
a specimen and measuring the resulting deformation with time. The
of the surface area of aggregates, which depends on the aggregate
reversible part of the total deformation is also recorded by remov-
gradation. The surface area is determined from the surface area
ing the load and measuring deformation after a recovery time that
factors, which are taken from Roberts et al. (1996). The surface
is equal to the loading time. A constant load is applied to the test
area is least affected by the percentage of coarse aggregates but
specimen to provide an axial stress of 100 kPa for a loading time
is significantly affected by the percentage of fine aggregate and
of 1 h and an unloading time of 1 h with the test temperature main-
filler. Film thickness is calculated using Eq. (1):
tained at 30°C.
Vb
TF ¼ ð1,000Þ ð1Þ
Wheel-Tracking Test SA × W
This test is used to assess the liability of a bituminous mix to where T F = average film thickness, μm; V b = effective volume of
deform plastically at high temperatures under pressure caused bitumen (L); SA = surface area aggregates (m2 =kg of aggregate);
by traffic. The susceptibility of bituminous material to deformation and W = weight of aggregates (kg).
is determined by the rut formed by repeated passes of a loaded
wheel at a constant temperature on a test specimen. The wheel-
tracking test was conducted according to the procedure given in
EN 12697-22 (BSI 2003). The apparatus consists of a loaded wheel
that bears on a sample held on a moving table. The table moves
backward and forward with respect to the center of the top surface
of the specimen. The total distance of travel is 230 mm. The wheel
has an outside diameter of 200 mm and is fitted with a solid rubber
tire. Bituminous concrete slabs (specimens) of size 300 × 300 ×
50 mm were fabricated by a tire-roller machine. The tests were car-
ried out at 50°C with back-and-forth frequency of 42 passes=min.

Flexural Fatigue Test

The beam fatigue tests were conducted under controlled strain
mode in beam fatigue system complying with SHRP M009
(Strategic Highway Research Program 1992). The 400 × 64 ×
Fig. 2. Optimum binder content at different filler contents
40-mm beams were prepared at a compaction level of 96% of

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 Table 3. Average Film Thickness at Different Filler Contents characterization of fillers are reported in Table 1. As shown in
Average bitumen film thickness, μm Table 1, the TSR of a mix increases with a decrease in the MBV
irrespective of filler content. Similar results are reported by
Filler Stone Granite Marble
Kandhal and Parker (1998). Although the MBV of fly ash is less
content, % dust dust dust Fly ash Lime
than that of marble dust, the TSR values of mixes with marble dust
4.0 8.238 8.164 7.721 8.090 8.985 are marginally higher than those of mixes with fly ash (except at 4%
5.5 7.583 7.583 7.168 7.445 8.211 filler content). This change is attributed to the calcite group present
7.0 6.876 7.006 6.551 6.746 7.464 in marble dust. Therefore, a simple test such as MBV can provide a
8.5 6.003 6.554 5.882 6.943 6.739
good estimate of moisture susceptibility of a mix when it is required
to compare the durability of mixes with different fillers. All three
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waste materials provide as good durability to the mix as the conven-

The method is approximate only, as it assumes aggregate par- tional stone dust filler.
ticles to be spherical and cubical. The weight of aggregates and the
effective volume of bitumen are determined from the bulk density Static Creep Test
of the mix at OBC. The film thickness obtained at the different filler
contents are listed in Table 3. If a uniform film thickness of 6 μm is Static creep test is preferred, as it is inexpensive and easy to
considered in all the mixes, then the proportions of different fillers conduct. An integral part of the creep test that may be used is the
passing a 6-μm sieve (P6 ) obtained from their gradation curves are rebound deflection obtained after the load is removed. Creep in
80% for lime, 57% for marble dust, 50% for fly ash, 42% for gran- pavement is not necessarily a problem if significant rebound occurs
ite dust, and 27% for conventional stone dust. Lime is the finest after the load is removed. The permanent deformation is the maxi-
filler among all and has the highest percentage of material passing mum deformation minus the amount of rebound. It is an important
the 6-μm sieve. According to the previous concept of film thick- parameter to compare the performance of different mixtures in
ness, hydrated lime should act as bitumen extender the most; hence, terms of permanent deformation. Three Marshall samples were
mixes with lime would have minimum optimum binder content. tested at each filler content for static creep, and the average results
On the contrary, the results indicate that the mixes with lime have of permanent strains are listed in Table 5. Permanent deformation/
the highest OBC. This suggests that particle-size distribution alone strain decreases with the increase in filler content. The trend is con-
is not always a good indicator of the variation in OBC. Particle sistent for all filler contents. However, with the increase in filler
shape, texture, and specific gravity are other important parameters. content, the effect of individual filler on permanent strain decreases.
Hydrated lime has the maximum Rigden voids, which results into Permanent deformation is minimum for hydrated lime, followed by
very stiff filler-bitumen mastic. Therefore, mixes with hydrated fly ash, granite dust, marble dust, and conventional stone dust. The
lime will have to have higher OBC at all filler contents to achieve three industrial wastes have quite low permanent strain and hence
workability at 4% air voids. Granite dust has the second-highest low rutting potential (or high rut resistance) compared with conven-
Rigden void, which explains the marginal decrease in OBC for this tional stone dust.
filler. Rigden voids of all five fillers are listed in Table 1. Marble
dust and fly ash have almost the same Rigden voids, and conven- Wheel-Tracking Test
tional stone dust has the minimum.
Because of a good correlation between laboratory test results
and field measurements, the wheel-tracking test is an important
Moisture Susceptibility of Mixes method for evaluating the rutting resistance of bituminous mixes.
The effect of filler type on moisture susceptibility of BC mixes was 300 × 300 × 50-mm specimens were fabricated by a tire-roller
evaluated by determining the TSR. The results are shown in Table 4. machine. Three specimens fabricated at their respective OBC were
Hydrated lime has antistripping property; hence, mixes with this tested for each of the four filler contents. Indentation (rut depth) in
filler have the highest TSR. Tensile strength ratios decrease with
increase in filler content. Mixes with 8.5% granite dust and con-
ventional stone dust failed in moisture susceptibility tests, as their Table 5. Permanent Strain in BC Mixes with Different Fillers
TSR values are less than 80%, which is the minimum requirement
Permanent strain (×10−3 ), mm=mm
according to MoRTH (2001) specifications. If all other conditions
of aggregate gradation, aggregate source, and type of binder remain Filler Stone Marble Granite Hydrated
unchanged, then the stripping in a mix, and thus its TSR, should content, % dust dust dust Fly ash lime
depend on the clay content in the filler, a parameter defined in terms 4.0 3.70 2.80 2.50 2.22 1.40
of its methylene blue value (MBV). The higher the MBV value of 5.5 3.17 2.47 2.12 1.64 1.03
a filler, the more will be the clay content, and thus the lower would 7.0 2.91 2.10 1.85 1.51 0.94
be the TSR value. The results of the MBV test conducted during 8.5 2.77 1.85 1.69 1.25 0.88

Table 4. Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) of different Mixes Table 6. Rut Depth in BC Mixes after 10,000 Passes
Tensile Strength Ratio, % Rut depth (mm)
Filler Hydrated Marble Granite Stone Filler Stone Marble Granite Hydrated
content, % lime dust Fly ash dust dust content, % dust dust dust Fly ash lime
4.0 93.31 90.09 91.32 89.23 87.64 4.0 8.852 8.150 6.970 7.050 6.400
5.5 91.39 89.67 89.03 87.09 84.79 5.5 8.110 7.160 6.195 6.620 5.590
7.0 87.49 85.98 85.41 82.62 80.34 7.0 7.390 6.420 6.020 5.880 4.920
8.5 82.47 80.45 80.08 77.64 74.53 8.5 6.811 6.070 5.300 5.200 4.250

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 the specimen was continuously observed for 10,000 passes, and rut
depth after 10,000 passes is listed in Table 6. Fig. 3 shows typical
curves of rutting in BC mixes at 5.5% of filler content. The maxi-
mum rut depth was seen in conventional stone dust filler. Rutting
resistance increases with increase in the filler content. At 4 and
5.5% filler contents, the mixes with granite dust had rut depth after
10,000 cycles slightly less than that in mixes with fly ash, whereas
at 7.0 and 8.5% filler content, the rut depth in mixes with fly ash
filler is less than that in mixes with granite dust. Rutting resistance
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the change in rutting resistance of different mixes is attributed
mainly to the type and amount of filler.
Fractional voids in a filler at its closest packing are important
to understand the behavior of filler-bitumen system. Higher bulk
volume of fines would result in more fixed bitumen and less free
bitumen. The bulk volume of fines depend on filler content, OBC,
and Rigden voids, which in turn depend on size, gradation, shape,
and texture of fines. Thus, the bulk volume of fines should act as
a good representative of filler characteristics. It is calculated from
Rigden voids as given by Eqs. (2)–(3):

in a mix is provided by the aggregates and depends on their shape,

strength, gradation, texture, source, origin, and viscosity of the
V fb − V fs
binder. The effect of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and source %RV ¼ × 100 ð2Þ
of bitumen is common in all the mixes; only the amount of bitumen V fb
(OBC) is different for different filler contents and fillers. Therefore,
V fb
%V fb ¼ × 100 ð3Þ
V b þ V fs

where V b = volume of bitumen; V fs = volume of filler (solid par-

Fig. 3. Rutting in BC mixes at 5.5% filler content
ticles); V fb = bulk volume of compacted filler; and RV = Rigden
voids or percentage voids in compacted filler.
Bulk volume of fines would differ with the nature of the fines.
A higher bulk volume of fines would result in more fixed bitumen
and less free bitumen, resulting in the increase in stiffness of filler-
bitumen mastic, which will further result in stiffer mixes. The same
trend was observed for the rut resistance of mixes with different
bulk volume of fines. Bulk volume is very high for hydrated lime,
and it is almost equal for granite dust and fly ash, followed by mar-
ble dust and conventional stone dust (Fig. 4). Scanning electron
microscopic (SEM) analysis of filler particles was carried out to
magnify the shape and texture of filler particles. The analysis in-
dicated that the particles of granite dust are subangular to sub-
rounded and have a medium to rough surface texture. Fly ash has
rounded particles. Because the percentage bulk volume of fines is

Fig. 4. Bulk volumes of fines at OBC Fig. 5. Bulk volume of fines versus rut depth after 10,000 passes

Table 7. Parameters of Rutting Equations

Parameter for mix at filler content (%)
4.0 5.5 7.0 8.5
Filler k n k n k n k n
Lime 635.82 1.4370 891.06 1.3492 1094.60 1.3252 1287.90 1.3508
Marble dust 352.09 1.5487 514.33 1.4427 617.72 1.4427 748.86 1.3899
Fly ash 548.41 1.4335 621.19 1.4246 847.56 1.3408 1089.7 1.2720
Granite dust 463.93 1.5290 675.24 1.4121 754.76 1.3823 1058.60 1.2741
Stone dust 267.86 1.5673 417.33 1.4326 557.66 1.3640 769.24 1.2708

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 listed in Table 7. The rut depth occurring during the first 500 cycles
was not considered in preceding regression equation to account for
the initial conditioning of specimens.
The rut depth after 10,000 passes was plotted against bulk vol-
ume of fines at respective filler contents for all five fillers. Fig. 5
shows a good correlation between the rut depth and the percentage
bulk volume of fines. Eq. (5) can be used to estimate the rut depth in
mixes after 10,000 passes in a wheel-tracking test to compare the
rutting resistance of mixes with different fillers.
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RD ¼ 52.074 × ðV fb %Þð−0.5299Þ R2 ¼ 0.861 ð5Þ

where RD = rut depth (mm) after 10,000 cycles of the wheel-

tracking machine; and V fb % = percentage bulk volume of fines
in a mix at OBC.
Fig. 6. Fatigue lives at tensile strain of 500 μm

Flexural Fatigue Test

Fig. 7. Fatigue lives at filler content of 4.0%
almost the same at 4.0 and 5.5% filler content of fly ash and granite
dust, it is because of the particle shape of granite dust filler that it
has slightly more rut resistance than fly ash.
The results of the wheel-tracking tests when plotted on a double
log scale showed the straight line relationships between the rut
depth and the number of load cycles. The regression equations fit-
ted through the data points predict the number of cycles for a given
rut depth in different mixes and is of the following form:
N f ¼ k × ðRDÞn
where N f = number of cycles to produce a rut depth; RD = rut
depth (mm); and k and n = constants, which depend on the material
properties. The values for these constants for different fillers are
Fatigue tests were conducted on beams of bituminous concrete
mixes under controlled strain mode at 25°C. Failure of the speci-
men was considered when repeated loading has reduced its stiffness
to 50% of the initial value. Tests were carried out at strain levels of
500, 700, and 900 μm. Three beams were tested at each strain level.
Fig. 6 shows the fatigue life of mixes at different filler contents at a
strain level of 500 μm. Variation in fatigue life with filler content
was the same at other strain levels (700 and 900 μm). At 4.0% filler
content, the fatigue life of hydrated lime is maximum, followed by
marble dust, fly ash, granite dust, and stone. The fatigue life of the
mixes with lime decreases with increase in filler content, whereas
the fatigue lives of mixes with other fillers are maximum near 7.0%
filler content. The decrease in the fatigue life of mixes with lime
with increase in filler content is attributed to excessive stiffness of
the mixes caused by the high bulk volume of fines.
The number of cycles to failure corresponding to a strain level
of 500 μm is shown in Fig. 7. The regression equation relating the
number of load cycles (N f ) to cause failure in the beam at predeter-
mined tensile strain (ε) is given by Eq. (6). These relations were
developed for BC mixes with different fillers and at different filler
contents. Table 8 provides the values of constants a and b.
N f ¼ a
ð1=εÞb ð6Þ
where N f = number of cycles to failure; and ε = tensile strain
applied (μm).
The fatigue life of mixes is calculated by using the above equa-
tions at a strain level of 600 μm, and the relative performance of
mixes with respect to conventional stone dust filler for different
ð4Þ fillers and filler contents is shown in Table 9. The fatigue life is
highest at 7.0% filler content except for hydrated lime in which
it is maximum at 4.0% only. Furthermore, the use of marble dust,
fly ash, and granite dust in BC mix has enhanced the fatigue life up
to 50%.

Table 8. Constants for Fatigue Equations

Filler content, %
4.0 5.5 7.0 8.5
Filler a b a b a b a b
Lime 8 × 1012 2.8914 1 × 1013 2.9243 7 × 1012 2.8846 6 × 1012 2.8515
Marble dust 6 × 1012 2.8701 1 × 1013 2.9212 6 × 1012 2.8309 6 × 1012 2.8443
Fly ash 5 × 1012 2.8485 6 × 1012 2.8819 4 × 1012 2.8082 5 × 1012 2.8535
Granite dust 4 × 1012 2.8463 3 × 1012 2.7936 3 × 1012 2.7709 3 × 1012 2.7989
Stone dust 7 × 1012 2.9653 3 × 1012 2.8166 3 × 1012 2.7852 4 × 1012 2.8486

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1666-1673.

 Table 9. Fatigue Life of Mixes at 600 μm Strain Level
Life from beam fatigue equations for filler content
4.0% 5.5%
Relative
Filler type Cycles ratio Cycles
Lime 74,190 1.83 75,137
Marble dust 63,765 1.57 81,937
Fly ash 61,011 1.50 59,128
Granite dust 49,500 1.22 52,009
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Stone dust 40,462 1.00 44,893
Conclusions
The results of various tests on bituminous concrete mixes with fly
ash, marble dust, granite dust, hydrated lime, and conventional
stone dust are presented and compared in this paper. The effect
on OBC of filler type and filler content is explained. It is found
that the OBC in a mix not only depends on the fineness of
the filler but it is also controlled by the Rigden voids of the filler.
The OBC in a mix is higher if the Rigden voids of its filler are
high. The moisture susceptibility tests suggest that three industrial
wastes (fly ash, marble dust, and granite dust) selected in the
present study can be optimally used up to 7.0% as filler in a
bituminous mix. Static creep tests and wheel-tracking tests con-
ducted on various mixes indicate better performance of a mix
when these wastes are used as filler. Mixes with fly ash, granite
dust, and marble dust have almost 40% more life in rutting when
compared with conventional stone dust filler. A mathematical
relationship is developed between rut depth and bulk volume of
fines in a mix at its OBC. Similarly, another relationship is de-
veloped between the fatigue life of a mix and the stain level. The
fatigue life of a mix with marble dust is 50–70% higher than that
of a mix with conventional stone dust. In the case of fly ash filler,
the fatigue life is approximately 30% higher than conventional
stone dust filler. Similarly, using granite dust in a mix enhanced
its life by 15–20% for filler content up to 5.5 and 3–10% for
higher filler contents. Hydrated lime does not seem to be eco-
nomical, as the optimum binder content was very high when com-
pared with other fillers. Hydrated lime also has very high Ridgen
voids, which makes the mix very stiff and may be difficult to
compact in the field. However, lime gives very good resistance
to moisture-induced damage as seen in TSR test results and can
be definitely used as an antistripping agent wherever there is a
requirement for the mix. Fly ash, marble dust, and granite dust
can be used as fillers up to a filler content of 7.5% in BC mixes.
Construction of trial stretches are further required to increase
the confidence of engineers in using these waste materials as filler
in bituminous mixes, which will help ease to some extent the
burden of industries, especially of stone industries, for disposal of
these wastes.
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