LEARNING MODULE

NOTRE DAME OF MASIAG, INC.

S.Y. 2020-2021

Animal Production (Swine)

Grade 12
Quarter 1
Name __________________________________________
Section __________________________________________

Subject Teacher __________________________________________

Class Adviser __________________________________________

FOR PRIVATE USE

in the Notre Dame of Masiag, Inc.
Strictly not for Public Circulation
 Foreword to Parents and Students

Welcome to Notre Dame of Masiag,Inc. Modular Learning Modality for school year 2020-2021. This Module was
prepared for use in the Archdiocesan Notre Dame Schools of Cotabato (ANDSC) system. Whenever necessary and appropriate,
the Subject Teacher made some revisions in order to best suit the needs of your particular school.
This set of Modules will be used with an accompanying official textbook available for sale or rental from the school.
For the schools that does not use a textbook, the subject teacher will provide another set of texts or excerpts that will serve as
Substitute of the textbook, which is called Appendix Text. On a regular basis, the student will be directed to do some activities
in his/her Activity/Assessment Notebook. Make sure you have these 3 sets of Materials for your classes: 1) Modules; 2)
Textbook or Appendix Texts; and 3) Activity/Assessment Notebook.
For our Blended Learning, the school will use online technologies to support our Modular Learning Delivery: the use
of online classrooms, links, video presentations, social media, emails, live calls, webinars, etc. Furthermore, the students are
highly encouraged to find supplementary ways of learning like reading materials, multimedia, online resources, and the aid of
the people in the homes. It goes without saying that the parents are the best partners of the school in the education of their
children. Now, more than ever, your children need your support in the delivery of learning.
We are hopeful that despite its few disadvantages, this new approach to education will yield the most for our students.
We also hope that this pandemic will soon end and we can see you face to face. At the beginning of this school year, may I
introduce to you the Vision-Mission and Core Values to be adapted by all the ANDSC schools starting this school year 2020-
2021. Our Module Designers have tried their best to incorporate these treasures in the Modules.
Thank you for choosing Notre Dame.
Rev. Fr. Arnold L. Fuentes, DCC
Director/Superintendent
VISION STATEMENT
Notre Dame of Masiag, Inc. a member of the Archdiocesan Notre Dame Schools of Cotabato, providing quality
education rooted in the gospel values and Marian ideals, envisions to be a center of excellence in the holistic development of
human persons, equipped with knowledge and life-enriching skills who are successful and responsible citizens contributing to
the transformation of society.

MISSION STATEMENT
We commit ourselves to provide innovative programs for dynamic learning experiences in a safe and conducive
environment; foster a culture of peace, understanding and solidarity; develop leadership and exercise social responsibility;
participate in nation building and promote love for country; and collaborate with the local church in its mission of
evangelization.
CORE VALUES – N.O.T.R.E. D.A.M.E.

N Noble A Notre Damean demonstrates high moral principles that embody nobility of character
especially honesty and integrity.
O Obedient A Notre Damean exemplifies fidelity to God and loyalty to country; follows school
policies, rules and regulations; and practices desirable family values.
T Transformed A Notre Damean displays positive disposition in life and an acceptable level of self-
confidence and maturity, and shows capacity for teamwork,
collaboration and solidarity.
R Respectful A Notre Damean shows high esteem and regard to oneself, others, the community,
country, nature, environment, and other faiths and cultures.
E Enlightened A Notre Damean demonstrates academic excellence, critical and reflective
thinking, and guided by one’s conscience, makes good decisions and actions based on wise judgment.
D Disciplined A Notre Damean wills and obliges to do what is right and expected, and exercises self-
control in one’s dealings with the world and others.
A Accountable A Notre Damean displays commitment and responsibility in performing one’s tasks, and
shows leadership capacities and sense of volunteerism and initiative.
M Marian A Notre Damean emulates Mary’s virtues especially faith in God, generosity, humility,
prayerfulness, purity, simplicity, and service.
E Empathetic A Notre Damean shows sensitivity and understanding of the feelings, ideas, beliefs,
cultures, traditions, and experiences of others; and shows compassion, friendship, kindness and love.
LESSON 1: THE PIG INDUSTRY

1.1 Introduction- Overview

· To note that the pig industry is very old in developed countries

· Literature available as early as 1523 by Fitzherbert
· Worldwide the pig population has been increasing with human population.
· The pig industry has played a number of roles in the lives of people from ancient times.
· These includes
i) Treading corn in ancient Egypt
ii) Swearing an oath on pig or piglet in Roman armies
iii) Land preparation
iv) Pointers and retrievers for illicit hunting
v) Provision of meat and lard
· As the human population increased rapidly in the Middle Ages, number of pigs increased so fast
that they became a nuisance in the streets.
· A law was to be made that “He who shall wish to feed a pig must feed it in his house”.
· A pig found wondering could be killed, although there was a provision that the owner could buy
it back.
· Importance of the pig has been described in history books as:
i) a save all
ii) universal consumer
iii) universally produced
iv) scavengers of the medieval village and for general use and consumption
v) pig industry has been described as the most important objects of all English
agriculture in the 13th Century and for many of the century to come.
vi) Fitzherbert (1523) was of the opinion that the pig population of the country was too
small than it should be and so he wrote “Now, thou husband that hath both horses and
mares, beasts and sheep, it was necessary that both swine, bees, sleep he wake he, he
may thrive….then see how many swine thou art be able to keep.”
The world population has since then increased tremendously to over 800 mill. pigs (FAO 1994).
· Most important is the radical change in management systems which have enabled developed
countries of Europe as well as South East Asia to derive more meat from pigs than other livestock.
· In Africa, meat production comes mainly from ruminants, having 21 mill. compared to 192 mill.
cattle (FAO 1994).
· Thus in Africa, TZ being included the pig industry plays a minor role except in some small
communities.
· In TZ pig population vary from 900-1mill. compared with cattle population of over 19 mill.

1.2 Origin of the pig

Breeds origin
· The modern domesticated pig is known as Sus scrofa domesticus or simply Sus domesticus.
· It is believed to have descended from the wild boar of Southern Europe (Sus scrofa) and those of
Asia, and Malayan pigs possibly the collared pig (Sus vittatus)
· Other breeds were the wart hog (Sus aethiopicus) and the African wild pig (Sus procus) and the
red river hog of Africa (Sus africcnus).
 ·
Zoologically, the pig is a member of the order Ungulata, through the sub-order Artiodactyla and
belongs to the same family Suidae as the domestic pig.
· The present day breeds are no doubt a result of varying degrees of crossing between the parents
stock and their offspring.
Evolution of the management systems
· Over a period of 3-4 decades the typical system of raising pigs has evolved from what could be
termed “natural conditions” into highly specialized and sophisticated confinement facilities.
· While the wild pig is vigorous, active and aggressive, the domesticated pig is a different
creature, content largely to feed and sleep, inclined to vicious only if disturbed although it is
inquisitive.
How did it happen?
· Through breeding and selection based on progeny testing, performance testing
· Aiming at developing an efficient pig
· The pig has been reshaped to fit into the modern production systems.
· The emphasis has been on producing an animal which do not become excessively fat under
conditions of being permanently housed, and which will respond to controlled levels of feed intake
by production of muscles and little fat.
1.3 Factors favorable for pig Production/Advantages

1. High feed conversion efficiency (1 kg carcass from 5 feed is possible).

2. Prolificacy (Farrowing 6 – 14 piglets twice per year).
3. Short reproductive cycle (Thus many –up to 16 or more piglets raised per sow per year).
4. High dressing percentage (65 % to 80 % and also small proportion of bone, hence high % of edible
meat in carcass).
5. Pork is nutritious and energetic due to high fat content and slightly low water content.
6. Efficient converters of waste and by-products into pork. Pigs can utilize a variety of by-products
unsuitable for human consumption.
7. High capacity to consume feed in proportion to their weights and hence can make more rapid gains
proportion to their live weights than calves or lambs.
8. Hardy and adapt well to various climatic conditions without impairing the reproduction or
performance.
9. Flexibility in housing
10. No competition with crop for land.
11. Easy to breed your own pigs.

1.4 Factors limiting pig production

1. Shortage/high price of concentrates. Pigs cannot perform well entirely on roughages or bulky
feeds.
2. In most cases pigs compete with man and other non-ruminants animals and even ruminants for
food.
3. Diseases and parasites (Zoonotic diseases and parasites e.g. Porcine cysticercosis, taeniosis). For
more information Read (Kimbi et al., 2010).
4. Stench and drudgery
5. Fast inbreeding
6. Religious and social taboos
7. Pork has to compete with other meat which can sometimes be produced at low cost
 need to formulate least cost feeds (>70 % of the total cost is from food)
 try to reduce labor and overhead costs
 look for good markets
  Add value to the product by processing and sell to niche markets (supermarkets, tourist
hotels, restaurants and mining areas).

LESSON 2: BREEDS OF PIGS AND PIG BREEDING

2.1 Breeds

1. Large White/Yorkshire
Origin:
Yorkshire – England
Characteristics:
 White body, erect ears, face is dished, heavy and
deep shoulders
 Susceptible to sun burn
 Large and fast growing litters
 Although docile, docile by virtue of its size, its
apt to behave like a local rhinoceros.
 Good for bacon production
 Relatively hardy
2. Landrace
Origin:
Denmark
Characteristics:
 White long body, droopy/floppy ears, straight
long snout, fine for quarters
 Produces very lean meat
 Excellent for bacon
 Sometimes succumb to stress and may require
high standard of management.
3. Saddleback
Origin:
SW England (Essex and Wessex)
Characteristics:
 Black body with a white saddle / belt across the
shoulders and fore legs, long straight face, droopy
ears.
 Good mothering ability
 Good for outdoor conditions
4. Hampshire
Origin:
USA
Characteristics:
 Black body with a white belt across the shoulders,
short snout, thick erect ears.
 Good for outdoor conditions.
5. Duroc
  The second-most recorded breed of swine in the United States, the red pigs with the drooping ears
are valued for their product quality, carcass yield, fast growth and lean-gain efficiency. They also
add value through their prolificacy and longevity in the female line. Much of the U.S. breed
improvement has occurred in Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and Nebraska.
6. Berkshire
 The third-most recorded breed of swine in the United
States, Berkshires are known for fast and efficient
growth, reproductive efficiency, cleanness and meat
flavor and value. The first U.S. meeting of Berkshire
breeders and importers was held in 1875, with the
American Berkshire Association formed shortly after –
making it the oldest swine registry in the world.
7. Yorkshire
 The most-recorded breed of swine in North
America, Yorkshires are white with erect ears. They
are found in almost every state, with the highest
populations being in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Nebraska and Ohio. Yorkshires are known for their
muscle, with a high proportion of lean meat and low
backfat. Soundness and durability are additional
strengths.
8. Spotted
 The Spotted swine breed is characterized by large,
black-and-white spots. Many breeders in central Indiana
specialized in breeding Spotted hogs through the years.
Today, Spots are known for their feed efficiency, rate of gain
and carcass quality. In addition, commercial producers
appreciate Spotted females for their productivity,
docility and durability.
9. Poland China
 In the early 1800s, Poland China hogs originated in
Ohio. Today, Poland China hogs are known for their
large frame, length of body, leanness and muscle. They
also are excellent feeders, gaining well under good care
and management. They also are quiet in their
disposition.
10. Chester White
 Chester Whites originated in Chester County, Pa., from
which their name was formed. These white hogs with
droopy, medium-sized ears are known for their
mothering ability, durability and soundness. Packers
also tout their muscle quality.

11. Other breeds of pigs are:

a. Pietran
b. Tamworth
c. Lacombe
d. Hereford
e. Mangalitza
 f. Criollo
g. Ashanti (China)
h. Bakosi (Cameroon)

Reading Assignment!
Read about these breeds and make notes on their origin and characteristics. Write your answers
in your activity/assessment notebook.
2.2 Pig Breeding

Traits of economic importance in pigs

1. Sow productivity. That is total litter weight at weaning. This is an indication of the milking and
mothering ability of the sow and vigour and growth rate of the pigs. Large litters are not
advantageous if a sow is poor mother or piglets are too weak.
2. Rate and efficiency of gain
3. Carcass desirability- leanness
Systems of breeding which can be used in pigs include:
 Pure breeding
 Inbreeding
 Crossbreeding
 Outcrossing and line breeding
All these can be generalized as:
 Inbreeding and
 Crossbreeding systems
What happens when these two systems are applied in pigs?

TRAITS INBREEDING CROSSBREEDING

1. General performance Decline Improved
2. Fertility Improved Decline
3. Litter size Decreased Increases
4. Mortality Increases Decreases
 Libido Low High
 Sexual maturity Delayed Improved
 Mature size Reduced Increased
 Growth rate Reduced Improved
 Effects of recessive
Uncovered Masked
genes
 Traits with low heritability like reproductive traits (e.g. litter size and vigour can be improved by
crossbreeding)
 Whereas, traits with high heritability like carcass (body length, mature body size, leanness can be
improved by selection).

2.3 The Pig cycle

CYCLE SPECIFICATION DURATION

1. Length of oestrus 21 (19 – 23) days
 2. Duration of heat 2- 3 days
3. Time of ovulation after onset of oestrus 35 hrs
4. Life of sperm in the female genitalia 24 – 40 hrs
5. Life span of eggs < 24 hrs
6. Age at puberty 6- 8 months
7. Age at first service 8 months
8. Gestation period 114 days
9. Suckling period 8 weeks (variable)
10. Reproductive longevity 4 – 8 years
11. Longevity 12 – 15 years

The following are production and productivity targets which can be achieved in the tropics:
1. Pigs farrowed per litter 9
2. Pigs weaned per litter 7
3. Pigs weaned per sow per year 14
4. Litters per sow per year 2
5. Weaning wt. (kg) at 8 weeks 10- 12
6. Litter wt. at weaning (kg) > 70
7. Weaning service interval (days) 5– 10
8. Age at first service (months) 8– 9
9. Growth rate (kg/day) 0.5
10. Age at slaughter at 90 kg (months) 6– 7
Caution: In order to achieve these more attention should be focused on:
 Creep feeding
 Care at farrowing and thereafter
 Mating procedures and
 Feeding of growing pigs

LESSON 3: MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG PIGS

3.1 Factors influencing performance of suckling pig.

1. Teat position and social rank. Anterior teats produce more milk than posterior teats.
2. Number of teats versus little size
3. Order in birth
4. Milk ability of the sow which in turn depends on:
i) Age. Milk yield increases up to the 4-6th parity, then decline.
ii) Litter size. The larger the litter size the more the milk, but the less milk per piglet.
 iii) Body condition and nutritional level before and during lactation
5. Creep feeding
6. Stress (heat, lack of water, fighting, poor mothering ability of the sow)

3.2 Colostrum

The baby pig is born with little or no antibodies and has to suckle the mother to acquire
immunity from the immunoglobulins in the colostrum or first milk.
Functions of colostrum:
i) Provision of passive immunity- lasts for 3 days
ii) Provision of nutrients –excellent source of Vitamin A, C, and E.
Since the permeability of intestine to protein responsible for immunity is reduced drastically (gut
closure) with time after birth, it is essential that piglets suckle immediately after birth.
For 24 – 36 hrs after birth the pigs readily absorbs intact protein unchanged through gut wall.
The general health and survival of the newborn pig depends on this absorption which not only
provides antibodies but is also accompanied by rapid rise in serum proteins and an increase in blood
volume.
The composition of the colostrum changes rapidly until after one week it resembles normal milk.

Table1. Composition of sow’s milk/colostrums

Hrs/days after birth % fat %Protein % Lactose

5 hrs 4.5 15.0 3.0
2 days 9.5 8.0 4.5

45 days 7.5 7.0 5.5

Digestion in the young pig (AS 104) From birth until about the age of five weeks the concentration
and activity of many digestive secretions in the young pig are different from those in the adult
animal.
 During the first few days after birth the intestine is permeable to native proteins.
 In the young pig, as in other farm animals, this is essential for the transfer of g-globulins
(antibodies) via the mother's milk to the newborn animal.
 The ability of the young pig to absorb these proteins declines rapidly and is low by 24 hours post
partum.
Reasons for this condition

i) Proteins digested differently. The piglet stomach initially produces only a limited amount of
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, but it does secrete chymosin. This operates at pH 3.5 to break the
peptide bonds between phenylalanine and methionine in casein. It clots milk, thereby avoiding flooding
the small intestine with nutrients. As the piglet develops, pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid secretion
increases.
i) CHOs are also digested differently in young pig. Table.2 shows the activity of some of the
important carbohydrates in the young pig.
 Table 2 Weight of disaccharides hydrolyzed per kg body weight per hour by small intestine
enzyme in young pigs

Lactose Sucrose Maltose

(g) (g) (g)
Newborn 5.9 0.06 0.3

Five weeks 0.8 1.3 2.5

Table 2 indicates that there is variation in the enzymes activity:

 The activity of lactase is high at birth and reaches a maximum in the first week of life and then slowly
declines over the third or fourth week.
 Maltase activity increases from the fourth week,
 Sucrase reaches a constant level between weeks 4 and 8.
 a-Amylase activity is present at birth but remains low until about four weeks of age.
Significance of enzyme activity in rearing of piglets:
1. Early weaning (14 days of age)
These differences in enzyme activities are of special significance where piglets are reared on early weaning
diets. If young pigs are weaned at 14 days of age, their diet, especially regarding the types of carbohydrates,
should be different from that for animals weaned later. Early weaning mixtures usually include a high
proportion of dried milk products containing lactose.
2. Late weaning (3-4 weeks)
For later weaning at 3 - 4 weeks cooked cereals are included in the diet since raw starch is incompletely
digested in the SI and passes to the large intestine, where it is fermented by bacteria, causing diarrhoea.

3.3 Management Requirements of Piglets

1. Adequate warm environment to conserve scarce energy
2. Adequate and constant nutrition (energy, protein, vitamin, minerals and water). Access to suckling
3. Safety from overlying by the sow (mother)

3.4 Operation during the first week

3.4.1 Day 1 (1st Day)

i) Help the piglets to find the teats
ii) Assist weak piglets. They can be held at the teats to avoid competition or given 10 cc of 20 %
solution of glucose by intra-peritoneal injection or 10 – 20 cc cow colostrums by syringe or stomach
tube.
iii) Novel (umbilical cord) should be tied off to prevent loss of blood (cut in such a way that 3 to 5 cm
remain and this portion dipped into a tincture of iodine to avoid navel infection...”novel ill”
iv) Keep piglets warm to avoid hypothermia and hypoglycaemia. Piglets are born with only 1% fat in
the body (compare with 16 % in humans). They are therefore highly susceptible to low temperature.
3.4.2 Other operations during 1st Week

1. Clipping/cutting needle teeth or “wolf” teeth (4 canine teeth) two on each jaw
i) to prevent injury and infection of the sow's udder,
ii) prevent injury to piglets during encounters (when fight or play among themselves),
iii) make handling easy.
2. Identification
 Identification should be done on the first days to establish identity by using:
i) ear notching
 ii) ear tattooing numbers
iii) ear tagging
3. Iron supply
i) Iron dextran injection (more dependable method
ii) Ferrous sulphate solution (spraying or swabbing the sow’s udder with the solution daily until the
piglets starts to eat creep feed.
iii) Commercial source of iron in a form of pills or pastes to be administered individually are also
available
iv) Place clean red soil in the pen
v) Let the sow farrow in a non-concrete (earth) pen

Why iron supplements?

 It is administered to prevent anaemia. The new born pig has only a limited reserve of iron for
haemoglobin synthesis owing to inefficient placental transfer of iron to the foetus. The new born pig
contains only about 50 mg of iron stored in the liver and the daily need is about 5 or 10 mg. Since the
sow’s milk is also very low in iron, the suckling pig must be supplemented with iron to prevent anaemia.
 Thus the amount to be supplemented should be 150 to 200 mg to meet the needs for iron until iron
containing dry feeds is eaten in significant amount say about 3 weeks of age.

3.4.3 Operations after 1st Week

1. Operation No. 1- Creep feeding

 Due to inadequate milk supply
 Even out differences in growth, avoid runts
 Accustom piglets to solid foods so as to ease transition

Important changes in the enzyme activity that occur in GIT of a young pig (AS 104):
 Important changes in digestive enzymes as it grows
 These enzyme changes affect the suitability of various carbohydrates and proteins for the baby pig
during its early life.
 The newly born pig has very little or no pepsin enzyme activity.
 Pepsin activity increases gradually up to 7 weeks of age
 Pancreatic amylase activity is very low at birth and increases gradually up to seven weeks of age.
 Amylolytic activity (CHO digestion enzymes) is also very low at birth (negligible).
 This increases markedly during the first 5 weeks of age.
 Lipolytic (fat digestion) activity is high at birth and remains high throughout.
 Sucrase and maltase activity rise steadily from negligible levels at birth to significance levels in 1 – 2
weeks.
 This is the reason why very young pigs cannot utilize sucrose but can utilise lactose.
 The lack of sucrase in the newborn pig and the slow rate of increased production of enzymes accounts
for danger of death among pigs fed a diet rich in sucrose (e.g. high molasses based diets).
 Lactase (enzyme for milk sugar) activity is high at birth.
 Lactose utilization decreases as the pig becomes older because the production of the enzyme lactase,
which breaks down lactose decreases reaching minimum levels at 4 – 5 weeks of age.
 The ability of the baby pig to utilize lactose is reduced rapidly with age.
 After 4 weeks it reaches very low levels while ability to utilize feed protein increases in the opposite
direction.
 Thus trypsin, pancreatic amylase, pepsin increase and at the 4th week they persist in high levels.
 The normal pattern of enzyme is suitable for milk digestion up to 21 – 28 days (3 to 4 weeks) because
the sow's milk yield increases up to maximum quantity at this time.
  There after supplementary food is necessary and the need arises for the piglets to be able to digest other
raw material.
 The change therefore takes place from a predominantly milk proteins {(Rennin or chymosin) which
resemble pepsin in activity} and sugars (lactase) and milk fats (lipase) digestion enzymes towards other
proteins (proteolytic enzymes) and starch (amylose) digestion enzymes.
 Usually after 3 – 4 weeks milk is no longer adequate and after 8 – 9 weeks milk production is negligible.
 Thus creep feed should be introduced after the second week.
 The creep feed should be palatable, highly
 digestible and nutritious and not dusty.

2. Operation No.2- Castration

 Castration should be done early in life, preferably the first 2 weeks of life.
Benefits and/or advantages of castration
 Use a clean scalpel or sharp knife + disinfectant
 Boar odour- meat from mature boars has objectionable odour when cooked. This is produced by
a fat soluble substance: 5 androst – 16 –ene –one present in the flesh and stored in the preputial
gland.
 · Prevent unplanned matings

3. Operation No. 3- Weaning strategies

 Remove sow and leave the piglets in the pen at least for week
 Avoid mixing with other litters
 Continue with the palatable creep feed
 Feed frequently and in small amounts
 Avoid scours.
 Avoid abrupt weaning-in many piggeries weaning is abrupt and affect the pig both socially and
nutritionally. Having established a close relationship with the sow and dominance order within
the litter often based on teat position, the weaned pig finds itself completely disoriented when
removed from the sow.

Additional weaning strategies

 Pigs from several litters are often regrouped by size.
 The group of pigs will normally spend the first few days adjusting to these changes during which time
very little feed is consumed.
 This courses an additional stress, superimposed on an already difficult period in terms of the digestive
physiology of the pig.
 The pig's digestive system has been programmed to cope with liquid milk until weaning and has then to
make a transition quite rapidly to digest solid food (if creep feed was not provided).
 By the 3rd of 4th day after weaning the pigs have normally adjusted to the new environment and food
intake increases drastically.
 This sudden intake of food causes much undigested food to pass to the lower gut resulting in an
imbalance of the microbial population and consequently a scour problem.
 These changes in social grouping, housing and diet are occurring when the pig's immunity is at its
lowest.
 Remember that the new born piglet has no protective immunity at birth and it is only after its first suckle
and intake that passive immunity is imparted to it.
 This lasts for about 10 – 14 days
 Active immunity to disease organisms encountered in the farrowing pen does not build up until 21 – 24
days of age.
  Ability to resist a disease challenge is therefore at its lowest during the period when the disease causing
organism will invariably result in symptoms of that disease.
 Likewise any change in the management system that may result in a change of balance in the normal gut
microorganism population will probably result in the development of scour.
 This problem will be intensified if disease organism such as E. coli is present in significant numbers in
the gut.
WHY SHOULD WEANERS BE FED FREQUENTLY IN SMALL AMOUNTS
a) The volume of the gut increases with live weight as well as with the amount of supplementary feed
consumed.

 The
larger the gut the
more food that
can be consumed and the greater the potential for more rapid growth.
 The amount consumed depends also on the rate at which the gut is emptied and vice versa.
 When the pig eats only once or twice per day, it consumes a large quantity of food in a short time.
  This result in the stomach being emptying large mass of semi-digested food into the upper small
intestine, which causes a heavy loading in digestive capacity of the gut.
 This may result in the food passing along the tract too fast to be completely absorbed and hence
supplies a nutrient source for the microorganisms lower down the intestinal tract.
 When a similar amount of feed is consumed in small amounts at more frequent intervals, the
stomach empties intermittently which is more gentle on the digestive tract and allows the enzymes
more time to act on the substrate.
 There is less likelihood of undigested nutrients reaching the large intestine for proliferation of
microorganisms living there.
b) The degree of acidity (pH) in the digestive tract varies along the length of the tract, generally being very
acidic (pH of 2 - 3) in the stomach and near neutral (pH of 6 - 7) in the other parts.
 The low pH (pepsin have optimum activity at two different pH levels (2.0 and 3.5) of the stomach is
due to HCL secretion of the stomach on the first day of life.
New findings
 Although the large intestine is recognized as the site of major microbial fermentation, there is a
microbial population in the small intestine. Recent work with sugar beet pulp given to pigs fitted
with ileal cannulae showed that a large proportion (47 percent) of the neutral detergent fibre fraction
was digested prior to the terminal ileum. This breakdown is the result of microbial activity in the
stomach and small intestine and acid hydrolysis of some of the fibre fractions.

OTHER ADVANTAGES OF ACID CONDITION

 HCL is known to be higher in weaners (weaned pigs) than at any other time of its life and this
initially allows ingested bacteria to pass through the stomach unharmed and to multiply in the lower
intestine.
 This establishes the population of the microorganism along the GIT (flora and fauna) and symbiotic
microorganisms for hind gut fermentation.
 With normal diets there is always a certain amount of material which is resistant to the action of the
enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal.
 The large intestine plays an important role in the retrieval of nutrients, electrolytes and water in the
digesta.
 The lower pH of the stomach after this time prevents multiplication of any bacteria that are
consumed except Lactobacilli which proliferate in the stomach and small intestine but do not harm
the piglet.
 Whenever the pH of the stomach contents rises, bacteria whose multiplication would normally be
limited are allowed to increase in number and pass on through the stomach to the intestine.
 However, the barrier of entry to the potential disease-causing organisms is lowered.
 In practice, when the pig is fed the pH of the stomach will initially rise towards the pH of the food
i.e. about 6.0 to 6.5.
 The stomach then secrets HCL and over the period that the food remains in the stomach the pH will
slowly fall towards pH 2 to 3.
 Whenever the diet is eaten in large quantities at infrequent intervals, the pH of the stomach will tend
to remain higher than if the food was consumed little and often.
 This is because the food will buffer the pH of the stomach to a higher value and the HCL produced
will not be able to adequately permeate the large food mass. The overall effect of this is that the pH
of the stomach does not fall as low as it should resulting to low enzyme activity.
c) Another important facet of stomach pH is its effect on the functional ability of the protein digesting
enzymes.
 Protein digestion starts through the action of the protein digesting enzymes.
 Digestion of protein starts through the action of the pepsin in the acid environment of the stomach.
 It is important that the acidity falls below pH of 4 otherwise this enzyme will not function.
  Any food passing the stomach before the pH has fallen to this level will not have its protein
completely digested in the small intestine.

What is the fate of such foods?

 This site is post absorption and nutrients from hind gut fermentation will not be absorbed to the
system
 This is likely to cause an increase in the microbial population in the lower gut and a disturbance in
the normal distribution of bacterial types such as E. coli will become prevalent and consequently
may lead to development of a scour condition.

LESSON 4: MANAGEMENT OF GROWING PIGS

GROWTH RATES
 Piglet’s birth weight is between 0.6 and 1.4 kg depending upon breeds, litter size and parity.
 Most breeds have an average of 1.2 kg for most productive genotype.
 After 6-7 months live-weight will have increased to 100 kg which represents approximately an 80-
folds increase in weight.
 Pigs therefore have a rapid growth rate; this explains their high nutrient requirements and the reason
why feeding must be optimal.
(graph1)
 The rate of growth is not constant (graph 2)
 In absolute terms daily live-wt. gains increase up to 100 kg for European breeds are of the order:
i) 400g following weaning
ii) 500g at 30 kg
iii) >600 g up to 40 kg
iv) 700g between 60 and 70 kg after which they fall progressively.
(graph 3)
 If weight gain is related to live weight gain i.e the relative GR, it is evidence that this declines from
birth
(graph 4)
 As illustrated in the graphs shown it indicates that at 20 kg LWt. the critical period has been passed.
 The protein content of the diet can be reduced
 It should be born in mind that although the amount of feed required per 100 kg gain during each
period of growth steadily increases, the feed conversion and growth rate cannot be maximized until a
weight of about 90 – 100 kg is reached.
 Average daily gain (ADG) tends to increase from birth to puberty (6 months) and then decreases
until maturity (graph 3).
 Maximum slaughter weight for most pigs lies in the range of 65 – 110 kg live weight.

Development of body tissue

 At birth the pig has a relatively large head in relation to the rest of the body and its development is
most pronounced during gestation.
 This proportion diminishes progressively.
 As the pig grows the hind quarters form a square, with height being equal to length (graph 5).
 As the pig grows much older other tissues like muscle and fat are deposited to the body at different
proportions (Table 3)

Table 3: Development of body composition in pigs.

LWt. Body composition (%)

 (kg) DM CP Fat Ash Skeleton Muscle Fat
tissues

Birth 20 14 1 4 18 46 2
20 40 14 12 3 14 45 19
50 45 13 16 28 12 44 25
90 50 13 28 25 10 43 32

150 60 11 45 20 8 40 50

 The older the pig the more the tendency to lay down fat in its carcass.
 Restricting the feed intake can control this to some extent.
 Fat deposition require more dietary energy than other body components and consequently give a
lower live weight gain per unit of food intake (lower feed efficiency).
 The higher the daily gain or the lower the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of a group of fattening pigs
the greater the profitability.
(graphs 5 and 6) Development of tissues and Development of uscle tissues with LWt. Gain)

Table 4. Body composition as influenced by sex

Sex Bone Muscle Fat tissue
Male¹ 100 100 100
Castrated male 91 98 146
Female 96 97 137
Castrated female 87 89 151
Characteristics of the male are taken as a base ( =100)

4.1 Growing pig require the following conditions

1. Sufficient space to allow the pigs to select a dunging corner and a lying area. Group the pigs into
different weight and maintain uniformity in weight in each pen. The maximum number of pigs in
each pen should preferably not exceed 20. Pigs establish a stable social society through
establishment of a linear type dominance hierarchy which follows after encounters. One pig become
dominant to all others and the last one becomes submissive to all. This has been described up to 18
animals.
2. Clean pens. The pens and troughs should be cleaned thoroughly everyday.
3. Fresh and clean water all the time
4. Routine and regular feeding. Twice per day feeding is preferred to once per day.
5. Least stress. Frequent mixing should be avoided. Avoid moving one or a few pigs to pen occupied by
other pigs. If a mistake was made in mixing the pigs/litters at an early age such that they are
homogenous in a pen it be advisable to maintain the groups because if they are sorted out afresh, the
fighting which will resume may create serious stress and even death.
6. Should it be necessary to reallocate the pigs into pens the following strategies should be done:
i) Try as much as possible to equalize the number from each pen and mix them in a neutral pen.
ii) Wash the pigs with used engine oil
iii) Place straw, grass or hay inside the pens to keep the pigs busy.
 iv) Offer plenty of food.

4.2 Factors affecting performance of fattening pigs

1. Sex:
 Sex has little effect on growth rate until puberty.
 Thereafter males with higher body size have slightly greater growth rate and other trends being:
i) The FCR
(Entire males>Female>Castrates)
ii) The ADG
(Entire males>Female and Castrates restricted)
2. Age of the pig (ADG and FCR vs age) (graph 2)
3. Nutrition: details will be given during feed requirements and feed formulation
4. Breeds: Genetic potential of the pig. There are very significant difference between well-bred breeds
and local breeds. Local breeds have low GR than well-bred breeds. ADG is rarely 500g, whereas
Lwt. of 100 kg cannot be achieved until 10 months of age for the local breeds. These differences are
therefore controlled by genetic factors. Breeds of high genetic potential for GR growing faster than
those of low genetic potential.
5. Environmental conditions (e.g. temperate vs tropical conditions)
6. Dominance order and space/pig

Feeds and feeding of growing pigs

 Feeds for pigs will be given extra wt later but feeding regime is given in table 4.
 Restrict feeding is given in Table 4. Growing pigs for slaughter, however, require large amounts of
energy and protein. For this reason it is a common practice to feed them ad libitum .

Table 4: Feeding scale of pigs

Age (Weeks) LWt (kg) Daily feed
allowance (kg)
Up to 10 UP TO 20 1.0
11 25 1.2
12-13 30 1.5
14 35 1.7
15 40 1.9
16 45 2.1
17 50 2.3
18 55 2.4
19 60 2.5
20 65 2.6
21 70 2.7
22 75 2.8
23 80 2.9
24 85 3.0
25 90 3.1
30 95 3.2
31 100 3.3

LESSON 5: MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING HERD

5.1 Selection of the breeding herd

 Animals for breeding should be selected early
 1. The breeding boar should have the following characteristics:
a. No hereditary diseases in all its pedigree.
b. Its maternal parent should have high fecundity, good mothering ability, large litters, high growth rate
and high feed conversion efficiency.
c. No any other abnormality
d. Long body, good body conformation with good muscling properties.
e. During growing the breeding boar should score a high FCE and high growth rate.
2. The breeding gilt/sow should have the following characteristics:
a. No hereditary diseases or abnormalities in all its pedigree.
b. Long body, good body conformation with high proportion of hindquarters that is sturdy and firm
feet.
c. During growing, the gilt should display a high FCE and high growth rate.
d. At least 12 teats, evenly distributed and lateral distance between equivalent pair of teats should not
be excessive.
3. Puberty and breeding age: Puberty is reached at 6 – 7 months. The normal practice is to breed the
gilt so that it farrows at the age of one year.
5.2 Management Practices
5.2.1 Feeding
 Feed 2-3 kg per day to sows/gilts/boars.
 Feed should be adequate in minerals and vitamins
 Avoid over feeding
 Provide clean and fresh water all the time
 Flush sows in poor condition
5.2.2 Exercise
 Provide enough space for plenty of exercise
 Under hot environment water for wallowing may be necessary.

5.2.3 Signs of heat

 Enlarged and red vulva
 Restlessness
 Frequent urination
 Occasional loud grunting
 Occasionally white mucus discharge from the vagina
 Mounting (early oestrus) and being mounted (standing heat)

5.3 Management of boars

5.3.1 Sows to boar ratio

 The Sows: Boar ratio is 15 -20:1 for a young boar
 The Sows: Boar ratio is 25 -30:1 for a mature boar
 Maximum number of services per boar (see plan in Table 5).

Table 5: Plan for maximum number of services per boar

Maximum number of services per boar
Per day Per week Per month
Mature boar (>15 months) 3 12 40
Young boar (<15 months) 2 8 25
 5.3.2 Mating
It is important to follow a breeding calendar to be able to obtain optimal conception rates in a piggery
unit. Observe the following:
 Oestrus cycle is about 21 days. After mating check for return to heat after 3 weeks
 Heat period lasts for 40 – 60 hrs.
 Mate the animal twice at 24 hrs interval. The first mating should be preferably be 12 hrs
after onset of signs of heat
 Gestation period is about 114 days
 Mating must be supervised and recorded. Copulation takes up to 25 minutes (average 7
minutes). Up to 500 ml of semen is passed into the uterus.
 Order of ejaculation
v) Stage 1: gives watery fluid with tapioca like pellets (1 – 5 min.). This form 5- 20 % of
the ejaculate which is a gelatinous material from the Cowper's gland.
vi) Stage 2: give sperm - rich fraction (2 – 5 min.). This is whitish uniform fluid constituting
30 – 50 % of the ejaculate
vii) Stage 3: give sperm – poor fraction (3 – 8 min.). This is gelatinous material plus some
clear fluid which forms 40 – 60 % of the ejaculate.
5.3.2 Oestrus length
 Although oestrous lasts for about 2 – 2.5 days, gilts tend to remain on heat for only one day
 About 12 – 18 ova are released from the ovary 26 – 36 hrs. after the onset of heat
 This release of ova usually occurs at the beginning of the 24 hr. period of a full heat during
which the sow will stand quietly (Man-riding –on – rump test).
 Normally most of the ova released will be fertilized and become implanted, but there is often a
40 % embryonic mortality.
5.4 Parturition

5.4.1 Routine observations

 Farrowing time is the most critical time for piglet survival.
 Major losses of piglets occur at this time due to poor mothering ability of the sow and bad
husbandry.
 The following preparations are necessary

i)Prepare the farrowing pen/crate. Wash and disinfect

ii) Place fresh bedding material (e.g. wood shavings, saw dust, rice husks)
iii) Prepare the sow (deworm it one week before, wash it with acaricide or use engine oil
and place the sow in the farrowing pen)
iv) In the farrowing pen (farrowing crate) should be:
 Guard rails
 Creep area/box /brooder with infrared lamp
 Creep feed 2 weeks later
5.4.2 Signs of parturition
 Extreme nervousness and uneasiness (restlessness)
 Enlarged and sometimes reddened vulva
 Protrusion of the mammary tissue and the abdomen
 Possible mucus discharge
 Milk in teats (24 hrs prepartum)
 Frequent urination
 Practical issues
 Supervise the farrowing sow, if too nervous remove the piglets and reintroduce after
complete farrowing.
 Help the piglets to find a teat
 You may be forced to even up litters because of:
i) In case of orphan pigs
ii) Large differences in litter size
iii) Sow produces no milk at all due to disease condition
WHAT TO DO!
 Remove the adopting sow from the pen
 Mix the piglets and let them run together for some minutes.
 It would be advisable to smear the piglets with the after birth liquid of the adopting sow.
 Watch so that if they are not accepted they should be removed and tried on other sows.
 If everything fails raise them on cow’s milk (warm and feed 5 times per day)
5.5 Feeding the lactating sow
 Adequate feeding is essential for rich milk production
 On the first day feed nothing but plenty of water
 On 2nd to 7th day raise feed a small amount of food and raise gradually up to 6 kg per day
 After first week feed ad libitum if litter size is more than 6 or use the formula
3 + 1/3 kg per piglet
For example if you have 12 piglets 1/3 kg per piglet = 4 kg
Therefore the sow will get 3 + 4kg = 7 kg per day.

5.6 Weaning
 Reduce feed gradually to 2 kg
 Remove the sow and leave the piglets
 In practical terms, it is the total intake of feed in complete reproduction cycle that is
crucial, and the distribution of feed between pregnancy and lactation is of less importance.
 However, surplus energy consumed by the sow is deposited by the pig as fat can be
mobilized for production purposes in times of energy shortage.
 Deposition and mobilization cycles are theoretically inefficient since each phase requires
energy to effect the chemical changes involved
 However, milk production efficiency in the pig is rich and thus it is important to liberally
feed the lactating sow while restricting the pregnant sow.
LESSON 6: PIG NUTRITION

 In most commercial piggeries, over 70 % of the cost of production goes to feeding

 It is imperative to understand the nutrient requirements of pigs and formulate rations which
will be efficiently utilized while at the same time being cost effective.
 One has to develop appropriate feeding strategy for maximum utilization and minimum
(least) waste.
Nutrient requirements of pigs
 To be able to formulate appropriate ration of pigs it is important to know their nutrients
requirements
 Why are pigs more prone to nutritional deficiencies than other farm animals?
i) Pigs consume more concentrates and less roughages than other farm animals
because they are monogastric stomach (simple stomach)
 ii) They have less or negligible protein and vitamin synthesis in the stomach
compared to ruminants. Need to be supplied in their diet
iii) They grow relatively faster in relation to their body size
iv) They have shorter reproductive cycle and produce large number of the young
ones
v) They start reproductive life when less mature. Pigs continue to grow up to 4th
lactation or more
Pigs require in addition to water:
i) Carbohydrates
ii) Protein
iii) Fats
iv) Minerals
v) Vitamins
For practical purposes pig’s diet must contain generally the following nutrients concentrations:
i) Energy = 13 MJ/kg
ii) Protein = 13 – 20 % CP
iii) Least (minimum) CF = preferable less than 5%
iv) Calcium = 0.6 – 0.8 %
v) Phosphorus= 0.4 – 0.7 %
vi) Lysine = 0.7 – 1%
vii) Methionine + Cystine = 0.5 – 0.7 % Table 5: Nutrient requirements of pigs

Nutrients Growing Finishing Pregnant, Lactating

Sows boars sows
10-50 kg 50- 100 kg
DE(MJ/day) 13-26 44 26 74
CP (%) 15-20 15 14 16
Requirements (% of diet)
Lysine 0.75-0.95 0.60 0.45 0.6
Methionine + 0.5-0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4
Cystine
Calcium 0.6-0.8 0.5 0.75 0.75
Phosphorus 0.5-0.65 0.4 0.6 0.6
NaCI 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Requirements (g/day)
CP 200-300 300-400 250-350 700-1000
Lysine 9-14 19 10 40
Methionine + 5-8 11 5 20
Cystine
Calcium 7-11 16 15 30-40
Phosphorus 6-10 12 10 20-30