 EPS or geofoam has two main advantages over traditional earthen materials when used in

underground applications. The first is its very low mass density, which typically ranges
from about 10 ¿ 40 kg /m3 . This advantage can be used to reduce the vertical and horizontal
loads on buried structures, utilities and retaining walls, etc. For example, the lightweight
nature of geofoam was used to reduce soil pressures on a buried culvert and to decrease
lateral earth pressure against a buried wall the second advantage is its relatively uniform
compressibility, which can be used as a “compressible inclusion” in geosystems undergoing
static, monotonic and cyclic loadings. Upon application of external stress, the geofoam
compresses; such compression can be used to reduce static and dynamic loadings exerted
against buried infrastructure. Examples of phenomena that cause external loadings that may
induce such compression include: static and dynamic earth pressures, swell and frost-heave
pressures, settlement of support soils, tectonic faulting, liquefaction, landslides and traffic
loads. i.e., the greater the backfill density, the greater these loads. The use of lightweight
EPS geofoam significantly reduces these loads.
 Reducing the density of EPS geofoam Produces a reduction of the lateral earth pressure
acting on the retaining wall, this reduction is more effective in case of using a larger
thickness of geofoam buffer.
 The measured vertical pressure on the culvert decreased more when a thin geofoam was
used than a thick geofoam. In other words, the region consisting of the soil and the thick
geofoam over the culvert behaved as a stiffer composite than the region consisting of the
soil and the thin geofoam. As a result, the shear stresses in the soil under the influence of
the footing in the test with the thick geofoam were lower than those with the thin geofoam,
and less soil arching was mobilized in the test with the thick geofoam.
 Two geofoam specimens of different thicknesses at the same density (EPS12 or EPS15)
were tested, one with thickness t ¼ 50 mm and the other with thickness 2t. All specimens
had a cross-sectional dimension of 100 mm long and 100 mm wide. Fig. 13 presents the
results of the specimens tested in air as compared with those in ITI tests T2–T5, in which
the geofoam was confined in soil. These results show that thick geofoam had a higher
stiffness than thin geofoam of the same density under both conditions (confined and
unconfined). The unconfined tests confirm that the stiffness of the geofoam was affected by
its thickness.
 At the same time, the effect of the geofoam thickness on its stiffness was magnified under
the confined condition. Based on the test results, the moduli of confined geofoams were
approximately two to four times those of unconfined geofoams. Therefore, the vertical
pressure difference on the top of the culvert when a thin or thick geofoam was used is
attributed to their modulus difference. However, when the geofoam thickness is equal to
zero, it becomes a PPE case so that the vertical pressure on the top of the culvert should be
higher.
 the Increasing thickness of geofoam buffer leads to a reduction in lateral earth pressure
acting on the retaining wall while it is more effective in case of using geofoam with lower
density.

2 Discuss elasticity of geofoam at various densities?

 The stress strain curve of EPS has an initial linear portion. The value of the slope of this
initial portion is defined as the initial tangent modulus. It is known as Young’s Modulus as
well as the modulus of elasticity. EPS initial modulus is a function of the density
 Creep deformations decrease with density increase. This is rather can be explained by the
increase in elasticity of modulus as density increases
 EPS geofoam thickness and its density (thereby its modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
ratio) are the most dominant factors affecting the reduction of lateral earth pressure. Due to
the reduction in lateral earth pressures acting on the wall, design demand parameters like
bending moment and shear forces will be reduced. Thus, geofoam effectively function in
reducing the load and minimizing the design demands.
3) Discuss plasticity of geofoam at various densities?

Geofoam refers to low-density cellular plastic foam, either molded expanded polystyrene (EPS)
blocks or extruded polystyrene (XPS) sheets. Geofoam is used as a super light-weight fill, with 1.5
to 4 pcf mass density, compared to other light-weight materials with 50 to 70 pcf. The geofoam’s
light-weight makes it a viable option for landslide repair and for embankments on soft,
compressible deposits. The elastic modulus of EPS is small compared to the elastic modulus of
some other engineering materials such as soil, concrete, and wood. EPS initial modulus is a
function of the density. For EPS Young ’s modulus, there is no agreement from the researchers on
a constant value of Young ’s modulus for each density. EPS density appears to be the main
parameter that correlates with most of its mechanical properties. Compression strength, shear
strength, tension strength, flexural strength, stiffness, creep behavior and other mechanical
properties depend on the density. Non – mechanical properties like insulation coefficients are also
density dependent. EPS densities for practical civil application range between 11 and 30 kg/m for
other applications like insulation higher densities are more efficient.

4) Discuss ultimate deforming load of geofoam at various densities?

In order to measure the load-deformation behavior of geomaterials under a vertically applied stress
up to 1.5 Mpa, a large cylindrical oedometer with a diameter of 492 mm and height of 550 mm has
been designed and fabricated at faculty of engineering of the University of Guilan. The ability of
the large odometer apparatus to evaluate the hydraulic and mechanical properties of non-
conventional materials makes it pioneer especially in the case of EPS geofoam, tire shreds, tire
chips, etc.

The test has been carried out on EPS geofoam samples of three different densities, 12, 15, and
20 kg m−3 under the applied pressure of 65% of the compressive strength. Cube samples of 50-
and 100-mm sizes were tested for the investigation. The test results showed that with the increase
in density of EPS geofoam, creep deformation value decreases, whereas on low density of EPS
geofoam, the effects of creep deformations were more pronounced. The amount of strain depends
on the sample size, density, and duration of loading.
 5) How can you compare geosynthetics with traditional materials?

Geosynthetics have been widely used to replace traditional construction materials and to increase
the sustainability of civil engineering works. The application of geosynthetics in environmental
geotechnics is very wide (e.g., in landfills and erosion control structures) and the durability of the
materials has a key role on their performance.

geosynthetics are replacing the use of natural materials within construction. They are proven to
reduce project cost and environmental impact compared with traditional construction methods.

Sustained reduction in rutting rate occurred with the use of geosynthetics versus increased rutting
over time with traditional design methods.

The following advantages are geosynthetic when compared to traditional materials:

 Space Savings - Sheet-like, geosynthetics take up much less space in a landfill than do
comparable soil and aggregate layers.
 Material Quality Control - Soil and aggregate are generally heterogeneous materials that
may vary significantly across a site or borrow area. Geosynthetics on the other hand are
relatively homogeneous because they are manufactured under tightly controlled conditions
in a factory. They undergo rigorous quality control to minimize material variation.
 Construction Quality Control - Geosynthetics are manufactured and often factory
“prefabricated” into large sheets. This minimizes the required number of field connections,
or seams. Both factory and field seam are made and tested by trained technicians.
Conversely, soil and aggregate layers are constructed in place and are subject to variations
caused by weather, handling and placement.
 Cost Savings - Geosynthetic materials are generally less costly to purchase, transport and
install than soils and aggregates.
 Technical Superiority - Geosynthetics have been engineered for optimal performance in
the desired application.
  Construction Timing - Geosynthetics can be installed quickly, providing the flexibility to
construct during short construction seasons, breaks in inclement weather, or without the
need to demobilize and remobilize the earthwork contractor.

 Material Deployment - Layers of geosynthetics are deployed sequentially, but with a

minimum of stagger between layers, allowing a single crew to efficiently deploy multiple
geosynthetic layers.
 Material Availability - Numerous suppliers of most geosynthetics and ease of shipping
insure competitive pricing and ready availability of materials.
 Environmental Sensitivity – Geosynthetic systems reduce the use of natural resources and
the environmental damage associated quarrying, trucking, and other material handling
activities.
6) Relationship between water absorption of geofoam and densities?

The water absorption test was performed according to ASTM C272-12 [19] standard test method.
The test specimens with dimension 75 mm length, 75 mm width and 13 mm thickness were used.
In the present study, an attempt has been made to comprehend the behavior of EPS geofoam using
different laboratory tests such as water absorption test. The tests have been carried out on EPS
geofoam samples of three different densities, 12, 15 and 20 kg/m3 and the results show us the
water absorption capacity of EPS geofoam was found very less and also decreased with an increase
in density.

EPS geofoam has a closed-cell structure that limit water absorption. When used in well-drained
conditions, no change in EPS geofoam weight is expected over time. A slight increase in the
weight of EPS geofoam can be expected over time due to water absorption if installed in a
submerged application or EPS Geofoam has a high degree of resistance to moisture absorption
controlling humidity and air infiltration thus reducing the development of mold.

The cellular structure of EPS is water resistant, vapor permeable, and possesses zero capillarity
though neither liquid water nor water vapor influences its mechanical properties. However,
absorption of moisture is still possible upon complete immersion of EPS due to fine interstitial
channels between molded beads.
 7) Discuss the tensile strength and pullout testes?

The pullout parameters are actually very important in designing a reinforced earth structure to
implement practical design. It is essential to find out the interaction mechanism between the earth
and reinforcements to determine pullout parameters for designing a reinforced earth structure in
order to develop many geosynthetics products.

For the pullout test, various pullout apparatuses have been developed, and the following research
results have also been made available. However, the pullout test involves some issues. That is, one
of them is unevenly distributed pullout and tensile strength occurring in reinforcements when
pullout forces are exerted. The pullout forces are divided by the area to obtain pullout stress, and it
is difficult to determine an accurate area. Furthermore, a pullout apparatus is not an apparatus for
applying loads to elements to destroy them and obtain strength parameters and is instead rather
similar to a model experiment. Therefore, some research reveals that the result thereof is different
where the size of pullout apparatuses varies. Since it is a large-scale test, test errors may be likely
to occur due to different impact factors.

The pullout test does not have any established standard test procedure to evaluate characteristics of
pullout friction. The reason for no established standard test procedure is lack of reliability on
pullout test results due to various impact factors, some examples being test procedures,
compaction, box size, and test and Pullout test equipment for examining pullout characteristics in a
reinforced earth structure is relatively larger than direct shear testing machines and requires much
time and expenses in preparing samples. Moreover, because of irregular stress distributions with
respect to the length of reinforcements.

Tensile Testing is a fundamental material test to measure the tenacity and tensile strength and

tensile strength means ability to take tensile stress. Soil withstands compressive stresses but is
weak in tension. When soil is reinforced with geotextiles with good tensile strength, it acquires
tensile strength, which is an advantage if loads are dynamic. Reinforced.

The lowest values of minimum pullout stress are cited as zero though there is no upper bound limit
for the maximum pullout stress. The maximum value will be limited by the tensile strength of the
string used in the set up. Pullout resistance of geotextiles is an important design parameter if tensile
failures of geotextiles are to be avoided in design of reinforced earth structures. Since tensile
failures of geotextiles cause catastrophic failures, they should be designed fail under pullout stress.
Static and dynamic pullout resistances are important design parameters and overestimated by strain
control apparatus available in the state of the art.