books and manuals contain instructional writings.

They present
procedures and steps. The long and comprehensive discussions as well
as the instructional writings are referred to as discourse.

Reading and Objectives

Writing Skills
 Identify the nature and purpose of a discourse.
 Differentiate between the types of discourses.
 Identify and differentiate between the types of literary
discourses.
 Distinguish between literary and academic discourses.
(Learning Module)
I. Definition and Purposes of a Discourse
A discourse is a formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic, where
concepts and insights are arranged in an organized and logical manner.
Also, it refers to the way how language is used to convey meanings or
to propel action or provoke a specific response. It is often associated
with speech, but it may also be written. It usually serves as a writer’s
or a scholar’s analysis of a concept or theory proposed by another
writer.

Below are the purposes of a discourse.

1. To inform – A discourse that aims to inform provides a

descriptive and comprehensive discussion on the topic. It
points out what one should know about a topic or subject.
UNIT 1
2. To persuade – A discourse that aims to persuade tries to
Text as a Connected Discourse convince the readers that the proposed claim or solution is
better than any other proposal. 3. To entertain – A discourse
Many books offer lengthy discussions about proving or disproving that aims to amuse provides a source of entertainment for its
theories. Despite being extensive and tedious, the writings in those readers.
books remain coherent. On the other hand, other books like recipe
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Learning Module Page 1
 3. To entertain – A discourse that aims to amuse provides a University explained that children who manifest a combination of
source of entertainment for its readers. three personality traits―high neuroticism, disagreeableness, and low
levels of conscientiousness―are more likely to be aggressive toward
Analyzing a discourse is usually contextual. The reader tries to
others after playing video games.
consider several factors that may have influenced the writer to make
certain claims. Those factors explain the author’s biases, philosophy, In order to convince the readers, the author of the passage mentioned a
and educational and professional backgrounds, among others. Below study to support his or her claim about video games. The author did
are three of those factors. not simply state that video games may cause children to become
violent; he or she proved it by citing two experts.
1. Culture – The beliefs, customs, attitudes, language, and
other things that define culture may influence the author’s
perspective on several issues. Knowing about the culture the
• Description – This type of discourse is based on the main impression
author belongs to, the reader may understand his or her biases.
of the author about the topic or subject. His or her impression is
2. Social environment – The author’s physical surroundings influenced by prior knowledge, culture, environment, and experiences,
and social relationships, as well as the culture of the time may among others. As the writer describes his or her observations, it
have influenced his or her writing. For instance, during the triggers sensory images among readers.
early decades of the 20th century, most writers produced works
Example: When I first saw my childhood friend Margarette, she was
that were classified as “modern” because of its distinct feature:
about my younger sister Viv’s height. Her hair was curly and dark,
stream of consciousness.
and her skin was pale. But what really struck me when I first saw her
3. Experiences – Personal accounts or first-hand experience of was her big round blue eyes.
events, though subjective, establish credibility and reliability of
Through the author’s description, the reader can infer what the person
information presented in any discourse.
Margarette looks like.
II. Types of Discourse
• Argumentation – In this type of discourse, the writer aims to
• Exposition – This aims to inform, clarify, and explain a
persuade the audience or readers. He or she presents valid claims or
phenomenon. It defines what something is and provides an in-depth
counterclaims, each supported by evidence, to prove a point. In
discussion about topics that are usually less explored. Moreover, it
proving claims, the writer presents studies, experts’ opinions, and
gives reader instructions on how something is done.
statistical data, among others. Moreover, an argumentative discourse
should appeal to logic or reason instead of emotion. Example:
Example: A recent study confirmed that playing video games may How to set up an email account
cause children to become violent. However, this is only true for some
children. Dr. Charlotte Cooper and Dr. Markey Vitasa of ABC 1. Choose the web host.
2. Look for the sign-up button. Click it.
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Learning Module Page 2
3. Provide the required information.
4. Think of a unique username and a password. (Tip: For the
password, type in uppercase or add characters.)
5. Start using the newly setup email account.
The passage gives instructions on how to set up an email account.
Some examples of an exposition may be found in some magazine
articles or editorials, which usually include life hacks.
• Narration – This type of discourse is like storytelling. It recalls
events chronologically. It is told in the first, second, or third person
point of view. Moreover, its structure may be linear or nonlinear. A
linear structure follows a typical format: beginning, middle, end; while
a nonlinear structure may start from the end or in the middle.
Example: I remember the time when I learned how to swim. I was
only eight years old and afraid to bathe in a pool. I envied the kids
who played with inflatable balls and animals. Whenever my family
would visit the clubhouse, I would sit beside the pool and never really
jump in to join them. A summer camp opened in our neighborhood,
and my mom thought of enrolling my brother and me in a swimming
class. Two days before the class started, my mom gave me a pep talk;
that made me realize that I did not want to miss out the fun just
because I was afraid.
The passage conveys a person’s experience about learning how to
swim. The events are told chronologically, and the story is told in the
first-person point of view.
III. Literary Discourse
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• A literary discourse is generally focused on creative works, including
nonfiction. Also, it includes texts that are used strictly for business
communication. The following are the three types of literary discourse:
1. Poetic – This type of discourse is commonly found in creative
works like poems, novels, short stories, and plays. It focuses on how
language is used to form themes and convey ideologies. Some
meanings in creative works are explicit, while some are implied,
especially in poems. Ordinary words, especially those used in a poem,
are made appealing through sound patterns.
Example:
The Road Not Taken (An Excerpt)
By Robert Frost
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
In the text, the author used the roads as a metaphor for making life
decisions. Also, notice that the last words in the poem rhyme: sigh, I,
and by; hence and difference.
2. Expressive – This type of discourse is commonly found in
academic journals, letters, diaries, and blogs. It is a personal narrative
and is typically written in the first-person point of view. In the process,
the writer reveals something about his or her identity. In literary terms,
expressive discourses are referred to as creative nonfiction.
Example:
The Diary of a Young Girl (An Excerpt)
By Anne Frank
Sunday, 21 June 1942 Everyone at school is waiting to hear what
happens next. Who will move up a class, and who will stay down?
We’re all trying to guess! I think my girlfriends and I will be OK,
though we’ll have to wait patiently to find out. Most of my teachers
like me, but old Mr. Keesing gets angry with me because I often talk
too much! He made me do some extra homework and write about
‘Someone Who Talks Too Much.’
Based on the passage, the writer is describing what she felt while
waiting for the big announcement in school. She describes what she is
like in school—talkative—and how sociable she is as most of her
teachers like her.
3. Transactional – This type of discourse is commonly found in
instructional materials, advertisements, and editorial articles, among
others. It is directive in nature as it provides detailed information on
how something is done or achieved. Moreover, it encourages the
reader to do something or to take action.
Example:
How to Cook Chicken Tinola
Ingredients:
1/2 kg chicken wings
1 red onion, peeled and sliced
1 clove of garlic, peeled and crushed
1 small ginger, peeled and julienned
1 small green papaya, peeled and cut into wedges
1-2 stalks of malunggay
1 teaspoon of salt
1 teaspoon of pepper
3-4 cups of water
Procedure:
1. Prepare all the ingredients.
2. Heat the pan in a medium flame.
Add 2–3 tablespoons of oil.
3. Sauté garlic, onion, and ginger. Add chicken wings and sauté for 3–
4 minutes.
4. Pour 3–4 cups of water.
Let it simmer.
5. Add the papaya. Simmer until the chicken becomes tender.
6. Add the malunggay leaves.
7. Add salt and pepper to taste. 8. Serve and enjoy.
The recipe above shows the instructions in cooking chicken tinola. It is
a list that shows the step-by-step process in cooking the dish.
IV. Academic Discourse
• An academic discourse is expository or argumentative in nature.
Sometimes, it presents an individual’s insights regarding a concept or
method in a scholarly way. • Unlike other discourses, an academic
discourse uses formal language and the third person point of view; it
maintains an objective tone. It avoids using figures of speech and
idiomatic expressions, including biased or stereotyped and sexist
language. Its examples include essays, journals, book reviews,
synthesis, literature review, and research, among others
Example: Medea is portrayed as an empowered woman in the
Euripides’ play. It is a far cry from how women were viewed and
represented in the Ancient Greece. Women then were mainly
portrayed as in charge of producing children, taking care of them, and
being a mistress of the household. Medea’s character defies and
challenges conformities. Her deeds, though evil in nature, stem from
the strength of her mind… Medea, although elicits pity from the
audience during the first part of the play as an abandoned wife and
mother, in the end, is feared and abhorred as she proves to be aware

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of how wicked her deeds are and yet would not have it the other way
around: “I understand what evil I am about to do but my wrath is
stronger even than my thoughts…” (Euripides 27).
The text is a review of Euripides’ famous play Medea. The critic,
although stating his or her insights of the play, writes in an objective
tone, using the third person point of view. Moreover, the review does
not use a figure of speech or idiomatic expression to describe,
elaborate, or prove a point.
• Structures or formats of academic discourses may vary depending on
the approved or recommended style guide to use. Below is a general
format.
1. Introduction – In this part, the writer states the significance
of the topic and the issues that need to be addressed. Also, the
writer mentions the objectives of the discourse and how it may
be beneficial or detrimental.
2. Body – In this part, the writer discusses the methods of
gathering information. He or she then presents the findings and
interprets them. Moreover, he or she formulates arguments and
supports them with evidence.
3. Conclusion – In this part, the writer reiterates the claims and
asserts his or her stand. He or she may include insights and
recommendations for further studies.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1: Read and analyze Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address.
Identify the purpose of the discourse.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, on this
continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a
great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived,
and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field
of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final
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resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that nation might
live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a
larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate—we cannot
hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled
here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract.
The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it
can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be
dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here
have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated
to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead
we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the
last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these
dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall
have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the
people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Activity 2: Identify what kind of discourse is presented in Texts 1 and
2. Justify your answer by stating the characteristics of each text.
Text 1: Good day! I apologized for the delayed response. The art
event will be held on the 16th of July. To get to the venue, turn left
from the mall. You will see a drugstore in the corner. Turn right after
two blocks. You will find a low-rise building beside a bank. Go inside
and inform the receptionist that you are one of the participants. Do not
forget to bring a proof of identification. The venue is located on the
third floor. Text 2: Hi, Mom! Sorry I only checked my email now. It
has been crazy lately. I have been working on several course
requirements since last
week. How are you and Dad? Please tell him I said hi and I miss him.
Anyway, I got accepted for internship in an accounting firm. Can you
believe it? Finally! My internship starts this October. I will let you
know about the details soon.
Activity 3: Read Mark Twain’s famous essay “Fenimore Cooper’s
Literary Offenses.” (The essay is available online.) After reading the
essay, explain how it is an academic discourse and not a literary
discourse, or vice versa. Support your claims by citing lines from the
essay.
 Differentiate between techniques in selecting and organizing
information.
 Create your own brainstorming list.
 Differentiate between graphic organizers used for selecting and
organizing information.
 Distinguish a topic outline and a sentence outline.
 Write a suitable outline for a specific topic.

I. Organizing Information through a Brainstorming List

• Brainstorming helps you generate topics and narrow them down to

one. It improves your creative thinking skills and deepens your
understanding of a possible topic. On a brainstorming list, simply write
down all the words or ideas that come to your mind about a topic.
With this list, you can generate ideas quickly and recall information
about a topic.

• Below are the steps on how to organize information through a

brainstorming list.

1. Think of a general topic.

2. Brainstorm ideas based on the topic and make a list.
3. Take a look at the list and see which ideas are related. Use lines,
UNIT 2 arrows, asterisks, or whatever works for you to illustrate those
Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information connections.

Writing an essay is one of the requirements of academic studies. Sample Brainstorming Lists
During the prewriting stage, we often find ourselves with a lot of
information related to the essay topic from different sources. Possible topic: Social media
Therefore, we need to use some techniques in selecting and organizing comments online * network
such information. posts shared connections
news items curating
pro and anti * humblebrag *
power of social media * narcissism*
Objectives tool for information and
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misinformation * phrase, or statement that you can think of that is related to the topic.
Do not restrict yourself to the sequence of ideas.
Possible topic 2: Cyber-bullying
foul language violence Sample Brainstorming Lists Topic: Should parents choose the
name calling * shaming * course or career for their children, or should their children make the
censorship * power * choice themselves?
opinions depression
arguments ego and insecurity * Thesis statement: Children and not their parents should choose their
threats course or career.
 They know themselves best.
4. Cross out topics that might not generate enough information for  They know their strengths and weaknesses.
writing.  They will be more willing to learn if they are doing what they
want to do.
Possible topic 1: Social media  They are more likely to succeed if they pursue their dream.
comments online* network  They will look forward to their daily classes or work.
posts shared connections  Gain more confidence
news items curating  Personal happiness
pro and anti * humblebrag *
power of social media * narcissism* Topic: “Your work is going to fill a large part of your life, and the
tool for information only way to be truly satisfied is to do what you believe is great work.
and misinformation * And the only way to do great work is to love what you do.” – Steve
Jobs Thesis statement: Love whatever you choose to do.
Possible topic 2: Cyber-bullying  Know your strengths and weaknesses.
foul language violence  Pursue a dream.
name calling * shaming *  Do what you are good at.
censorship* power*  Choose a job where you can use your skills.
opinions depression  Give your best shot.
arguments ego and insecurity*  Respect your work.
threats  Practice, practice, practice.
 Always find new ways of loving your work.
5. Choose two from the remaining topics in your list and free write  Love your work even if it is not your first choice. These related
about each chosen topic for five minutes. Freewriting means using a ideas generated through brainstorming can serve as guide for
topic as a triggering subject and writing whatever comes to mind, your writing.
whether you associate it with the topic or not.

• You can also make a brainstorming list based on a thesis statement, II. Organizing Information through Graphic Organizers
the main idea, argument, or purpose of the writing. List any word,
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• Graphic organizers are a way to organize information in a visual Example:
manner to see how ideas relate to one another.

• The following are the different kinds of graphic organizers: Mind

map – This is used to represent knowledge of a concept or idea. It is
useful in brainstorming and exploring topics or ideas. To create it,
Magda
begin with an image or a word that represents the central idea. Then royal blood
add branches of major ideas related to the central idea. You can further values material wealth
expand those ideas by adding more branches.
Different looks
very intelligent
Example Body paint adventurous
All black with mask has magic
cocky
Costume Jon good heart
Jazz Spy Movie
Alice in quiet and meek Alana
Pop
Hip-hop Wonderland likes simple life physically strong
ambitious
Music Ideas for
Dance Theme
Genre Presentation

Teacher dancing The example illustrates the traits of three story characters named
Backlight Gimmick Magda, Jon, and Alana. The overlapping circles show the features that
Confetti
two or more characters share, with “good heart” describing all of them.
The example shows a mind map that brings together major ideas and 3. Flow chart – This is used to show the different steps in a
sub-ideas associated with the central idea “Ideas for a Dance process. It contains information on stages of a process in order
Presentation.” that must be completed.
2. Venn diagram – This is used to show the similarities and
differences between two or more people, objects, or ideas. It
uses overlapping circles to represent different objects or ideas Example:
that share similar characteristics in some way. The intersection
or the area where the circles overlap shows the characteristic
that is common between or among the objects or ideas.

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Learning Module Page 8
 Launch Input your name Accomplish the Example:
application and section blank fields

Through paid apps

Save under file Binge waching

Close application
name "Test"
Through DVDs
Ways of watching
a TV series

Regular TV
Episodic
programming
Webisodes

The topics in the organizer above are arranged in a hierarchical

manner. The organizer shows how the main idea “Ways of watching a
The flow chart shows the steps on how to use a software application.
TV series” (the first level) leads to its supporting ideas (the second
The first box on top illustrates the first step of the process, while the
level) and more specific ideas (third level).
last box signals its completion. The steps in between should be
followed in sequential order based on the direction of the arrows to
accomplish the task successfully. • Below are steps in organizing information by using any graphic
organizer.

4. Hierarchical topical organizer – This shows the order of ideas and 1. Think of a general topic for writing.
their place in the hierarchy. 2. Brainstorm ideas based on the topic and write them down.
3. Select a graphic organizer to arrange your ideas.

III. Writing a Topic Outline

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Learning Module Page 9
• A topic outline is a list of ideas arranged in a specific order, and it
shows how information is presented in writing. It is a list of the main
points and supporting ideas that the writer intends to discuss in
writing. It uses key words or key phrases instead of complete
sentences.
• A topic outline is divided into two levels: the headings, the
subheadings, and the Sub-subheadings. The headings represent the
main ideas, and they are indicated by Roman numerals. The
subheadings represent the supporting ideas; they are indicated by
capital letters and indented. Sub-subheadings are the specific details or
concrete examples of the supporting ideas. However, they are only
given when necessary. They are marked by Arabic numbers (e.g., 1, 2,
3…) and indented.
• Below is an example of a topic outline.
Topic: Filipino Hospitality
Thesis statement: Filipino hospitality is a distinct and positive
Filipino trait.
Writer’s specific purpose: To inform readers about Filipino
hospitality and enumerate ways on how Filipinos show their
hospitality.
I. Definition of Filipino hospitality
A. The beginning of Filipino hospitality
B. From whom Filipinos learned hospitality
II. Filipino practices that show hospitality
A. How Filipinos accept guests at home
B. How Filipinos accept foreigners
III. Positive implications of Filipino hospitality on our society
A. On our culture
B. On our economy
The example shows how the writer aims to discuss Filipino hospitality
as a distinct positive trait of Filipinos.
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• Below are the steps in writing a topic outline.
1. Identify your topic, thesis statement, and purpose for writing. Your
thesis statement is the central idea of your writing, and your purpose
for writing will help you come up with the main points and supporting
ideas in your writing.
2. Figure out the main points. Doing so will help you come up with the
structure of your writing.
3. Arrange the main points in a logical order. You can arrange them
from the least important to the most important.
4. Identify and write down the supporting ideas for each main point.
5. Evaluate your outline. Ask yourself, have you included everything
important? Is there anything else that should be added or excluded?
IV. Writing a Sentence Outline
• A sentence outline has the same use as the topic outline. However, it
is quite more specific because it already states the main idea and the
supporting ideas in full sentences.
• Below is an example of a sentence outline.
Topic: Filipino Hospitality
Thesis statement: Filipino hospitality is a distinct and positive
Filipino trait.
Writer’s specific purpose: To inform readers about Filipino
hospitality and enumerate ways on how Filipinos show their
hospitality.
I. Filipino hospitality is the very warm and welcoming treatment of
visitors, particularly foreigners.
 A. Prior to the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Activity 1: Think of a general topic and create a brainstorming list
natives already exhibited hospitality when they welcomed the based on the topic. At the end of this task, you should be able to come
Malays to the country. up with a suitable topic for writing.
B. Being warm and welcoming to visitors might have been
cultivated by the fact that different nationalities visited and Activity 2: Use a graphic organizer to explore the general topic in
even occupied the country, such as the Chinese, Indonesian, Task 1. At the end of this task, you should be able to come up with
Spanish, Japanese, and the Americans. another suitable topic for writing.
II. Filipinos show hospitality in several ways.
A. Filipinos accept guests at home as if they were part of their Activity 3: Write a suitable outline for one of the topics in Tasks 1 and
own family, serving them food and making them feel at home. 2. Choose between a topic outline and a sentence outline.
B. Filipinos show hospitality to foreigners by extending their
assistance when needed and even welcoming them to their own
homes.
III. Filipino hospitality is a positive trait, and the implications to our
society in general are regarded as positive.
A. Being hospitable shows that the Philippines is a peace-
loving nation.
B. Being hospitable encourages foreigners to visit and invest in
our country.

In the example above, the main points and the supporting ideas are
stated in full sentences.
UNIT III
• Below are the steps in writing a sentence outline.
Introduction to Writing across the Disciplines
1. Write your thesis statement. It should be a complete, declarative
sentence.
Sooner or later, you will pursue a degree that requires writing tasks as
2. Create a list of main points to support the thesis. State them in course requirements. This unit provides an overview of the writing
complete sentences. genres that you will most likely encounter in three academic
3. Write a list of supporting ideas for each main point. State them in disciplines, namely, the sciences, business, and humanities. Also, it
complete sentences. includes a discussion of the American Psychological Association and
Modern Language Association citation guides, which are methods to
Learning Tasks acknowledge sources properly and to avoid committing plagiarism.

Objectives

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Learning Module Page 11
  Identify various writings in three disciplines, namely, the
sciences, business, and the humanities.
 Describe the typical writings in each discipline.
 Apply citation guidelines in writing across the disciplines.
I. Writing in the Sciences
 Writing in the sciences uses the third person point of view to
maintain the objective tone. Also, it requires language
precision; the words should be clear and exact. Jargon, which
Merriam Webster defines as “the technical terminology or
characteristic idiom of a special activity or group,” is
commonly used since the readers are field experts or of similar
disciplines with the author.
 Most writings in the sciences contain a hypothesis, an idea, or a
theory that is not yet proven. The hypothesis is supported by
concrete evidence or experiments to test its viability and
efficiency. Writing in the sciences usually involves painstaking
research. In the discipline, there are numerous methods on how
to gather information, and they are quantitative in nature. After
the data-gathering process, the researcher proceeds with
analyzing and interpreting the results.
 The following are some common writings in the sciences:
1. Case study – This is a careful and intensive study of a specific
subject or variable (e.g., person, phenomenon, epidemic, event,
etc.) in which scientists or researchers identify what leads to its
success or failure. When gathering data, they often observe or
examine a single subject. Here is an example of a case study
writing.
Plant employees investigated the possibility of installing drum
heaters on the utility boilers and a back-pressure steam
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Learning Module Page 12
turbine generator in acid plant #3, but determined that they
would not meet the company’s payback criteria. Total annual
savings from the implemented measures are more than
$335,000 in costs and 75,000 MMBtu in energy. Because the
project’s total costs were $180,000, the plant achieved a
payback of just 6.5 months. Since the completion of the project,
employees at the Don plant developed additional tracking
tools, protocols, and efficiency measures based on the SSAT
software and the methodology they gained from the Save
Energy Now assessment. These insights are being shared with
other Simplot facilities
The passage is from “Steam System Efficiency Optimized
After J.R. Simplot Fertilizer Plant Receives Assessment,” a case study
by the US Department of Energy. It explains the methodology applied
to gather data and the results it yielded. It states the measures that
employees installed after the project was completed.
2. Laboratory report – This is a formal documentation of an
experiment, which includes the objectives, methods, and
results. It is a staple in the applied and natural sciences. In
these disciplines, experiments or tests are conducted to prove
or disprove hypotheses or to identify problems. They follow a
chronological pattern as events or progresses are recorded step
by step.
Example: As described in the lab manual, ice was placed in a
beaker and warmed until approximately 50% had melted. The
temperature of the ice/water mixture was then measured with a
thermometer. This was followed by a similar measurement of
our unknown solid. In part II, water was heated until boiling
and the temperature of the liquid/gas mixture measured with a
thermometer. This was followed by a similar measurement
using our unknown compound. To get the best results possible,
the procedure in the manual was modified by repeating each
trial three times.
 The given text is from “Identification of a Compound Using
Melting and Boiling Points,” a lab report by Dr. Ethan B. Gallogly. It The passage is an example of an interpretation of the results from the
presents how an experiment was conducted. It shows how data data gathered. It describes what the researcher has discovered while
gathering and observation are done for each trial. analyzing the data.

3. Field report – This writing is commonly done in the social
sciences. It aims to analyze behavior patterns manifested by the
subject based on specific theories. It is descriptive in nature as
it provides a detailed account of what the researcher has
observed among the subjects (e.g., people, events, places, etc.)
and his or her analysis of the situation.
II. Writing in Business
• Writing in business aims to provoke actions or elicit responses from
the readers. It follows a strict format, employs an objective tone, and
uses a formal language. The writer explicitly states his or her purpose
and avoids using figurative speech or idiomatic expressions.

Example: • The following are some common writings in business:

Level of Influence 1. Memorandum – This is commonly referred to as memo. It

is a form of written communication in a corporate setting.
Volunteerism& Interpretation Formation Interpretation Its main purpose is to inform or convey messages to
Community of concerned people or departments. It can be an
Service as Personal
Alternative Social announcement that is printed out and distributed or that is
Careers Opinions disseminated via e-mail. Sometimes, it can be a letter of
Religion 3.59 High 3.98 High reprimand for an employee who has violated a company
class
Campus 3.44 High 3.64 High
policy.
ministry
Academic 3.28 Moderate 3.46 High Below is an example of a memorandum.
courses
Faith 3.62 High 3.85 High To: Kaye Omila
community
From: Human Resources Department
Family 3.88 High 4.33 High
School High High Date: August 24, 2016
social 3.73 3.71
action
program Dear Ms. Omila:
This is to inform you that you have incurred seven counts of
In terms of volunteerism and community service as alternative tardiness in the month of August. You were late on the following
careers, academic courses (3.28) have a surprisingly moderate level dates:
of influence to the students, while the family (3.88) is expectedly high.
Furthermore, the influence of the variables when it comes to the August 2 – 08:18 August 10 – 08:41
students’ formulation of their social opinions is high, with mean August 4 – 08:39 August 12 – 10:27
scores varying from 3.46 (academic courses) to 4.33 (family). August 5 – 08:22 August 15 – 09:49
Grade 11 August 8 – 09:03
Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 13
 We would like to reiterate the importance of coming to work on
time as tardiness can greatly affect the work flow. Consider this
letter your first warning. Keep in mind that habitual tardiness can
lead to the termination of your contract with the company.
Please sign below to acknowledge that you have received this
letter.
_______________ Employee
_______________ Supervisor

In the letter above, an employee has been tardy for many times in a
month. The sender is usually a person of authority, like a human
resource officer or manager, with expertise on the rules of the
company. He or she is in charge of upholding the rules and making
sure that every employee conforms. Also, the language used in the
letter is strictly formal.

2. Résumé – This is a short document that shows a person’s

educational and professional background. It gives brief but
detailed information about an applicant’s employment or
work history. Also, an applicant may include a list of
references or people who can tell about the applicant’s
character and abilities.

Example: References:
Jommel Salgo
HR Manager
j.salgo@company.com
Juan Dela Cruz
0909-1234-567 Cristina Baytan
juandelacruz@mailmail.com Editorial Supervisor
123 F. Zamora St. Caloocan, City
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
cristinabaytan@company112.com
Learning Module Page 14
Work Experience: David Chavez
UVN International School (June 2013 – Present) Team Leader, Editorial
Position Held: Teacher
In the given example, the most recent job of the applicant is the first
entry under “Work Experience.” A brief description of his tasks is
enumerated in each job using the appropriate tenses. The information
is for the applicant’s prospective employers to have an idea of what his
skills are.

3. Letter of request – This letter is persuasive in nature. It

aims to convince a person in authority or in charge to grant
permission for an action to be done or accomplished. In this
letter, the requester explicitly states the purpose of the
request.
In the letter above, the requester is asking for an increase in her
scholarship grant, which is an amount of money that a school,
government, or any organization provides to a student based on certain
criteria like academic records and family background. The language
used in the letter is semiformal and conversational. The sender uses the
first-person point of view in stating the purpose of her request.
Example:
III. Writing in the Humanities
August 24, 2016 • Humanities is a collective term for the arts, languages, and
Paz Del Rosario philosophies. It also involves literature, music, film, and history. The
Chairperson writing in those disciplines are persuasive and argumentative in nature.
Office of Admissions and Scholarships It aims to convince the readers or critics to agree with the claims made.
Davidian University The claims, however, are debatable. Readers and critics alike may
either agree or disagree by proposing counterarguments.

• Here are some common writings in the humanities:

Dear Madame:
I am a third-year student from the College of Liberal Arts and 1. Critique – This contains a writer’s opinion of the quality of
presently a scholar enjoying a 50% discount on books and tuition. any piece of writing or work of art. The writer is usually
Grade 11
Much as I am blessed with such privilege, I would like to request Reading and Writing Skills
Learning
that myModule
discount be increased to 75% to help 15parents finance
Pagemy
my studies this year. My father underwent a surgery last summer,
and he is currently on leave for recovery and therapy, which will
 knowledgeable of certain theories or approaches which serve as
a basis of his or her review. Because a critique is subjective,
the writer can be biased toward a certain kind of writing or art
work.
Example:
Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House is revolutionary in nature as Nora
challenges the “woman” in Hannah Arendt’s observations of
patriarchal polities such as temperament, sex role, and status, as
noted by Kate Millett in her work. Temperament refers to the
stereotyped personalities based on sex category—males as
aggressive, females as submissive. Sex role denotes that a woman
is to raising children and taking care of household, while a man is
to being successful to whatever field he pursues. The male, as
always, is superior in status, while the female is inferior. Nora
defied these patriarchal polities when she turned into an assertive
and subversive woman by leaving Torvald and their children,
expressing her desire to rediscover herself away from the norms
that kept her from “her.”
The passage is an excerpt of an informed criticism. The writer
cited concepts from other scholars to support the claims and
develop the main idea further.
2. Review – This refers to an assessment of a particular work,
such as a movie, a book, or music. In writing a review, the
author presents his or her observations in a general context. He
or she analyzes how parts constitute the entirety of the
material.
Example:
“Storm Warning” Poised to Find New Audience
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 16
(NewsUSA) – Billy Graham, an iconic spiritual advisor who has
preached to more people around the world than any other religious
leader in history, sees warning signs in current events.
“Depression today not only describes the hard-economic state
of affairs sweeping our world but the human state of mind,” writes
Graham. “I see this unfolding phenomenon as one of the many storm
clouds hovering over a lost and dying world.”
To help people weather today’s economic and cultural climate,
Graham has completely revised his book “Storm Warning” which was
originally written and published in 1992, in response to the fall of
Communism and the Gulf War.
“Trouble brewing in the Middle East especially heightened
interest in what the Bible had to say about the end days,” Graham
writes. “People began to wonder if there might really be something to
the ancient prophecies spoken by God’s prophets, and confirmed by
His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ.”
This new edition of “Storm Warning” offers Graham’s
perspective on the post-9/11 world. “We felt that in light of recent
developments since 9/11 it might be helpful to reprint the book,
bringing it up to date since the turn of the century,” writes Graham’s
son, Franklin, in the book’s foreword.
The book looks at current events and how they relate to
Biblical prophecy, especially a small part of the book of Revelations.
“Scripture speaks of earthquakes, wars, and rumors of wars, and
warns us with urgency to prepare for the storms to come,” writes
Graham.
God may bring storms, Graham posits, but He also offers
shelter. “Just as a laser pen helps focus attention on vital aspects of a
business presentation, in this book, I hope to use God’s Word—His
laser beam—to shed light on His revealed plan to save the human race
from the explosive clouds rumbling through our world.”
The review is about Billy Graham’s Storm Warning. It contains brief
information about Graham and his book (see the first and third
paragraphs) as well as several citations from the book. Also, it uses
formal language in general.
IV. The American Psychological Association (APA) and the
Modern Language Association (MLA) Citation Guides
• Citation guides refer to carefully crafted formats which are used to
acknowledge sources of information. Their styles vary, depending on
the prescribed guide by the university or the field of study. For
example, the American Psychological Association (APA) is commonly
used in social sciences, while the Modern Language Association
(MLA) is commonly used in humanities.
• Most citations contain the following elements: ○ Author’s name ○
Title of work (book, article, etc.) ○ Year of publication ○ Page number
(s) ○ Volume or issue number(s) or edition(s)
• Text and nontext information require citations. Whether a paragraph
is directly lifted or paraphrased, it still requires source attribution. This
way, one is safe from committing plagiarism.
• In-text citations are also known as parenthetical citations. When a
writer uses a phrase or paragraph from another source, he or she
encloses the verbatim piece in quotation marks or paraphrase it and
cites the source by placing the information inside the parentheses.
Keep in mind that the source of information provided in an in-text
citation should correspond to the reference list.
1. Short quotations – These are usually less than 40 words. They are
either paraphrased or enclosed in quotation marks.
○ APA format: Begin with the author’s last name followed by
the year of publication of the work. Then present the quoted or
paraphrased material and include the page where it can be
found. Alternatively, you can present the paraphrased or quoted
material first and then the information about the source—the
last name of the author, the year of publication, and the page
numbers, all of which are enclosed in parentheses.
Grade 11
Learning Module Page 17
Examples: According to Reyes (2012), the romance mode “creates a
world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes beyond
the parameters by which life is normally bounded” (p. 101).
The romance mode “creates a world that is not fully equivalent to our
own because it goes beyond the parameters by which life is normally
bounded” (Reyes, 2012, p. 101).
○ MLA format: This format follows an author-page structure.
The author’s last name is presented first, and then it is followed
by the page number(s). (In the APA style, the word page is
abbreviated to “p.” while pages are abbreviated to “pp.” The
“ps” do not appear in the MLA in-text citation style.) The
author-page structure works in two ways.
First, mention the author’s name within the sentence along with the
quoted line. Indicate the page number(s) in a parenthesis after the
closing quotation mark.
Example: According to Reyes, the romance mode “creates a world
that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes beyond the
parameters by which life is normally bounded” (101).
Second, the quoted line can go first and then the author and page
number are indicated in a parenthesis and placed after the closing
quotation mark.
Example: The romance mode “creates a world that is not fully
equivalent to our own because it goes beyond the parameters by which
life is normally bounded” (Reyes 101).
2. Long quotations – Quoted sentences containing at least forty words
are considered long quotations. This is called a block quotation and is
set apart from the main text.
○ APA format: Introduce the author’s last name first and then
indicate the year of publication enclosed in parentheses.
Reading and Writing Skills
 Present the passage without quotation marks. Place the page
number(s) enclosed in parentheses after the period.
Example: Reyes (2012) particularly noted in her study that: As a
central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has given rise to a
number of critical views. In general, realist criticism favors serious,
socially committed and actively engaged works. Within this
conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the radical tradition
assume less significance than those which follow the tradition of Rizal
and the “New Propagandists.”5 What originally emerged in the late
eighteenth century as a movement, and later as an analytical tool, has
become normative. (p. 102)
○ MLA format: Set the quote in a block quotation if it is more
than four lines long for prose, three lines long for poetry, or
two paragraphs long. The writer may add introductory
sentences which include the author’s last name or, after the
period, include the author’s last name and page number.
Enclose them in parentheses.
a) For prose, introduce the context first in one to two sentences
and then present the passage. Remove the quotation marks.
Example: Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic
humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-twenty
years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character.
Her mind was less difficult to develop. She was a woman of mean
understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. When she was
discontented, she fancied herself nervous. The business of her life was 1. Books
to get her daughters married; its solace was visiting and news.
(Austen 4)
b) For poetry, keep the formatting as close to the original as
possible.
Example: Leaning into the evenings I throw my sad nets to your
ocean eyes. There my loneliness stretches and burns in the tallest
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 18
bonfire, arms twisting like a drowning man’s. I cast red signals over
your absent eyes which lap like the sea at the lighthouse shore.
(Neruda 5)
c) For more than two paragraphs, indent the first line of the
paragraphs.
Example: In Salungat: A Soledad S. Reyes Reader, Reyes insisted
that: As a central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has given rise
to a number of critical views. In general, realist criticism favors
serious, socially committed and actively engaged works. Within this
conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the radical
tradition assume less significance than those which follow the
tradition of Rizal and the “New Propagandists.”5 What originally
emerged in the late eighteenth century as a movement, and later as an
analytical tool, has become normative.
This approach to Philippine literature offers a limited view of
vernacular writing, much of which is meat for the masses, since realist
criticism is ever conscious of the need to dissociate serious/realistic
from nonserious/romantic works. It would, therefore, be instructive to
focus our attention on the romance mode that has helped generate a
large number of works. (102)
• Reference List – This is usually found at the last section of a
published material. It is where the sources of information are
completely cited.
a. A book with one author
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name first
and then the initial of his or her first name. Place the
year of publication and enclose it in parentheses. Set the
work’s title in italics. Then include the location where
the work was published and its publisher.
Example: Austen, J. (2009). Pride and Prejudice. New
York, NY: Penguin Random House.

○ MLA format: Introduce the author’s last name and
first name. Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate
the publisher and the year the work was published.
Example: Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin
Random House, 2009.
b. A book with two authors
○ APA format: Indicate the authors’ last names first
and then the initial of their first names. Arrange them in
an alphabetical order. Place the year of publication and
enclose it in parentheses. Set the title of the work in
italics. Then include the location where the work was
published and its publisher.
Example: Cohn, R. & Levithan, D. (2008). Nick &
Norah’s Infinite Playlist. New York, NY: Ember-
Penguin Random House.
○ MLA format: Introduce the first author’s last name
and then the second author’s first and last names.
Arrange them in an alphabetical order. Set the title of
the work in italics. Indicate the publisher and the year
the work was published.
Example: Cohn, R. and David Levithan. Nick &
Norah’s Infinite Playlist. Ember-Penguin Random
House, 2008.
2. Periodicals – These commonly refer to magazines, news articles,
and scholarly journals. In citing periodicals, the following elements are
always included: author’s name, title of the article, and the name of the
periodical.
a. Journals – This type of periodical caters to a specific
audience.
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name and the
initial of the first name. Enclose the issue date in
parentheses by stating the year first followed by the
month and the day. Specify the title of the article in
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 19
sentence case, followed by the title of the periodical.
Set the title of the periodical in italics and include the
volume, issue (in parenthesis), and page range.
Example: Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening.
The New Criterion, 15(3), 5–13.
○ MLA format: Indicate the author’s last name and
then the first name. Specify the title of the article in
title-case style of capitalization and enclose the title in
quotation marks. Set the title of the periodical in italics.
State the day, abbreviated name of the month, year,
respectively, then the pages.
Example: Herrera, Christine. “Personal Contacts
Eyed to Repair China Relations.” The Standard, 2
September 2016, A2.
b. Magazine – This type of periodical caters to a general
audience.
○ APA format: The format for magazine articles is
similar with the one for journals.
Example: Fantauzzo, L. (2016, July). Fear and
loathing in Orlando. Rogue, p. 72.
○ MLA format: The format for magazine articles is
similar with the one for journals.
Example: Fantauzzon, Laurel. “Fear and Loathing in
Orlando.” Rogue, July 2016, 72.
3. Electronic sources – These contain a Web or uniform resource
locator (URL) or digital object identifier (DOI). Readers can use any
of the two to verify the information included in the reference list.
a. Books
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name and
initials of the first and middle names. Provide the year
of publication. Set the title of the work in italics and
then identify the medium. Also, provide the URL or
DOI address or the download host.
 Example: Hawkins, P. (2015). The girl on the train.
[Kindle version]. Retrieved from Amazon. Com
○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and first
names. Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate the
city where it was published, the publisher, and the year.
Specify the medium if it is a book, e-book, PDF, etc.
Example: Hawkins, Paula. The Girl on the Train. New
York: Riverhead Books, 2015. E-book.
b. Periodicals
○ APA format: Provide the author’s last name and
initials of first and middle names. Enclose the issue date
in parentheses, using the format “year, month day.”
Specify the title of the article and then set the title of the
periodical in italics. Include the phrase “Retrieved
from” followed by the URL address.
Example: Arong, J. (2016, June 23). Lost horizons:
How to navigate the Tibetan countryside. Rogue.
Retrieved from http://rogue.ph/lost-horizons-navigate-
tibetan-countryside/.
○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and first
names. Enclose the title of the article in quotation
marks. Set the title of the periodical in italics and then
indicate the issue date by following this format: day,
abbreviated name of the month, year. Then indicate the
URL address. In providing the date of access, include
the term “Accessed” and then the date: day, abbreviated
month, year.
Example: Arong, Joanna. “Lost Horizons: How to
Navigate the Tibetan Countryside.” Rogue, 23 June
2016, http://rogue.ph/lost-horizons-navigate-tibetan-
countryside/. Accessed 25 Aug. 2016.
Learning Tasks
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 20
Activity 1: Identify the kind of text from which each
paragraph came and tell whether the writing is of the
sciences, business, or the humanities. Explain your
answer in three to five sentences.
Text #1: Macdonald’s enchanting book, entitled “First
Christmas,” tells the story of Christmas through the
eyes of an unexpected narrator—Joseph’s loyal donkey,
Zeke. Zeke faithfully recounts the events of the
Christmas story in a playful, singsong voice that
appeals to children without compromising the dignity
and seriousness of the birth of Christ. The story
provides a soothing balm for parents hoping to refocus
their children’s attention on the spiritual aspects of the
holiday season.
Text #2: Students in Survey Research and Design
Psychology class were instructed to fill out one copy of
the survey and find four other students on campus to
complete four more. While on campus every fifth
person who walked passed building 9 was approached
and asked to complete the survey and became the
sampling frame. The person was asked to complete a
15-minute survey and told that it was confidential and
voluntary. This was convenience sampling with a
systematic approach.
Text #3: On behalf of the school’s Tennis Club, I
would like to request permission to use the lawn for the
tryouts on Wednesday and three tennis rackets.
Attached herewith are the names of the students who
will facilitate the tryouts. I am hoping for your positive
response regarding this matter. Thank you very much.
Activity 2: Examine the following sources of information. Write each
source in the APA format
1. Work: Was the Indonesian Salim Aquino’s biggest crony
Author: Rigoberto D. Tiglao
 Publisher: The Manila Times narrate or tell a story, describe a person or a place, define a word, or
Date of Publication: September 2, 2016 explain an idea or a concept. Whichever pattern you choose, it reflects
the way you think about a topic.
2. Work: The Hobbit
Author: J. R. R. Tolkien Objectives
Publisher: Harper Collin’s Children’s Books
Place of publication: New York  Distinguish between patterns of development in writing,
Year of Publication: 2012 namely, narration, description, definition, exemplification, and
classification.
3. Work: How to Look in the Mirror Without Saying “I”  Differentiate the uses of those patterns in writing across
Author: Daniel Wenger disciplines.
Publisher: The New Yorker
Date of publication: September 1, 2016 I. Narration
URL: http://www.newyorker.com/culture-desk/persons-of- • A narration tells a story. It relates an incident or a series of
interest/how-to-look-in-the-mirror- without-saying-i events that leads to a conclusion or an ending. It tells the
readers when, where, and what happened.
4. Work: The Rodyleaks • A narrative paragraph contains action verbs and transition
Author: Oli Reyes Pages: 70–71 words that indicate time or sequence. The following are some
Publisher: Rogue transition words used to signal time or sequence order:
Date of Publication: July 2016 First, second, etc.
After, next, then, eventually, soon
5. Work: Me, Martial Law, Marcos Meanwhile, a short time later
Author: Tony Lopez During, at the same time, simultaneously
Publisher: The Standard Suddenly, instantly, momentarily
Date of publication: September 2, 2016 The next day, following, thereafter
In the end, ultimately
Activity 3: Write each source in Task 2 in the MLA format. • Below is an example of a narrative paragraph.

Last night, I was walking home when it suddenly

rained. I forgot to bring my umbrella, so I ran to avoid getting
UNIT IV completely soaked in the rain. Not seeing where I was going, I
fell into a puddle of water. Then a guy helped me stand up.
When I looked up, I recognized him. Momentarily, I did not
Patterns of Development in Writing (1)
mind the rain and the cold. He offered to walk me home, and I
just nodded. The next day, he and I saw each other at school.
As you compose sentences and paragraphs, you can use different
At last, we talked like old friends.
patterns to organize your ideas and to structure your writing. You can
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 21
The paragraph above tells a part of a story in the first person. It shows
a sequence of events connected by transition words like then,
momentarily, the next day, and at last. Also, action verbs like was
walking, ran, and fell are used to indicate movement.
II. Description
• A description gives information of what a person, an object,
a place, or a situation is like. It appeals to the reader’s senses; it
makes the reader see, hear, taste, smell, or feel the subject.
• A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details,
which are carefully chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the
mind of the reader. Literary analyses, descriptive essays,
business plans, lab reports, and research papers are some
examples of writing genres that use descriptive paragraphs.
• Below is an example of a descriptive paragraph.
The tarsier has soft, grayish fur. It has bat-like ears and a long, rat-
like tail. It only stands about 100 millimeters. It feeds on insects like
crickets, beetles, and termites; and on small animals, too, like lizards,
frogs, and small birds. Also, it is capable of turning its head 180
degrees and jumping backward with accuracy.
The paragraph above tells the unique features and characteristics of a
tarsier. With concrete and specific details, the description creates a
picture of what a tarsier looks like as well as how it lives and moves.
III. Definition
• A definition explains a concept, a term, or a subject. Its main purpose
is to tell what something is. It consists of three parts: (1) the term,
concept, or subject to be defined; (2) the general class where it
belongs, and (3) the characteristics that differentiate it from the other
members of its class.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 22
• Below is an example of a paragraph that defines a concept.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process. As the sun shines, Earth
absorbs some of its energy. Then the greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere like water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
and the ozone absorb and emit that energy. This energy warms the
atmosphere as well as the Earth’s surface. As a result, the process
keeps the Earth warm.
The term greenhouse effect is defined in the paragraph. It is clearly
explained through the details on how the process occurs.
IV. Exemplification and Classification
• Exemplification is one of the most common and effective ways to
show or explain an idea or point (e.g., observation, opinion, belief). In
this pattern of development, the main idea is explained by giving an
extended example or a series of detailed examples.
• Many writing assignments in various disciplines require the use of
exemplification. Argumentative essays, feature articles, reviews,
reports, and case studies often use examples to prove a point.
• Below is an example of a paragraph using exemplification. The text
is adapted from “Plastic People” by Ray Bigauskas.
Today, men and women of all ages undergo surgery to feel good about
themselves. Three of the most popular surgical procedures are
liposuction, facelifts, and hair transplants. First, liposuction is a quick
fix for those who find good diet and exercise ineffective and time
consuming. Next, surgical facelifts promise men and women a younger
and fresher look. Lastly, hair transplants are now possible, especially
for balding men. Thanks to medical advances, men can now avoid the
harsh reality of losing their hair by undergoing a long-lasting hair
transplant procedure.
The paragraph above expounds on the main idea, which is stated in the
first sentence, through specific examples. The examples, which are the
surgical procedures and their purpose, support the main idea.
• Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g., persons,
places, things, ideas) into groups or categories according to their
common or shared characteristic. The subjects can be grouped in many
different ways depending on your purpose. With a purpose in mind,
you can determine how to group the subjects in your list. The group or
category should have a single basis of classification.
• Classification is commonly done in various disciplines. Classifying
historical events by year, popular TV shows by genre, diseases based
on mode of transmission, cleaning products based on manufacturer,
and animals based on habitat are some examples of topics in different
disciplines.
• Below is an example of a paragraph that uses classification.
• Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g., persons,
places, things, ideas) into groups or categories according to their
common or shared characteristic. The subjects can be grouped in many
different ways depending on your purpose. With a purpose in mind,
you can determine how to group the subjects in your list. The group or
category should have a single basis of classification.
• Classification is commonly done in various disciplines. Classifying
historical events by year, popular TV shows by genre, diseases based
on mode of transmission, cleaning products based on manufacturer,
and animals based on habitat are some examples of topics in different
disciplines.
• Below is an example of a paragraph that uses classification.
Learning Tasks
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) are composed of the
Philippine Army, the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Navy, and
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 23
the Philippine Marine Corps. The Philippine Army, the main and
largest branch, is responsible for ground warfare. It was established
on December 21, 1935, and it has 86,000 active personnel. The
Philippine Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch. It has
15,000 active personnel and a total of 126 aircraft. It has been active
since July 1, 1947. The Philippine Navy is the naval service branch. It
was founded on May 20, 1898 and has a total of 101 ships and 24,000
active personnel. The Philippine Marine Corps conducts amphibious
and expeditionary warfare as well as special operation missions. It
was established on November 2, 1950, and it has 8,300 active
personnel.
The paragraph above presents the four branches of the Armed Forces
of the Philippines. It provides details about each branch, such as its
function, date of establishment, and number of active personnel.
• You can use both exemplification and classification in developing
your ideas in writing. Begin by classifying the ideas and then explain
each one by giving examples. Below is an example of this
combination.
Pollution of air, land, and water affects people’s health. Toxic gases,
particulate matter (e.g., smoke, soot, dust), and other hazardous air
pollutants can contaminate the air. If breathed, the air causes or
exacerbates serious respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis,
emphysema, and lung disease. Toxic wastes like chemicals, garbage,
pesticides, and heavy metals make the land toxic. If people are
exposed to such land, they can develop skin problems, deformities,
and certain types of cancer. Chemicals, sewage, fertilizers, and other
harmful substances can contaminate primary water sources like the
oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and streams. Water from affected sources
can cause stomach illness, liver damage, certain types of cancer, and
neurological problems in people.
Activity 1: Determine the type of pattern of development used in each
paragraph below. Then write a two-sentence explanation of your
answer.
Paragraph #1
The human papillomavirus, more popularly known as HPV, is an
infection of the cervix. If left untreated, the disease could lead to
cervical cancer. About 130 types of HPV have been identified; some
of them can cause warts, but those types are usually not cancerous.
Paragraph #2
You are waiting in the sea for that perfect wave to catch. You set up,
paddle hard, and push to stand as you feel the board riding the wave.
As you prepare to emerge, the wave overpowers you; then you stumble
back into the water. There goes the ride of your life.
Paragraph #3 Bacharach is a river town in Germany. It is located on
the hills that line the Rhine River, where some places are as high as a
thousand feet above the river. There are numerous castles in the town,
and there are quite a number of vineyards, too. The best time to visit
the town is October; there are less people, and hotel rates have gone
down.
orange, and blue. The sun peeks, teasing its dedicated spectators, until
it fully bids its welcome and lords over the exquisite expanse of
clouds. After taking the requisite photos, you bask in the morning sun;
all things are beautiful, bathed in the soft golden light. You forget the
frigid temperature, the aching back, and the meals you would skip in
order to pay for the trip. Instead, you think of how lucky you are to
have seen the ineffable power of nature. You vow to come back so as
to get reacquainted with its beauty. Maybe there is a higher power
after all.
Activity 3: Form a group of four members. Together, think of a
general topic for writing. Each of you must write a paragraph using
one of the patterns of development in writing. All four patterns must
be used. Afterward, present your work to the class and see the
differences in treatment from each group.

Activity 2: Compose a short analysis of the paragraph below by

answering the following questions:
1. What is the main idea of the paragraph?
2. What pattern of development is used to develop the main idea of the
paragraph?
3. Is the pattern suitable to the text? Why or why not?

As the sky starts to change from dark gray to hints of amber, you
reach the promised land. The peak isn’t anything much—covered in
the same dwarf bamboo, it is wide enough to hold more than a
hundred people. It does seem that about a hundred people are waiting
with you. Everyone is sitting down, huddled close together for warmth, UNIT V
or talking gregariously to beat off the cold. Then the world suddenly
turns quiet as the heavens become a beautiful ombré of red, yellow,
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Learning Module Page 24
 Patterns of Development in Writing (2)
Writers can use different patterns to organize their ideas and to
structure their writing. As a reader, you can recognize those patterns.
While reading, you can see that some ideas are compared and
contrasted, or that they are causally related. You will read about
problems and solutions, or processes. If you can make sense of the
pattern in what you read, you will understand the meaning of the text
better.
Objectives
Hair growth None None
Energy level Low Low
The old formulation of the drug (MAC) and the new
formulation (MAC-II) have similar effects on the test mice.
Within 7 days, both mice lost weight. Mouse A, which is
treated with MAC, lost 2.2 grams (g), while mouse B, which is
treated with MAC-II, lost 2.4 g. Also, there was no increase in
hair growth on both subjects. Lastly, the mice similarly
exhibited low energy levels. Mouse A started to become
lethargic on day 4, while mouse B became lethargic on day 5.

 Distinguish between patterns of development in writing,
namely, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, problem–
solution, and process analysis.
 Differentiate the uses of those patterns in writing across
disciplines.
I. Comparison and Contrast
• To compare persons, things, places, events, situations, or
ideas is to show how they are alike. You need to identify the
points of comparison and make a list of similar characteristics
or qualities for each point of comparison.
• Some words that signal similarities are also, like, both, as...
as, similarly, in the same way, equally important, and likewise.
In the example, two mice are compared. Each point of
comparison (i.e., weight loss, hair growth, and energy level) is
drawn. Also, the words both and similarly are used to signal
comparison.
• To contrast persons, things, places, events, situations, or ideas
is to show how they are different. To do so, you need to make a
list of the characteristics or qualities of the subjects and then
identify the differences between them.
• Some words that signal contrast are but, however, though, on
the other hand, and in contrast.
• Below is an example of a paragraph that shows contrast
between two things.

Unicorn Bust
Funding More than $1B Less than goal
• Below is an example of a comparison. Market interest High Low
Product Novel Mediocre
Mouse treated Mouse treated
with MAC with MAC-II In the venture capital industry, a start-up company can either
Weight loss Yes Yes be a “unicorn” or a “bust.” Unicorns have a valuation of over

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 $1 billion, a high market interest, and a novel product. On the • With the cause-and-effect pattern, the writer can explain how an
other hand, busts fail to reach their minimum funding goal, event or action leads to another. The following words can be used to
have a low market interest, and have a mediocre product. signal cause and effect:
1. as a result
In the example, two types of start-up companies are contrasted. 2. accordingly
Their different characteristics are stated in two separate 3. because of (this)
sentences connected by the phrase on the other hand. 4. due to (this)
5. consequently
Example: 6. hence/therefore/thus

Da Vinci Mickelangelo • There are three different ways to use the cause-and-effect pattern in
Talented artist Yes Yes writing: cause to effect, effect to cause, and consecutive cause and
Interested in Yes Yes effect.
anatomy
Style Feminine, light Masculine, dark 1. Cause to Effect – In this pattern, the cause, which can be an
event or action, can be stated right at the beginning of a
Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are regarded as two of paragraph, followed by sentences stating the effects. This type
the greatest artists from the Renaissance. Both were geniuses; of organization is best for explaining a single cause with
they mastered techniques that made them superior to their different effects.
contemporaries. Also, they were similarly interested in
anatomy, which helped them produce highly realistic works. Example: Salmonellosis is a type of food poisoning caused by
However, they each had a distinct style. Da Vinci developed a Salmonella enterica bacterium. People who are infected with such
style that was feminine and full of light. On the other hand, illness experience abdominal cramps, fever, and diarrhea.
Michelangelo preferred his works to be masculine and dark. Consequently, they suffer from severe dehydration, vomiting,
headaches, and body aches. Furthermore, salmonellosis can lead to
In the example, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are compared complications, such as Reiter’s syndrome (reactive arthritis) and focal
and contrasted for the purpose of showing both their greatness and infection.
individuality as artists. Their similarities were mentioned first and then
their differences. The topic sentence right at the beginning of the paragraph defines
salmonellosis, the cause. Then the rest of the sentences enumerate the
effects of the illness. The words consequently and furthermore are
used to connect the ideas between sentences.
II. Cause and Effect
• A cause is simply “why something happens,” and an effect is “what 2. Effect to Cause – In this pattern, the effect can be stated at the
happens.” Together, they can be used as a pattern of development in beginning of the text, followed by sentences and paragraphs
writing. that expound on the causes. This type of organization is best
for presenting a single effect with different causes.
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Example: Global warming, the increase of Earth’s average surface
temperature, is happening. One of its major causes is the buildup of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Those gases trap heat in the
atmosphere, which keeps the Earth warm. However, burning fossil
fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas produces more carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere. Thus, more heat is trapped in the
atmosphere, and the Earth gets warmer than usual.
Another major cause of the global warming is deforestation.
When forests are burned, large amounts of carbon are released into
the atmosphere. Likewise, when trees are cut down, much carbon
dioxide from living things, some of which is absorbed by the trees,
goes to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen-based fertilizers are contributing to global warming,
too. They are used in farming to stimulate microbes in the soil. At a
very fast rate, the microbes convert nitrogen to nitrous oxide, a
greenhouse gas that can trap more heat than carbon dioxide can.
Also, it destroys the ozone, Earth’s defense from ultraviolet light.
The first sentence of the first paragraph states the effect, which
is the main idea of the entire text. Then it is followed by the statement
of the first cause and its supporting information. The second and third
causes are stated and explained in the next two paragraphs.
3. Conservative Cause and Effect – In this type of
organization, the causes, each with its corresponding effect, are
tackled one by one in a few sentences or a paragraph. The
writer explains each cause and effect completely before
moving on to the next cause and effect.
Example: American women gained status during World War II. Many
of them took over men’s jobs in factories and farms as men enlisted
into the military. As a result, they learned new skills and experienced
work outside of the home. Also, women were allowed to serve in the
military following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, so they felt the pride
of being in the military service. Lastly, because of the absence of men,
women made decisions for themselves and their families.
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Learning Module Page 27
The first sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. Then the next
two sentences give the first supporting information: the second
sentence stating the cause and the third, the effect. The other
supporting information is presented in the same pattern. Notice the use
of signal words as a result and so to indicate an outcome, and because
of to signify a cause.
III. Problem–Solution
• A problem in general is an unsatisfactory situation that causes
troubles or difficulties. Therefore, it needs a solution, a way to deal
with the situation so that the troubles or difficulties are removed.
• In writing across disciplines, the problem–solution pattern of
development is used to deal with topics that pose problems and present
solutions in a logical manner.
• The following variations of the problem–solution patterns are the
problem–solution, problem–cause–solution, and problem–process–
solution.
1. Problem–solution – This pattern is a straightforward
approach. The problem is expressed in a simple statement, and
a possible solution is given.
Example: The fast food chain Charlie’s Chicken wants to
attract younger customers, ages 13 to 17, to dine in their
restaurants. The management is thinking of launching a new
mascot called Clucky, a cool and trendy anthropomorphic
chicken. This brand overhaul would be very expensive, though.
So, they are also exploring digital marketing options. Through
the Web and social media, the company can promote the brand
at a lower cost.
The first sentence is a clear statement of what the fast food
chain wants to do. Also, it poses this problem: How is
Charlie’s Chicken going to attract customers ages 13 to 17 to
 dine in their restaurants? In the sentences that follow, two
solutions are presented.
2. Problem–cause–solution – In this pattern, the cause of the
problem is identified and analyzed before a possible solution is
presented.
Example: Women are significantly underrepresented in the
fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM). The small number of women working in those fields
can be attributed to the prevailing attitudes of people in
general about the ideal career aspirations of women.
Educating people then is a way to change how they think and
feel about women. Furthermore, the government and public
organizations should support programs that increase women’s
interest in the STEM fields.
The first sentence is a clear statement of the situation or
problem. It is followed by the statement of the cause of the
problem. The solutions to the problem are stated in the last two
sentences.
3. Problem–process–solution – In this pattern, the process or
procedure is discussed extensively. In the discussion, the
problem is addressed; the readers are led to the solution.
Example: A study is set out to determine the effects of
ultraviolet light on live cells. In an experiment, a microbial
sample will be subjected to UV light from a 24-watt light bulb.
After six hours, the sample will be analyzed. The experiment
aims to prove that the UV light causes irreparable DNA
damage that causes cell death. The results can be used to
develop more effective ways to protect human skin from the UV
light from the sun.
The first sentence states the main goal of the study and at the same
time poses the problem: What are the effects of ultraviolet light on live
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Learning Module Page 28
cells? The sentences that follow give the details of the experiment that
will provide answers to the question. The final sentence states the
purpose of the study as well as the solution.
IV. Process Analysis
• As a pattern of development in writing, a process analysis discusses
the steps taken in a given process. The term process refers to a series
of actions or steps toward a specific end, while the term analysis refers
to a detailed examination.
• Often, the steps in a process happen over time and are presented in a
chronological manner. Process analysis texts make use of transitional
words, such as first, second, then, lastly, and finally.
• Some process analysis texts are instructional or directive. They
teach readers steps that lead to a particular result. Below is an
example.
Before you transplant, you need to make the new location ready to
receive your roses. You would not want to transfer the plant where the
root ball becomes susceptible to sun exposure or loss of moisture. If
you are moving the rose plant to its new location using a vehicle, you
have to ensure that the roots are fully covered by a wet piece of cloth
or burlap. One tip for you is to keep watering the plant the day before
you unearth it. Lots of water will avoid dryness of roots and wilting of
the roses. If the roots have been watered enough, the rose plant will
survive the transplant since it will have enough nourishment to last the
time it is being moved. When you are digging out your roses, it is very
likely that you will not be able to get all the roots. Since rose plant
roots grow very deep into the soil, you will probably not be able to get
all of them. However, if you have watered your roses in advance, then
there is a greater chance that the plants will still flourish after the
transfer.
The sample text above gives instructions or directions on how to
transplant roses. The second person point of view is consistently used
in the text to address the readers.
• Other process analysis texts are informative. They explain how a
certain process works. Below is an example.
How does one get the best possible loan? There are two basic ways to
go about it—getting a loan from mortgage brokers or acquiring it
from a direct lender. A mortgage broker acts as an intermediary
between the loaner and the lender. On the other hand, a direct lender
allows the loaner if his or her application is acceptable. Brokers can
seek different kinds of mortgages depending on a loaner’s
requirements, but direct lenders have limited loan types. Nonetheless,
a loaner should consider many factors, such as low interest rate, loan
application fees, broker fees, prepayment penalties, and credit report
fee, among others.
The sample text above gives information on ways on how to get a
loan. It is written in third person point of view.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1: Determine the type of pattern of development used in each
text below. Then write a two-sentence explanation of your answer.
Text 1:
Get back in shape this summer! Here are three simple exercises you
can do every day.
1. To get fab abs: Lie flat on your back and place your hands behind
your neck. Lift your shoulders up, raise your legs, ankles crossed, and
extend your arms. Stay on this position and switch your feet over and
under for eight times.
2. To trim your thighs: Stand with your feet apart in a shoulder-width
distance, your toes pointing outward. Raise arms forward and squat.
Return to initial position then go low again, assuming the squat
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Learning Module Page 29
position. Your tailbone should be tucked, glutes contracted, and knees
should not go past the toes. Repeat for a minute.
3. To tone your arms: Assume a half push-up position: your wrists
below your shoulders and your knees on the floor. Contract your abs
and raise your right arm toward the ceiling. This rotates the upper
body toward the right. Hold for two seconds. Then return to initial
pose and bend elbows to 90 degrees. Repeat the movement, raising the
left arm this time. Do ten repetitions.
Text 2:
The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (ASCAP)
says “Children as young as preschoolers can show violent behavior.”
Aggressive children behavior needs to be seriously looked at by
parents and teachers alike. These children can deliberately be violent
toward others. Behavioral manifestations can include the following:
kicking, pushing, biting, throwing objects, punching, hitting, spitting,
and destroying property. Children exhibiting this aggressive behavior
are of low self-esteem and may have emotional problems. Here are
ways to handle this behavior, without resorting to extreme physical
child disciplining:
1. Encourage your child to behave properly by providing consistent
positive feedback for good behavior.
2. Make sure that the child’s immediate environment is calm. This will
help avoid unnecessary stress to your child.
3. Carefully select the types of TV shows your child watches. Avoid
programs that depict violence as entertaining and fun.
4. Channel your child’s excess energy toward productive physical
activities that will develop acceptable behavior.
Activity 3
Read the texts to analyze and compose a short analysis of the
paragraph by answering the following questions:
1. What is the main idea of the paragraph?
2. What pattern of development is used to develop the main idea of the
paragraph?
3. Is the pattern suitable to the text? Why or why not?
Text 1:
Workers Say a Good Cup of Coffee Can Make Entire Workday Better
If you want to make your workday a bit better, just turn to coffee.
That’s according to a survey where coffee was identified as key to
securing some of offices’ best business deals, improving networking
and giving office workers a feeling of being at their best.
In fact, the recent survey conducted by Harris Poll and Keurig
Green Mountain showed that of the 843 adults who were interviewed
(presumably around the coffee machine), 89 percent said a good cup of
coffee makes their entire workday even better.
“Clearly, coffee plays an important role in our society and
means so much more than just taking a break from work,” says Nicole
Williams, Career Expert and founder of WORKS. “It has become a
way of bringing individuals together, for colleagues to brainstorm or
collaborate, to interact with your boss in a more casual way or even
spark one’s own creativity.”
Without their daily cup of joe, coffee drinkers can feel a range
of negative emotions—exhausted (36 percent), irritable (35 percent),
unproductive (30 percent), disorganized (20 percent) or forgetful (14
percent). The data only re-enforced Keurig’s take that coffee has a
variety of surprising social and professional benefits, which is why the
company took on a new challenge—to brew a better carafe of coffee,
faster. With its new BOLT System, Keurig believes it has changed the
way coffee is brewed in the workplace.
The company challenged its engineers to come up with
something nearly everyone in the office will appreciate—a system that
brews a better pot of coffee with no mess in two minutes. What came
of the collaboration between the mechanical and electrical engineers
and software team was a system that could brew 64 ounces of
delicious fresh coffee, faster than ever before—which may be a huge
boon for office workers’ productivity.
“The next time you plan a big meeting, go one step further by
making a large carafe for everyone in the room,” says Williams.
“Almost half of office workers who drink coffee agree that coffee has
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 30
been the key to making some of their office’s best business deals
happen. The more time and effort you put into planning a great
meeting, the better your team will appreciate you and the task at
hand.”
Text 2:
How to Avoid Neck and Back Pain from Backpacks
If you’re like most parents, you remember sending your kindergartener
off to school with a backpack bigger than they were. While your child
may be able to shoulder it, students are now weighed down more than
ever by these cumbersome packs.
Which is why, say experts, more kids than ever before are
complaining about back and neck pain. With school starting up again,
a likely reason for the complaints is the heavy load they’re carrying
(and we’re not talking about classes), with everything from textbooks
to laptops to musical instruments crammed inside.
Consider this: “The federal Consumer Product Safety
Commission calculated that carrying a 12-pound backpack to and from
school and lifting it 10 times a day for an entire school year puts a
cumulative load on youngsters’ bodies of 21,600 pounds,” the New
York Times reported, “or the equivalent of six mid-sized cars.” No
wonder experts warn that kids are putting themselves at risk of even
more serious conditions, such as stress fractures in the back,
inflammation of growth cartilage, and nerve damage in the neck and
shoulders.
“Over time, the heavy weight of a backpack can cause an unnatural
alignment of the spine as students are forced to offset the pressure by
arching the back or bending forward at the hips,” said Sherry
McAllister, DC, executive vice president of the not-for-profit
Foundation for Chiropractic Progress, adding that students who are
already prone to slouching may experience further pain from sitting at
a desk for prolonged periods. Doctors of chiropractic, who have a
minimum of seven years of higher learning, specialize in providing
drug-free, hands-on care that helps to naturally align and strengthen
the spine. And since they also routinely advise on proper body
positioning— especially important to ensure while children are still
growing—the Foundation is confident in offering backpack-related
tips:
 Limit packs to no more than 10 percent of a kid’s weight.
 Packs with padded straps and multiple compartments help
distribute weight.
 Wear straps evenly on both shoulders, and not on just one
shoulder.
Activity 3: Find two articles, on print or online, and compare and
contrast them in terms of the patterns of development that the writers
used. Write your analysis in a three-paragraph essay.
UNIT VI
Persuasion in Writing
You encounter persuasive writing in your everyday life through TV
commercials, magazine ads, and marketing brochures, among others.
What makes persuasion a powerful tool in writing? How do you
effectively persuade an audience? Knowing how to write persuasively
allows you to express your personal conviction or opinion about an
issue or topic and make the audience agree with or adopt your
conviction or opinion.
Objectives
 Recognize persuasion as a pattern of development in writing.
 Identify the different techniques of persuasive writing.
 Describe the different modes of persuasion.
 Avoid common logical fallacies in persuasive writing.
I. Persuasive
• Persuasive writing intends to convince readers to believe in an idea
and to do an action. Many writings such as critiques, reviews, reaction
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 31
papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements, and brochures use
different ways of persuasion to influence readers.
• The following are three common techniques in persuasive writing:
1. Presenting strong evidence, such as facts and statistics,
statements of expert authorities, and research findings
establishes credibility. Readers will more likely be convinced
to side with the writer’s position or agree with his or her
opinion if it is backed up by verifiable evidence.
Example: The Philippine government should take measures to
decrease class sizes in public schools, as it is one of the biggest
problems in the Philippine education system. Class sizes have gone up
to 75 or 80 students per class, and newspapers reported that of the
764 public schools in the metropolis, 82 percent had to resort to
conducting classes in two shifts, one that starts as early as 6 a.m. and
another that ends as late as 6 p.m. The shortage of school classrooms
and the large class sizes have a massive effect on children’s
education. According to the National Education Research and Testing
Center, only 68 percent of sixth-grade students were able to achieve a
passing score in science and mathematics, and secondary students
fared even worse, with only barely 50 percent of students passing the
same subjects. If the government does not act on improving the class
sizes in public schools, we cannot expect public school students to fare
better in their academics.
The text presents evidence supporting the idea that the government
should take measures to decrease class sizes in public schools. The
second sentence states a fact based on news reports; the fourth
sentence states statistics, citing a credible source.
2. Concrete, relevant, and reasonable examples can enhance
the writer’s idea or opinion. They can be based on observations
or from the writer’s personal experience.
Example:
I think our employees should be required to undergo a workplace
sensitivity training. Disrespecting coworkers based on appearance,
gender, or beliefs can lead to loss of employees. For instance, one of
our best employees quit last week because of derogatory remarks
regarding his faith. Also, there was a major incident last month
involving verbal aggression between two employees, which ended
with both parties resigning. If our employees are not made aware of
their bad actions and uncivil behavior toward others, there may be
more cases like these.
The first sentence of the text above states an opinion; that is, the writer
thinks that there is a need for sensitivity training in his or her
workplace. Two examples of incidences of disrespect in the workplace
are cited in third and fourth sentences. The first example is signaled by
the expression “for instance.”
3. Accurate, current, and balanced information adds to the
credibility of persuasive writing. The writer does not only
present evidence that favor his or her ideas, but he or she also
acknowledges some evidence that opposes his or her own. In
the writing, though, his or her ideas would be sounder.
Example:
Do you wonder if your kids will have your back when you’re older?
Apparently the answer is a surprising yes....
While 93 percent of parents felt it would be “unacceptable”
to become financially dependent on their kids, 70 percent of the
adult children had no qualms about opening their wallets.
Children were much more likely to expect that they, or a
sibling, would care for an ill parent than their moms and dads
were (47 percent vs. 11 percent).
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The text above is an excerpt from “Kids Willing to Step Up to Help
Aging Parents, Study Finds” by News USA. Right in the beginning,
the main idea is stated—that children will have their parents’ back
when they are older. Then statistics are used as evidence: the thoughts
of the children support the main idea; while the thoughts of the
parents, though they do not support the main idea, look less relevant.
II. Modes of Persuasion
The modes of persuasion were introduced by the Greek philosopher
Aristotle (384 BCE–332 BCE) to teach his students how to convince
their audience. Even now, the modes are still being used. The ethos,
pathos, and logos are the modes of persuasion or ethical strategies to
convince an audience of one’s credibility or character.
1. Ethos is the appeal to ethics. It convinces the audience of the
credibility of the writer. The writer’s expertise on his or her
subject matter lends to such credibility. The level of education
and profession of the writer also come into play. For instance, a
physicist writing about the Big Bang theory would have ethos,
while a lawyer writing about the same topic would not.
However, one who is not an expert can still build credibility by
ensuring that his or her writing is well researched, and that the
appeals to emotion or logic are used responsibly.
Examples:
a. Having been a tour guide in the last ten years here in El
Nido, I have had my fair share of unforeseen events. When
waves are high due to rain, the boat will be swinging crazy
and rocking like a pendulum. When this happens, don’t panic.
 Stay inside the boat and just let the power of the waves crash.
As long as you have your life vest on, there is nothing to worry
about.
b. Dentists all over the world recommend brushing at least
three times a day, particularly after every meal.
c. As someone who has studied politics all her life, I can tell
you for a fact that what we are experiencing now is akin to a
totalitarian regime.
The texts above show that in order to have ethos, one must be an
expert on the subject or at least very knowledgeable about it. In the
first example, a tour guide gives instructions on what to do when the
sea is turbulent. His or her adequate experience makes him or her
credible. The second example is commonly used in commercials. It
relies on the credibility of the dentists. In the third example, the writer
explicitly states her area of study to lend credibility to her political
opinion.
2. Pathos is the appeal to emotion. This aims to convince the
audience by appealing to human emotions. Emotions such as
sympathy, anger, and sadness motivate humans; using pathos
will then get the audience to be emotionally invested in the
subject of the writing. It is often used in advertising, and the
probable reason is that our emotions touch our very core and
appeal to our values. However, pathos is not objective; it is not
considered a legitimate form of argument in many fields of
study.
Examples:
a. Imagine your own child scared and in pain, not knowing
why he or she was arrested in the first place, beaten up by the
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Learning Module Page 33
police. Imagine a place where anyone can just kill anybody
and get away with it. Imagine your freedom curtailed, unable
to express yourself on social media. This is what will happen if
you do not speak up against the atrocities of a corrupt
government.
b. Secure your family’s future. Invest in health insurance now.
c. Don’t you miss the good times, when things were much
simpler, and people were genuinely fond of each other?
The first example taps into a collective anxiety. The second one is
imperative; the sentences suggest that securing the future of one’s
family be urgent and that the audience act now. The third one appeals
to audience’s sense of nostalgia.
3. Logos is the appeal to logic and reason. It is the most
commonly accepted mode in persuasion because it aims to be
scientific in its approach to argumentation. In writing, facts are
presented in a logical manner, and faulty logic is avoided.
Also, the supporting points are logical in nature. Often, the
consistent use of logos builds ethos.
Examples:
a. According to recent research studies on expectant mothers, more
women have decided to have children in their thirties. Some of the
reasons cited were to establish a career first, to travel without
thinking of responsibility, and to enjoy the first years of marriage. One
of the disadvantages they see, however, is at this age, it has become
harder to conceive.
b. A hero is someone who is admired or idealized for courage,
extraordinary achievements, or noble qualities. If it is proven that the
soldier abandoned his or her duty prior to dying in this war, then he
or she does not deserve to be buried in the National Heroes Cemetery.
c. History has shown that in times of nationwide crisis, citizens will
unite to help those in need
The first example shows a survey of expectant mothers. With the
mention of “recent research studies,” the audience may likely to think
that the information is based on some statistics. The second example
uses the dictionary meaning of the word hero to establish the
limitations of the definition. Based on the definition, the writer makes
an argument in the second sentence. The third example cites what is a
generally acceptable notion of national unity. It could be further
supported by examples where it is true.
III. Common Logical Fallacies
• A crucial aspect of persuasion is the validity of the argument. The
way to achieve such validity is for the argument to be logically sound;
that is, it must adhere to the principles of logic. This does not mean an
argument cannot be subjective, but logical reasoning should support
the bias.
The following are six common logical fallacies one must avoid in
persuasive writing:
1. Ad hominem – In this type of argument, the writer opposes
the point made by attacking the person who makes them.
Instead of discussing the issue, the writer calls the opponent
names.
Example: I cannot accept that my political rival is running for
senator. She is an immoral woman who has several lovers, and she
finances them all. Who knows where she gets the money to fund them?
She should not be voted onto senate because of her lewd behavior.
In the text, the writer focuses on his or her rival’s morality, which is
determined by judgment rather than actual political skill, instead of
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 34
stating the person’s lack of capability to let the audience know that she
is not fit for public office.
2. Faulty cause and effect – Two events that happen
sequentially are causally related. This argument is also called
post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“after this, therefore because of
this).
Example: The water here in our village is no longer safe to drink
because of several hotels that have been recently put up. They have
polluted our waters by not having a good waste management system.
Because our waters are polluted, we now have many mosquitoes, the
reason that our children are getting dengue.
In the text, causal relationships between events are drawn. With
sufficient evidence, it might be true that the hotels have polluted the
waters because if their ineffective waste management system.
However, the rise in cases of dengue cannot be attributed to the
polluted waters alone. Stagnant water, whether potable or not, can
breed mosquitoes, too.
3. Either/Or reasoning – This type of reasoning provides the
reader with two options and does not recognize complexity.
Often, those who use this in an argument oversimplify the
problem and only provide two solutions or reasons for a
problem.
Example: I thought you support the new mayor, but you have just
criticized her about the curfew that she has recently imposed.
The sentence states the assumption that those who support the new
mayor do not criticize her and that those who criticize her do not
support her. It simplifies the situation into two sides: the mayor’s
supporters and her critics. It then disregards the possibility that there
may be supporters who have a constructive criticism about the curfew
and that there may be those who are not loyal supporters of the new
mayor but are in favor of the curfew.
 4. Hasty generalization – This is the generalization conclusion
drawn based on little evidence or a piece of evidence that is not
representative of the whole.
Example: Smoking is not allowed inside our house. The rule
inconvenienced my father who used to smoke a lot. As a role model for
us, his children, he quit smoking eventually. Therefore, I say, a
smoking ban in the entire town will be beneficial to all families.
The last statement in the example makes the assumption that because
the rule of not smoking inside the house worked for a certain family
(that is, the writer’s family), the smoking ban will be beneficial to all
families in the town. Without data about the families in the town, one
cannot say that the smoking ban would be beneficial.
5. False analogy – To compare an issue, event, person, or to
another can be useful, but the comparison can confuse or
mislead the audience, too. There may be more differences than
similarities between the two ideas being compared, and one
reason may apply to one but not the other.
Example: People who are in favor of the Reproductive Health law are
the same with those who think that abortion should be legal. Both
people kill babies, and they are immoral.
The example draws a comparison between two different groups of
people, those who are in favor of the Reproductive Health law and
those who are in favor of abortion. The second sentence states their
similarities, which can mislead the audience that Reproductive Health
law and abortion are similar.
6. Circular reasoning – It states the very thesis as its proof.
Too often, the supporting details are merely rephrasing the
statement.
Example: Video piracy is wrong because it is the illegal copying of a
video without permission from its creator.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 35
The subordinate clause “because it is the illegal copying of video
without permission from its creator” is the definition of video piracy. It
does not offer any new information to prove that it is wrong.
IV. Frequently Used Sources of Information in Persuasive Writing
1. Facts – These make an argument solid. They can be based
on experts and studies or one’s own observation, experiment,
or personal experience.
Example:
They might be pint-size, but their water needs are not. Kids, experts
say, should be just as properly hydrated as adults, if not more so.
“The standard recommendations are for children to get six to
eight glasses of water per day,” says Dr. Melina Jampolis,
CNNHealth’s Diet and Fitness expert. “Mild dehydration can affect
learning as well as mental and physical performance.”
Underscoring Jampolis’ assertion is a recent report out of
Tufts University which found that children who are even mildly thirsty
can become cranky. For school-age children, dehydration— even at
low levels—can impair cognitive function, says lead researcher
Kristen D’Anci, Ph.D.
The text above is an excerpt from “Kids Require Just as Much
Drinking Water as Adults, according to Experts.” The main idea—that
children should be properly hydrated like the adults—is supported by
facts stated by experts in the second and third paragraphs.
 2. Statistics – This source of evidence can in fact be very
persuasive because numbers do not lie. However, the numbers
should be accurate, and the date comes from a reliable source.
Example:
In personal and professional life, computer technology impacts even
the simplest, everyday tasks. Whether through online bill payment or
the seamless integration of global businesses, computer technology
offers optimized productivity and the flow of commerce, making it a
vital component of success for all businesses.
This unwavering dependence on computer technology has
spurred the growth of related fields, making the present a great time
to earn a degree in computer information systems (CIS). According to
the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment in this field is
projected to grow by 30 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than
the average of all occupations, opening the door for those with
applicable skills to apply their talents and passion for computing
and technology in the workplace.
The text above is an excerpt from “Computer Technology Grows New
Career Opportunities” by News USA. The statistics in it is used to
support the idea that earning a degree in computer information systems
(CIS) is timely and relevant.
3. Judgment – This refers to what the writer assumes about his
or her topic given the facts. He or she may present facts first
and then make judgments about those facts.
Example:
“Job seekers drastically improve their chances of getting hired by
developing what I call ‘the full suite’ –skills, experience and
education,” said Joyce Barden, CPA, CBM, senior professor at DeVry
University. “It all starts with education.”
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 36
Regardless of how long you have been out of the classroom,
completing a degree program helps to ensure a competitive edge in
the job market.
Here are four compelling reasons to re-commit to education and
complete your degree:
Open doors to your future.
A bachelor’s degree could be the ticket to a new career or a
stepping stone to advancement in your current field. By completing
your degree, you will master a skill set and possibly uncover hidden
strengths.
Increase your salary.
Last year, full-time workers with college degrees earned 83
percent more than those with only a high-school diploma.
Build your network.
Returning to school will help you meet new people, develop
potential business partnerships, and explore new avenues for career
growth. Everyone we allow into our network can offer new ideas that
will help us to grow personally and professionally.
There is a program that works for you.
Whether you take online courses or attend classes on campus,
you should know that many schools are committed to accommodating
students’ busy schedules.
The above text is an excerpt from the article “First Step toward Career
Success: Degree Completion” by News USA. In the excerpt, the writer
cites a professor who states that jobseekers have more chances of
being hired if they have the skills, experience, and education. Using
the professor’s statements, the writer enumerates the reasons for
completing a degree program.
4. Testimony – This has two types, namely the account of an
eyewitness and the expert’s opinion. Both types are considered
valid and can make an argument convincing. The eyewitness
 account can provide important facts, while the judgment of the reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the
expert can further strengthen the argument. ideal candidate for your mayor.

Example: “In our experience, the combination of healthy lifestyle
choices and social engagement is critical to people extending their
independent living years,” says Dr. Philip Painter, chief medical
officer for Humana at Home, Humana’s chronic disease management
program that helps nearly 1 million people deal with diabetes,
congestive heart failure and other conditions. Aging at home means
thinking beyond medications and medical procedures, utilizing the
health care system effectively and taking advantage of the tools, it
offers, Painter adds.
The text above is an excerpt from the article “Forever Young: How
Seniors Can Stay Happy and Healthy at Home” by News USA. The
statements of Dr. Philip Painter are a testimony about seniors living at
home. They support the main idea that seniors can stay happy and
healthy at home.
Task 2: List down the six logical fallacies. Then define each one using
your own words and give at least one example for each.
Task 3: Read the editorial of the current newspaper and write a short
analysis. Below are some guide questions.
1. What persuasive techniques did the writer use?
2. What mode of persuasion did the writer use?
3. Is there any fallacy committed in the editorial? If yes, how do you
know it is a fallacy?
4. What source of information did the writer cite in the editorial? How
is it used?

Learning Tasks

Activity 1: Read the following statements and identify whether it is an

example of ethos, pathos, or logos.

1. The algorithms have been run in a thousand different ways, and the UNIT VII
math continues to check out.
2. Better men than us have fought and died to preserve this great
The Organization of a Well-Written Text
nation. Now is our turn to return the favor. For God and country,
gentlemen!
3. Private demand for the product has tapered off for the past three The organization of a text is essential to the meaning it conveys. Its
years, and this year’s sales figures are at an all-time low. It’s time to meaning would be more easily understood by readers when the ideas
research other options. presented in the text are organized. Simply put, the writing must be
4. They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, cohesive and coherent: all of the supporting ideas are related to the
and they don’t care who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, main idea, and the ideas are arranged in a certain logical order.
they’re the enemy, and they won’t stop until we’re all destroyed.
5. My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless Objectives:
commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 37
  Analyze a given text in terms of its organization.
 Distinguish between coherence and cohesion.
 Identify the differences between a well-written text from a
badly written text.
 Evaluate the organization of a given text.
I. The Main and Supporting Ideas in a Paragraph
• The main idea of a paragraph is stated in the topic sentence, which
can be found in the beginning, middle, or end of the paragraph. Then
the supporting ideas are explained by the other sentences in the
paragraph.
Example 1
The Keys to Physical Fitness
Many people are unrealistic about what it takes to become physically
fit. They try fad diets, infomercial exercise programs and miracle fat
burning supplements without success while ignoring the real steps to
fitness. The first step is strength training. Strength training builds
muscle which helps increase energy levels and improve posture. In
addition to building muscle strength through strength training,
regular cardiovascular exercise such as running, walking or cycling is
essential. Cardiovascular training burns fat and strengthens the heart.
But regular exercise will only be effective if people pay attention to
diet and nutrition. A diet that avoids sugars, junk foods, and high fat
meals and is high in fruits, grains and low-fat meats will provide the
body with the energy it needs without weight gain. As much as we
might wish it, the “secret” of physical fitness can’t be found in a
bottle. It’s a matter of regular exercise and good eating habits.
The topic sentence of the paragraph (set in boldface) can be found at
the end such as in the example above. It reveals the purpose of the
paragraph: to inform the readers that becoming physically fit takes
regular exercise and good eating habits. Also, it summarizes the
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 38
thought of the entire paragraph. Then the supporting ideas (underlined)
are stated in the sentences that precede the topic sentence.
Example 2:
Time to Get Tough with Drunk Drivers
It’s time for the courts to pay more attention to drunk drivers. Often
even repeat offenders get small fines when caught driving with alcohol
levels above the legal limit. But, drunk driving is a serious crime and
should be treated as such. Drunk drivers cause most serious accidents,
but all situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for serious
consequences. Drunk drivers threaten the safety of everyone on the
road; cars are weapons, and drunk driving is a form of assault.
People should be responsible for their actions, and if they choose to
drink and drive then they should pay the price. Often the victims of
accidents caused by drunk drivers suffer long after these drivers have
“paid their debt to society.” The law should be changed so that all
cases of drinking and driving would result in jail time and vehicles
would be confiscated. Then perhaps more people would think twice
about drinking and driving.
The topic sentence of the paragraph (set in boldface) can be found in
the beginning such as in the example above. It prepares the readers for
the supporting ideas—the reasons as to why courts should pay
attention to drunk drivers now (underlined in the text).
• The main idea of a descriptive paragraph, usually implied, is the
dominant impression that the reader gets from the manner the subject
is being described. The supporting ideas are the descriptive details
surrounding the subject.
Example:
My First Apartment
My first apartment was a third-floor walk-up on a busy street in
downtown Vancouver. The building was a faded brown characterless
box. My apartment was down a dimly-lit narrow hallway covered in
worn fifties style dark green carpeting. When I say apartment, I really
mean room, because there was just one small square room with a tiny
bathroom. The air was humid and musty. One small window provided
a perfect view of the brown stucco wall of the building next door. A
small “avocado” colored stove and fridge highlighted the kitchen
which consisted of a few shabby painted wood cupboards that
projected into the room. Along one wall was an older pale blue sofa,
which was also my bed. A small red card table with two chairs served
as my kitchen and dining room table. A few feet away, several large
cardboards moving boxes contained all of my clothes and personal
possessions. The one bright spot was a large poster of a winter
mountain scene which I had hung on the dull gray wall. It helped me
survive the eight months I called this dump home.
The subject of the text above is the writer’s first apartment. In the
description (underlined), he or she paints the apartment as small and
old. The dominant impression then that the reader can get is that the
apartment is an unpleasant place for living.
• The main idea of a narrative paragraph is the central theme or topic
for which the events happen. It can be stated or implied in the text.
Example:
My New Career
The morning of my big job interview started like any other. I awoke
with a good night’s sleep under my belt determined and confident in
getting a new job as an assistant for Williams Moving and Storage.
The night before the interview, I practiced moving the furniture from
one end of the house to the other. My roommates thought I was crazy.
Arising from bed, I felt stronger, like a rodeo bull waiting to get out of
his cage. Sitting at the kitchen table eating, I started looking at the
furniture around me in a new light. The hide-a-bed in the living room
was a 300-pound finger-eating monster opening and closing snapping
at me. Looking out onto the covered patio, the wicker furniture was
floating, almost drifting by itself to the front door. Then and there I
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 39
knew that moving furniture was my calling. Walking to the front door,
I gave the hide-a-bed a good stiff kick.
The central idea of the paragraph is the narrator’s big job interview as
an assistant for a company, which is stated in the second sentence.
Then the sentence is followed by the details about the morning that the
narrator woke up.
II. Cohesion in a Paragraph
• Cohesion refers to the unity of ideas in a paragraph. Every
supporting detail in a paragraph supports the main idea (the topic
sentence).
Take a look at the following paragraphs from Chapter 1 and
see how each of its details is related to the main idea.
Keys to Physical Fitness
Main Idea
Physical fitness is a matter of regular exercise and good
eating habits.
Supporting Details
1. Strength training builds muscle which helps increase
energy levels and improve posture.
2. Cardiovascular training burns fat and strengthens the
heart.
3. A diet that avoids sugars, junk foods, and high fat
meals and is high in fruits, grains and low-fat meats will
provide the body with the energy it needs without weight
gain.

Time to Get Tough with Drunk Drivers
Main Idea
It's time for the courts to pay more attention drunk
drivers.
Supporting Details
1. Drunk drivers cause most serious accidents, but all
situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for
serious consequences.
2. Drunk drivers threaten the safety of everyone on the
road; cars are weapons, and drunk driving is a form of
assault.
3. People should be responsible for their actions, and if
they choose to drink and drive then they should pay the
price.
• Having cohesion in a paragraph or in the entire text is important.
Readers do not only understand sentences individually, but they also
take the meaning of the group of sentences as a whole into
consideration. When a paragraph or an entire text lacks cohesion,
readers may find it challenging to determine how the ideas in it are
related to one another.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 40
III. Coherence in a Paragraph
• Coherence is the quality of being logical and well organized. The
details of a coherent paragraph follow a certain logical order; the
connections between the ideas are reinforced by transitional devices.
• Below are some logical orders used to achieve coherence.
1. Chronological order – This gives a sequence of events. In
this order, the writer tells what happened first, second, third,
and so on.
2. Spatial order – In this order, the details are arranged
according to how things fit together in physical space—that is,
where one thing exists in relation to another. This order works
well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of
something which has various parts distinguished by physical
location.
3. Order of importance – In this order, the details are
arranged from the least important idea to the most important
one, or vice versa.
4. Compare and contrast – In this order, the details are
arranged according to how two or more things are similar to
and different from one another. It is an effective pattern to use
when the reader can better understand a subject when it is
described in relation to another.
5. Topical order – This is the most commonly used format. It
will typically work when the other patterns do not. In this
order, the details are arranged according to different subtopics
within a larger topic, or the “types” of things that fall within a
larger category. Using this pattern, each “type” represents a
main section of information.
• A coherent paragraph is easy to follow and understand because all
ideas flow from one to another. Take a look at the following
paragraphs from Chapter 1 and see how they achieve coherence.
 My First Apartment
My first apartment was a third-floor walk-up on a busy street in
downtown Vancouver. The building was a faded brown characterless
box. My apartment was down a dimly-lit narrow hallway covered in
worn fifties style dark green carpeting. When I say apartment, I really
mean room, because there was just one small square room with a tiny
bathroom. The air was humid and musty. One small window provided
a perfect view of the brown stucco wall of the building next door. A
small “avocado” colored stove and fridge highlighted the kitchen
which consisted of a few shabby painted wood cupboards that
projected into the room. Along one wall was an older pale blue sofa,
which was also my bed. A small red card table with two chairs served
as my kitchen and dining room table. A few feet away, several large
cardboards moving boxes contained all of my clothes and personal
possessions. The one bright spot was a large poster of a winter
mountain scene which I had hung on the dull gray wall. It helped me
survive the eight months I called this dump home.
The paragraph above uses the spatial order. The narrator’s first
apartment, the physical space, is described in terms of its location and
parts.
My New Career
The morning of my big job interview started like any other. I awoke
with a good night’s sleep under my belt determined and confident in
getting a new job as an assistant for Williams Moving and Storage.
The night before the interview, I practiced moving the furniture from
one end of the house to the other. My roommates thought I was crazy.
Arising from bed, I felt stronger, like a rodeo bull waiting to get out of
his cage. Sitting at the kitchen table eating, I started looking at the
furniture around me in a new light. The hide-a-bed in the living room
was a 300-pound finger-eating monster opening and closing snapping
at me. Looking out onto the covered patio, the wicker furniture was
floating, almost drifting by itself to the front door. Then and there I
knew that moving furniture was my calling. Walking to the front door,
I gave the hide-a-bed a good stiff kick.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 41
The paragraph above uses the chronological order. It gives a sequence
of events that revolve around the narrator’s big job interview.
IV. The Structure of a Text
• Together, cohesion and coherence in paragraphs make a well-written
text. With such qualities, the structure of an entire text becomes
clear.
• The typical structure of a text is composed of introduction, body,
and conclusion.
A. Introduction
- This part prepares the readers for the information that they are about
to read from the text. It provides the necessary context or background
about the topic of the text.
- This part usually contains the thesis statement, a sentence that states
the main idea or focus of the entire text.
- This part arouses the reader’s interest and sets the tone of the writer.
B. Body
- This part develops the thesis statement. It gives examples, details,
facts, or reasons to support the statement.
C. Conclusion
- This part ties the ideas in the text together and leaves the reader with
a sense of completion.
- In this part, the thesis is usually restated
- In this part, writers can make a recommendation or a prediction, or
they can ask a question which will lead the readers to think back upon
the subject.
Example:
It was a Saturday evening. My cousins and I are meeting at 8 PM to
try the new restaurant at the corner of our street. Rona, my eldest
cousin, was to pick us up at our place from work. Stomachs
grumbling, we drove to the restaurant. The night turned out to be the
most disappointing dining experience we have ever had.
First, we waited for over an hour for our food to be served. As
soon as we were inside the restaurant, we placed our orders right
away before we were seated. The waiter told us that our orders would
be ready in thirty minutes, and he led us to an empty table by the glass
window. While waiting, we did some catching up. Then we followed up
on our orders after thirty minutes. The waiter said it would be ready in
a while. That “a while” took almost an hour. As soon as the food
came, we were sulking.
Secondly, the food was awful. Let me begin with the appetizer.
The cheese sticks tasted like cardboard; they were inedible. We
immediately asked the waiter to take it away and remove it from our
bill. Also, the garlic rice was very salty. You could even crunch on the
rock salt. Then the omelet and the meat dish were very bland. All that
time spent on waiting was not worth it.
Finally, to cap it all off, the food was overpriced. We divided
the bill amongst ourselves and was shocked to know that we paid
almost the same as a meal in a fine dining restaurant. We paid our bill
without tip and went out of that new restaurant feeling robbed.
We went to our favorite tea cafe to forget about the
unsatisfactory dining experience we had. That night, we realized that
taking on adventures involves risks. By trying out the new restaurant
in the neighborhood, for instance, we knew that dining there was not
worth our time. It is then our responsibility to share our experience so
that other people could learn from it. On the next day, I posted a
review of the restaurant on their Web site to let its management know
how to improve their restaurant in terms of its food and service.
In the introduction (first paragraph), the setting, the people involved,
and the point of view are established. Then it ends with the thesis
statement: The night turned out to be the most disappointing dining
experience we have ever had.
In the body (second to fourth paragraphs), the thesis statement
is further explained in the following topic sentences using the
chronological order:
1. First, we waited for over an hour for our food to be served.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 42
2. Secondly, the food was awful.
3. Finally, to cap it all off, the food was overpriced.
In the conclusion (fifth paragraph), the first sentence echoes the thesis
statement, followed by a statement of the “moral” of the story—that
taking on adventures like eating in a new restaurant involves risks.
Finally, it ends with the narrator taking action.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. In a five-sentence paragraph, define and differentiate
between cohesion and coherence.
Activity 2. Compare and contrast the texts below then identify
whether each one is well written or badly written. Then explain your
answer in a paragraph with at least five sentences.
Text 1
Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an “aura,” this appears
as a rainbow of light around the body that can be seen by individuals
with clairvoyant abilities. The colors change depending on one’s
mood, health, and thoughts. Some scientists believe that the existence
of the aura has something to do with the electromagnetic fields
produced by cells and tissues in the human body. Whether auras are
real or not, the fact remains that there are forces everywhere that are
real even though we cannot see them.
Text 2
It’s a shame we don’t all have the stamina of the greenest of the green.
Think about it: At least some of them have been known to hook up a
stationary bike to a solar battery pack, pedal away, while perhaps
thinking of an idyllic life in the rainforests of Brazil, while at the same
time generating enough stored power to operate their kitchen
appliances and computers. Okay, so it takes 10 minutes of pedaling
just to run the toaster. But hey, the point is, there’s lot of ways you
might not have thought of to cut your energy bill this summer.
Activity 3.
Spot-Checking an Article
1. Look for an editorial in a newspaper or a feature article in a
newspaper or magazine. Then read it thoroughly.
2. Analyze the text. Is the editorial generally cohesive and coherent?
Why or why not? Prove your answer by citing the sentences/part of the
paragraph and why it is not cohesive or coherent.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 43
UNIT VIII
Language Use
It is important that a writer makes good choices when it comes to
language use because how a writer uses language affects the readers
intellectually and emotionally. Before writing, a writer has to think
about his or her target audience and consider them in the kind of
language that he or she uses in the text.
Objectives:
 Distinguish between formal and informal language.
 Differentiate familiar, direct, and simple language from a
complicated one.
 Distinguish between biased and unbiased language
I. Formal vs. informal language
• Informal language is used in writing personal texts for family,
friends, and colleagues. On the other hand, formal language is used in
writing academic, business, and official texts.
• One must be able to determine when it is appropriate to use formal
language or when informal language is acceptable. Take a look at the
following examples:
Example 1: We asked the secretary to call the professor and get her
permission to continue our research.
Example 2: We requested that the secretary contact the professor and
obtain her permission to continue our research.
Notice the following differences:
 FIRST SENTENCE SECOND SENTENCE
asked requested Maria
call contact
get obtained Notice that Paragraph 1 uses formal language, while Paragraph 2 uses
informal language. It is evident that the first paragraph is addressed to
The words asked, call, and get in the first sentence sound informal. It a person of authority, while the second paragraph is addressed to a
is acceptable to write in such informal language to a colleague, a friend or a colleague of the same position. The use of contractions it’s
friend, or a family member. On the other hand, the words requested, and can’t and the clipped word rep is also apparent in the second
contact, and obtain in the first sentence sound formal. It is appropriate paragraph. It indicates informality. Also, it is noticeable that the
to write in such formal manner to a person of authority in school or in second letter sounds more like the spoken language, which is another
the workplace. indication of informality.
• Below are two sample paragraphs.

Paragraph 1 II. Familiar, direct, simple language vs. complicated language

• The writer has to make sure that he or she uses the appropriate
Dear Ms. Cruz, language for the target audience. Choosing to write in a familiar,
Greetings! direct, and simple language rather than in a complicated language
would give the audience a better chance to understand the text easily.
This is to report about our meeting with Mega Corporation in
Singapore. It went as planned. The company has decided to accept our • Read the following article.
offer. The client’s representative will be meeting you once she returns
from her other business meeting. I will be sending a comprehensive
report about the agreements in a separate e-mail. Why Sunglasses Are a Must-Have for Kids (An Excerpt)
Respectfully yours, Most parents know how damaging the effects of ultraviolet radiation
Maria Santos (UVR) can be to our skin, which is why they dutifully slather
Paragraph 2 sunscreen
on their kids during the summer. But one thing that often gets
Nancy, overlooked is protecting their children’s eyes.
According to vision-care experts, kids receive three times more
It’s a great day here in Singapore! The meeting with Mega UV exposure than adults annually, yet less than 30 percent of parents
Corporation has just ended. It went so well that they accepted our currently protect their children’s eyes with sunglasses. The reason for
offer. I can’t believe it! The company rep will meet you when she’s concern is that children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to
done with her other meeting. I still have a lot of things to tell you. Will the sun’s rays because their ocular lenses are not mature enough to
be sending a report soon. filter UV light as effectively as adults, causing damage to the retina.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 44
 “Everyone buys into what happens to your skin when it comes
to sun damage, but many parents are really surprised to learn about
the cumulative UV damage to the eyes,” Dawn Hartman, an
optometrist at Columbus Ophthalmology Associates in Columbus,
Ohio, told the Wall Street Journal in an interview. But the right
sunglasses can help, as parents become more aware that protection
from the sun is not just skin deep.
In general, the language of the text above is simple and familiar. A few
technical scientific terms are used in the text like “ultraviolet
radiation,” “ocular lenses,” and “retina,” but they are necessary to
mention. The ordinary language of the text allows its target readers
(parents) to understand the main idea of the text easily, which is the
significance of letting children wear sunglasses.
• Study the following sentences. Notice the differences in the language
use.
1. She had fever last night; that is why she could not go to school
today. 2. She contracted pyrexia during the nocturnal hours, so she was
not able to attend to her academic obligations today.
The use of very formal vocabulary in the second sentence makes it
complicated compared to the simple language used in the first example
1. Submit your papers tomorrow.
2. Make sure you have your papers with you the next time we meet.
The first statement is a direct instruction compared to the second one.
Given the context that a teacher is addressing his or her students, the
first statement will be more effective.
III. Biased versus unbiased language
• The writer has to be sensitive enough not to offend any individual or
particular group of people by choosing to write in an unbiased
language. The text is free of any stereotype of ethnicity, religion,
political interest, social class, and the like.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 45
• Below are some points to consider in using unbiased language.
1. Use names or labels that individual or groups choose for
themselves. Therefore, you must carefully assess your audience.
Example: The local school has accepted half-breeds for years now to
increase its population.
Half-breed is an offensive word for a person whose parents are of
different races. A more polite expression is “a person of mixed race.”
2. Do not mention group membership unnecessarily. If a person’s
affiliation is not relevant to your writing, do not mention it.
Example: The Asian first-grade English teacher gave fewer
assignments than my second grade English teacher did.
The use of the qualifier “Asian” is not necessary in the comparison of
the two teachers. It suggests racial bias.
3. Be aware of words that certain groups of people find negative or
offensive and avoid using them in writing.
Example: The government has opened a new clinic for the disabled.
Using the collective term “the disabled” to refer to handicapped people
may be offensive. The word “disabled” should be used as an adjective
rather than a noun.
IV. The Gender-Neutral Language
• Another form of unbiased language is the gender-neutral language. A
writer should be careful not to favor a certain gender when
constructing sentences.
• Study the following sentences. Notice the differences in the language
use.
1. Each intern should record daily what he learns in the workplace.
2. Each intern should record daily what he or she learns in the
workplace.
In the first sentence, the pronoun “he” is used even though an intern
could also be female. The use of masculine pronoun to refer to a
common noun used to be a common practice. However, such usage is
no longer acceptable at present as it shows bias toward the female
gender. On the other hand, the second sentence shows no bias in
gender. The pronouns he and she are used to recognize both genders.
1. More unmarried women than ever before are having babies.
2. More unmarried couples than ever before are having babies.
The first sentence is biased toward unmarried women. It implies that
the pregnancy is largely their fault. On the other hand, the second
sentence is neutral because of the use of the collective term couples.
1. Now, more than ever, mankind needs to take care of the Earth as it
is slowly dying.
2. Now, more than ever, people need to take care of the Earth as it is
slowly dying.
The usage of masculine terms like mankind as generic terms is
considered biased. The terms should be replaced with humans, human
beings, humankind, or people.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1: Read the text closely. Determine whether it uses formal or
informal language. Explain your answer in a five-sentence paragraph.
How Drugs Can Destroy People’s Lives
Drug addiction is a serious health issue that affects addicts, their
families, and society. First of all, drug addiction has severe physical
effects on the addict’s body. Drug users can experience many physical
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 46
symptoms including sickness, fevers, sweats and shakes, loss of
appetite, and weight loss. They also face the danger of contracting
serious diseases such as AIDS, hepatitis, and other communicable
diseases, not to mention the risk of overdose. Families and friends of
drug addicts are inevitably also affected by their addiction. Addiction
can lead to serious financial problems, loss of trust, and eventually
family breakup and divorce. Society as well pays a cost: crime rates go
up, and more security and hospital care is needed which are all paid for
by taxpayers. Drug addiction is a destructive way to live. Maybe more
would be done about it if it were looked at not just as a problem that
addicts face alone, but as something that affects society as a whole.
Activity 2: Write some instructions on how to cook pancakes. This
will serve as your script for a livelihood project in your barangay.
Your audience will be children aged 8 to 10 years old. Take note of
your use of formal and informal language, and simple and complicated
language.
Activity 3: Evaluate the article if it is a well-written text in terms of
language use. Below are some guide questions.
1. Does the writer use formal or informal language? Cite lines from the
text to prove your answer.
2. Are there any sentences that use complicated language? If there are,
cite those lines in your evaluation and explain why those sentences are
complicated.
3. Can you say that the article is written in a biased-free language?
Cite lines from the text to support your answer.
5 Tips to Practice Good Public Hygiene
By News USA
It would seem that public hygiene protocol is not something easily
forgotten since it is a standard taught since kindergarten, underscored
in middle school, and essential to get your college diploma. Yet there
are times, more often than we’d like to admit, that we may know the
“do’s” and “don’ts” of social proprieties, but choose not to embrace
them.
 Stay classy and clean with these simple tips on how to display
good hygiene when out in public.

Cover your mouth

This one is a no-brainer, but deserves to be first on the list. Hearing
you sneeze or cough is one thing; feeling either of these is entirely
another. Cover your mouth when coughing or sneezing and keep your
hands clean by using your upper arm as a shield.

One tissue does not conquer all

Feeling under the weather? Looking and feeling your best can be
difficult when your sinuses and lungs are working against you. You
can do your best to show you care about public hygiene by following
the rules of thumb such as washing your hands regularly, using hand
sanitizer, and pulling out clean tissues every time you need to use them
in public.

Watch for bad habits

Bad habits like biting your nails, playing with your hair or touching
your face can work against the image you’re trying to project. These
habits are also a way that unwanted grime, oils, and bacteria can
spread from different areas on your body and eventually onto objects
you touch. Do yourself (and others) a favor by keeping your hands
away from the top half of your body whenever possible.

Launder
Laundry is an arduous (and thankless) task, but there are few public
hygiene no-no’s worse than dirty clothes. Designate one day of the UNIT IX
week as laundry day and stick to it. Invest in a dependable iron and
ironing board, and carry a stain remover in your purse or briefcase.
Mechanics
Use FLASR
For smokeless tobacco users, a small, spill-proof spittoon is a necessity The following can make a text unreadable: misspelled words;
and the ultimate display of good public hygiene. Fortunately, for these uncapitalized words that should begin with capitals; sentences that are
individuals, there’s FLASR, an Atlanta based company that specialize unpunctuated or poorly punctuated; and formatting styles that are
in exactly that. The FLASR spittoon has a chic design that is pocket- overused. Therefore, besides choosing the right words in writing, one
size and features a secure locking mechanism to avoid messy mishaps. should consider the mechanics of writing, too. Following certain
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 47
conventions in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and the use of organize organise
boldface, italics, and underline add to the effectiveness of one’s analyze Analyse
writing. criticize criticize
learned learnt
Objectives: airplane aeroplane
center centre
 Explain how mechanics affect the meaning of the text. inquire, inquiry enquire, enquiry
 Identify different spelling conventions and recognize
misspellings. Before writing, think of your target audience. Whether you write using
 Apply the rules of capitalization and punctuation. the American or British spelling of words, it is important to be
 Examine the use of boldface, italics, and underline in a given consistent in spelling. If you are unsure of the spelling of a word,
text. consult a dictionary or a spell checker.

2. There are English words that have variant or alternate spellings,

which are acceptable. However, you should consult the dictionary to
I. Spelling help you decide which form to use. Usually, the main entry word in a
dictionary shows the standard spelling, and the variant spellings of the
• The standard spelling of words is fundamental in learning a word are indicated. For convenience and consistency, use the spelling
language. Misspelled words can easily create disorder; they distract the of the entry word.
reader from understanding the text. On the other hand, spelling words
correctly avoids confusion. It makes communication and reading Below are some words with variant spellings. They are listed in the
easier. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary as entry words.
• It is good to know the correct spelling of words by heart.
ENTRY WORD IN THE VARIANT SPELLING
Nonetheless, you can consult the dictionary to check the spelling of a
DICTIONARY
particular word.
acknowledgment acknowledgement
adviser advisor
• Below are some tips on spelling.
among amongst
1. There are slight differences between the American English and the amid amidst
British English spellings. Below are a few examples: while whilst
dialogue dialog
AMERICAN SPELLING BRITISH SPELLING catalog catalogue
color colour collectible Collectable
labor labour barbecue barbeque
defense defence disk disc
toward towards
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 48
 onward onwards 6. There are English words that contain silent letters, which are not
backward backwards pronounced when the words are read. Be aware of those words and
judgment judgement remember their correct spellings. Below are lists of some of words
traveled, traveling travelled, travelling with silent consonants.
theater theatre Silent b: doubt, debt, subtle
aging ageing Silent c: ascend, descend, convalescent
Silent g: align, foreign, sign
3. Words with the letters i and e succeeding each other, such as
receive, receipt, and deceive are commonly misspelled. Remember
then this simple rule: “I before E except after C.” This may help you
remember the correct spelling of those words.

4. In adding prefixes to words, the spelling of the root word does not II. Punctuation
change. Examples: misspelled, unnecessary, dissatisfied
• Punctuation is a system of symbols used to give structure to a text. It
5. English words with double letters are often misspelled. Be aware of guides the reader on how the text should be read.
those words and remember their correct spellings.
• Using correct punctuation adds clarity to a text. Read the examples
Below are lists of some of words with double letters. below:
1. I love to paint portraits I would paint one every day if I had the time.
A. Words with a single pair of double letters 2. I love to paint portraits. I would paint one every day if I had the
time.
different personnel
harass profession The first sentence is a run-on sentence. There is no proper punctuation
illegitimate questionnaire between the two independent clauses. An independent clause is a
occasion recommend clause with a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. On
the other hand, the second sentence is the correct way of writing the
B. Words with two pairs of double letters run-on sentence. A period is used to separate the independent clauses
and turn them into full sentences.
accommodate millennium
aggression occurrence 1. This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel and Corazon.
committed possession 2. This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel, and Corazon.
embarrass success
happiness succeed In the first example, one assumes that Noel and Corazon are the
speaker’s parents. On the other hand, with the use a serial comma after
the name Noel, one can conclude that the book is dedicated to the
speaker’s parents and to two people named Noel and Corazon.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 49
 Homer (9th or 8th century BCE?) is the Greek epic poet who
• Below are commonly used punctuation marks and their uses. presumably wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Herodotus (born 484 BCE?), a Greek author, is believed to be
1. Period born at Halicarnassus in southwest Asia Minor during the
Persian rule.
a. It indicates a full stop or an end of a statement. When a
statement ends with a word or a group of words enclosed in 3. Exclamation point
quotation marks, the period is placed within the quotation
marks. a. It ends a sentence that expresses emotion or an interjection.
Examples: I studied last night. It was not a good day. He is Examples: Goodness, it’s cold in here! Ouch! That hurts.
known as “the hat maker.”
b. It replaces the question mark in interrogative sentences that
b. It is used in some abbreviations. expresses strong emotion.
Examples: a.m. Dr. etc. Examples: Don’t you know who I am! Can’t you understand
what I’m telling you!
c. It is placed after numerals and letters in outlines and lists.
Exclamation points are usually used in informal writing and should not
Example: I. Philippine Literature in English be used in formal writing.
A. Historical background
B. Well-known authors and their works 4. Apostrophe
1. Poetry
2. Fiction a. It is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns.
3. Nonfiction Examples: We went to Carla’s party.
4. Plays She was considered her children’s only hope.
All the girls’ things are kept in a locker.
2. Question mark
b. It is used in place of the omitted letters in contractions.
a. It ends a question. Examples:
Examples: What time is it? Did you study last night? I am – I’m
did not - didn’t
b. It ends a question that is part of a sentence. I will - I’ll
Examples: “What was my mother’s name?” you ask. I wonder,
How can I be a more effective leader? c. It is used in some expressions like the following:
For goodness’ sake
c. It indicates uncertainty about a fact. For appearance’s sake
Examples: A month’s delay
In three days’ time
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 50

5. Comma
a. Commas are used to separate words or phrases in a list or
series.
Examples: You can see a lion, a tiger, and a bear in the zoo.
My goals this year are to climb a mountain, to stay in a remote
island, and to learn how to drive.
b. A comma is used to separate clauses in sentences.
Examples: I heard about my friend’s problem, so I went to see
him to offer my help. When she arrived home, the door was
locked.
c. Commas are used to set off words or phrases that introduce
examples or explanations.
Examples:
My mother has just met three famous people, namely, the
President, an Olympic gold medalist, and a veteran actor.
John thought of a very good plan to celebrate his birthday this
year, that is, to volunteer as a reader at a day care center.
6. Colon
a. It introduces a list.
Examples:
The travel package includes the following: air fare, packed
meals, hotel accommodation, and an island tour.
The school is currently hiring teachers for these courses:
Mathematics in the Real World, Writing in the Sciences, and
Healthy Living.
b. It is used to introduce a quotation.
Examples:
The post on the door reads: “Please gather at the lobby at 3
P.M.” In her speech, the senator said: “I have never felt alone
in my fight against discrimination.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 51
My family, close friends, and faithful allies are standing right
by me, and they urge me to continue.”
c. It introduces a clause or a phrase that explains what comes
before it.
Examples:
The night was extraordinarily bright: the moon was full, a
hundred stars twinkling, and the bonfire blazing.
Maria’s room was delightfully surprising: its walls covered
with a thousand pictures of her travels around the country.
7. Semicolon
a. It is used to indicate a stop or break that is more grounded
than a comma but not as strong as a period.
Examples:
I never demanded for him to come today; he did it anyway.
She was his only hope; she would take him far away from the
hands of his captors.
b. It separates two clauses, one of which is introduced by a
conjunctive adverb or a phrase acting like one.
Examples:
The house has been in the market for a year now; however, no
buyer has expressed interest in the property.
Our team thinks it is better to work outside the classroom; on
the other hand, the principal thinks we will be safer in the
laboratory with a teacher watching over us.
c. It separates items in series if they themselves are set off by
commas.
Examples:
Our company needs three key persons: a chief accountant who
is energetic enough to go through mountains of unidentified
receipts; a cook who has enough stamina to feed fifty hungry
employees during lunchtime; and a resourceful janitor who can
clean up any kind of mess.
 The theater group is going to perform in San Fernando, La
Union; Vigan City, Ilocos Sur; and Laoag City, Ilocos Norte.
8. The common dash or em dash
a. It can be used in place of a colon or a semicolon to connect
clauses, the second of which explains or expands the first
clause.
Example:
The couple will not see their loved ones for a while—they
resolved to make their new house in a new country their second
home.
b. It can be used in place of a comma before words and phrases
that introduce examples or explanations.
Examples:
In the last hour, we have seen three amazing animals—namely,
a baboon, a platypus, and a beluga whale.
We are taking the next step in the process—that is, the taste
test.
c. It may introduce a summary statement after a series of words
or phrases.
Examples: A bed, a telephone, a refrigerator, a television—
these are the things you need in your new place. On a regular
day, John prepares breakfast for his family, cleans the house,
fixes broken things, buys grocery, and cooks dinner—an all-
around stay-at-home father.
III. Capitalization
• Capitalization is writing the first letter of a word in upper case while
the rest of the letters of the word are in lower case. It helps in
deciphering the meaning of the words. If proper nouns are not
capitalized, for instance, their meanings can change; they can lead to
misunderstanding.
Grade 11
Learning Module Page 52
• The following are always capitalized in text:
1. proper nouns: Alex, Manila
2. proper adjectives: Philippine, Canadian
3. days of the week: Monday, Sunday
4. months of the year: January, December
5. specific course titles: English 11, Theater 101
6. kinship names used in place of personal names and if
they are followed by personal names: Grandma, Dad, Aunt
Paz, Uncle Alvin
7. Names of historical periods, events, and documents:
the Great Depression, the Renaissance, the Constitution
• Adjectives, verbs, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns are capitalized in a
title. Do not capitalize conjunctions, prepositions, and articles, except
when they are the first or last word in a title.
Examples:
Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There (title of a
book)
And I Am Telling You I’m Not Going (title of a song)
The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (title of a movie)
IV. The Use of Boldface, Italics, and Underline
Using word processors, one can have many ways to emphasize words
in writing; three of those are the boldface, the italics, and the
underline.
1. The boldface is commonly used on the following:
a. Important words in a sentence or a paragraph
Example:
Punctuation refers to the marks used in writing to make its meaning
clear to the reader. A punctuation mark like a period can end a
Reading and Writing Skills
sentence. Also, a mark like a comma can connect words, phrases, and
clauses.
In the short paragraph, the word being defined is emphasized by
setting it in boldface.
b. News headlines and titles of news and magazine articles
Example:
Wellness Travel Is on the Rise (Excerpt)
By NewsUSA
So, what is wellness travel? The trend covers all aspects of health,
including nutritious menu options spa offerings and fitness activities.
Across the globe tourism professionals are responding to growing
demands by introducing whole food vegetarian and vegan menus, spa
packages and active excursions. Hiking, cycling, paddle boarding, and
kayaking continue to gain popularity.
c. Headings of paragraphs, tables, and charts
Sample heading of a paragraph:
90s again? Fashion Is Looking Back for Inspiration
By Jennifer Varela
Remember the grunge days? Or our Spice Girls inspiration? Let’s
take a look at today’s biggest trends that are totally a flashback 15
years ago.
Crop tops
The ones that started all. From the beginning of 2015, this has been a
really important piece of wardrobe in every scenario: since couture to
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 53
fast fashion, crop tops have now invaded our closet in every way
possible. Back in the 90s, we wore them without any concern
(probably because our abs were a lot flatter), but in this era, there have
to be some boundaries. First of all, it is time for us to admit that
they’re not good to take everywhere (this means they’re not office
appropriate) and they don’t go with everything. A crop top is a sexy
and a subtle way of showing skin if you wear it with high-waist items,
like shorts, pants or skirts. Go for a cropped t-shirt when going to the
beach or for a silk one for your party outfit. But in any case, use it
wisely.
2. The italics are frequently used on the following:
a. Titles of books
Examples: I love the book Through the Looking Glass by
Lewis Carroll because it tells Alice’s additional adventures in
Wonderland.
Harry Potter and he Prisoner of Azkaban is my favorite Harry
Potter book.
b. Foreign words
Examples:
The bayanihan is a Filipino concept.
Say po or opo to show respect to elders.
c. Important words in a sentence or a paragraph
Example: The Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality (YAFS)
Study is a series of national surveys on the Filipino youth,
conducted since 1982 by the University of the Philippines
Population Institute (UPPI) and the Demographic Research and
Development Foundation. It gathers data from Filipino youth
aged 15–24 years old. It is one of the sources of information on
sexual and nonsexual risk behaviors and their determinants in
the country.
d. Inner thoughts or memory flashbacks in literary texts
 Example: She stared at the moon and said to herself: Am I
really alone today? Why did this happen to me? Will I forever
be alone? A sudden burst of tears came. She cannot calm
herself down. All the while she thought: Who cares anyway?
3. Before word processors were invented, underlining used to be the
most common form of emphasis for written texts. Today, the most
common underlined text in a paragraph is a Web address, the location
of a Web site on the Internet. Because it is a hyperlink, the reader can
access the Web site by clicking on the Web address.
Examples:
You can find a list of local ALA-member fan retailers online at
americanlightingassoc.com.
Visit www.quipper.com for more information.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. Put a check on the line beside the correct spelling. If both
spellings are acceptable, write acceptable on the long line.
What You don’t Know About the Impact of Vision in your Child’s
Life (An Excerpt)
By News USA
Just when you are getting used to having your children home for the
summer, you realize it’s already almost time to send them back to
school. You then schedule appointments and checkup but one thing
that often goes unchecked is a childs vision.
Did you know 80 percent of a childs learning is done through
their eyes And yet according to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 35 percent of children have never seen an eye care
professional, making vision impairment one of the most prevalent
disabling conditions among children in the US this is one reason why
experts agree it is imperative to get a child’s eyes checked yearly and
equip them with glasses as needed.
for those who already wear glasses, seeing your eyecare
professional is a necessity. childrens lenses encounter everything from
fingerprints to scratches, and even harsh glare. these issues can make it
harder for kids to see the world and more challenging for them to keep
their glasses clean. looking through obstructed lenses can cause tired,
strained eyes.

1. ___ align ___ aline ___________ Activity 3. Find a magazine article that features any of these three
2. ___ ascend ___ assend ___________ styles: boldface, italics, and underline. Then identify the words,
3. ___ embarass ___ embarrass ___________ phrases, or sentences that are set in boldface or italics or that are
4. ___ harass ___ harrass ___________ underlined. After that, write a short paragraph explaining the purpose
5. ___ inquire ___ enquire ___________ of the use of the styles in the text.
6. ___ misspelled ___ misspelled ___________
7. ___ occasion ___ occasion ___________
8. ___ profession ___ proffesion ___________
9. ___ receive ___ recieve ___________
10. ___ traveling ___ travelling ___________
UNIT X

Activity 2. Improve the following text by capitalizing some words and Claims of Fact, Value, and Policy
inserting punctuation marks.

Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills

Learning Module Page 54
A piece of writing, especially the persuasive or argumentative kind, is watch too much television. two years should not be allowed
filled with propositions or claims. Identifying such claims, either the to watch television, while those
obvious or the subtle ones, is essential to understanding the purpose of who are two years to 12 years
the text as well as its main ideas. This unit provides information old should only watch
regarding the different types of claims, which would greatly help you educational television programs
improve your skills in reading and writing. for one to two hours each day.

The claims in A are either broad or vague, while the ones in B are
Objectives: specific and clearly debatable.

 Distinguish claims of fact, value, and policy in a written text. • A claim of fact is a type of claim that affirms or asserts that a
 Identify explicit and implicit claims in a text. statement is true or untrue. It argues that the statement is indeed a fact,
 Write and defend claims of fact, value, and policy. or it defines a particular term.

I. Claims of Fact
• A claim is a statement that an author discusses, explains, or proves in
his writing. In persuasive or argumentative writing, the central claim
made is called the thesis, which determines and limits the scope of the
topic.
Examples:
Cyberbullying has profound effects on young children.
“Making friends” online is not the same as making friends in person.
People are becoming more dependent on technology.
• A claim of fact often takes an objective position. Take a look at the
following text.

Take a look at following examples:

A B
Good education is one of the The Philippine government
keys to success. should implement a program that
would enable all children
belonging to families in the
poverty level to finish their high
school education.
It is not advisable for children to Children who are younger than
Example:
People in general are becoming more dependent on technology. In
Philippines alone, for instance, there were 114.6 million mobile
subscriptions and 44.2 million active Internet users according to the
global Web statistics released by a global agency called We Are
Social Singapore. Since January 2014, the number of active Internet
users has grown 18 percent, while the number of mobile subscriptions
has grown 7 percent.
The first sentence states a claim of fact. The writer supports the claim
by statistics.

Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills

Learning Module Page 55
• In persuasive or argumentative writing, a writer defends the thesis or
central claim in order to make it convincing. Below are some steps you
may follow to defend a claim of fact.
1. State your claim clearly.
2. Provide a brief explanation or definition for words that may be
unfamiliar to some readers.
3. Cite recent, accurate, and sufficient evidence. It should come from
reliable sources or experts.
4. Organize the evidence in a logical way. The arrangement of
evidence highlights the most important points.
5. To conclude your writing, reiterate the thesis.
II. Claims of Value
• A claim of value is a type of claim that evaluates, appraises, or
judges an idea.
Examples:
It is important that children learn how to use social media responsibly.
Learning another language other than English is necessary in the 21st
century.
Spending quality time with your family is better than spending time
alone.
• A claim of value is subjective. In writing, the author can tell whether
the idea is important or relevant based on some criteria or standards,
which may be influenced by the author’s religious, cultural, and social
values. Also, he or she can express approval or disapproval of the idea;
he or she can state whether the idea is good or bad, right or wrong,
ethical or unethical, or just or unjust.
Example:
It is very important that children learn how to use social media
responsibly. One reason is that the social media poses danger to their
security. Experts say that 75 percent of teens have profiles on a social
networking site. Such profiles mostly contain their photos, real names,
birthdates, interests, and even their town and school. Online
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 56
advertisers and predators can easily take the children’s information
and use it for illegal activities.
Beginning with the phrase “It is very important...” the first sentence
states a claim of value: the idea of children learning how to use social
media responsibly is of utmost importance to the writer. He or she then
cites a reason and explains it.
• You can defend a claim of value by doing the following:
1. Clearly state the principle or value you are promoting. You can say
that it rates higher on a scale of values than any other principle or
value. 2. Present the good results or effects of adhering to the principle
in contrast with other principles.
3. Present real-life examples to give readers a concrete idea of how the
values work in particular situations.
4. Include relevant statistics as well as the testimonies and points of
view of highly regarded individuals or experts who share the same
value or principle as you do.
III. Claims of Policy
• A claim of policy is a statement proposing an action that should be
undertaken as a solution to a particular problem. This claim makes use
of words such as should, ought to, and must.
a. Smoking must be banned in all public places.
b. In general, women should be given equal job opportunities
as men.
c. There should be a course for students who would like to
learn Ilocano, Cebuano, or any Philippine dialect.
• A claim of policy may argue against an already established policy or
solution. In writing, the author aims to convince readers that the
proposed solution would indeed solve the given problem and that it is
better than the current or any other proposed course of action.
Example:
Learning a foreign language remains a requirement in most colleges;
students must take a certain number of units to fulfill such
requirement. However, after graduation, most of them will work in the
country and never get the chance to use the foreign language in the
workplace. For them, there should be an alternative course, that is, a
course teaching a widely spoken local dialect like Ilocano or
Cebuano. Learning a local language not only increases their chance
of finding work in the major cities in the country but also allows them
to connect with other Filipinos speaking a different language.
In the text above, the writer proposes a new language course for those
students who will remain in the country to work. He or she says that it
is an alternative course to foreign language course.
• Follow the guidelines below in defending a claim of policy.
1. State your proposal clearly. If you are to argue that a current policy
or any other solution is not effective, state your proposal in contrast
with that policy or solution.
2. State the arguments for your proposed solution. Express why it is
the best action to take. If you are to compare it with a current policy or
any other solution, highlight the positive effects of your proposal. You
can downplay its flaws by comparing those flaws with those of the
current policy or other solution.
3. Support your claim with enough evidence. This evidence should
show that the solution is going to be a success and that it is attainable.
IV. Identifying Claims Explicitly and Implicitly Made in a Written Text
• Identifying claims in a given text is important in critical reading,
which involves a deeper examination of the ideas presented in the text.
Knowing the central claim or thesis as well as the other claims made in
a text, a reader then understands the writer’s purpose and follows his
or her arguments with ease.
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• Claims are often explicitly or directly stated in the text. They are
explained and justified using evidence.
Below is an excerpt from the article “Cutting the Corporate
Cord: How the Desk Phone Is Meeting Its Demise” by NewsUSA.
Notice the claim made explicitly right in the beginning of the text and
the evidence that follows to support it.
It was bound to happen sooner or later: the desk phone, once an
icon in any office, is now officially on its deathbed.
According to a recent survey by Dialpad, a San Francisco-
based communications technology company, the trend of
telecommuting and employees who would rather work anywhere but
the office, is rendering the desk phone all but obsolete.
“Our survey reveals that while the slow and painful death of
the desk phone has clearly begun, it cannot happen fast enough for
many workers,” Craig Walker, CEO of Dialpad, told VoIP Monitoring
in an interview earlier this summer. “The anywhere worker movement
is now evident in every segment of every industry. This significant
trend will only accelerate over the next few years.”
• Claims can be implicit, too; they are only implied in a text. Such
claims are often made in narrative or descriptive texts. Take a look at
the following examples:
Example 1:
In 2016, the local government of Batangas launched five new projects,
organized three seminars, and provided job opportunities for young
people in the community. Also, political authorities recognized the
achievements of the youth and granted rewards to young people who
had a significant impact on society and on other youth.
In the text above, it is only implied that the local government of
Batangas is empowering young people and that their welfare is the
local government’s priority.
Example 2:
It was market-morning. The ground was covered nearly ankle-deep
with filth and mire; and a thick steam perpetually rising from the
reeking bodies of the cattle, and mingling with the fog, which seemed
to rest upon the chimney-tops, hung heavily above. All the pens in the
centre of the large area, and as many temporary ones as could be
crowded into the vacant space, were filled with sheep; and tied up to
posts by the gutter side were long lines of beasts and oxen three or
four deep. Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves,
idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a
dense mass; the whistling of drovers, the barking of dogs, the
bellowing and plunging of beasts, the bleating of sheep, and grunting
and squeaking of pigs; the cries of hawkers, the shouts, oaths, and
quarrelling on all sides; the ringing of bells and roar of voices that
issued from every public-house; the crowding, pushing, driving,
beating, whooping, and yelling; the hideous and discordant din that
resounded from every corner of the market; and the unwashed,
unshaven, squalid, and dirty figures constantly running to and fro, and
bursting in and out of the throng, rendered it a stunning and
bewildering scene, which quite confounded the senses.
The text above is an excerpt from Chapter 21 of the novel “Oliver
Twist” by Charles Dickens. Through description, Dickens presents the
19th century London. As implied in the text, London was a very harsh
and unpleasant city back then.
Leaning Tasks
Activity 1. Read each of the statements below. Identify whether it is a
claim of fact, value, or policy.
1. Computer games promote violence among young children.
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2. Having to do homework teaches students critical thinking and
discipline.
3. It is unfair for students to be given so many projects and homework
all at once.
4. The government should bring back the death penalty in order to
lower the crime rate in the country.
5. Children who are younger than 12 years should not be allowed to
have their own smartphone or any other electronic gadget.
6. Children should be allowed to play outside with their peers, as
playing helps them develop interpersonal skills and strengthens their
bodies as well.
Activity 2. Read the passage below. Identify two claims made in the
text, one that is made explicitly and the other, implicitly. State the
claim made implicitly in the text in your own words.
Welcome to El Salvador: We’ve Been Expecting You (An Excerpt)
By NewsUSA
When travelers think of El Salvador, it is not often that visions of
pristine beaches, luxury hotels or centuries-old cobble stone streets
would be top of mind. But this small, yet beautiful country in Central
America (roughly the size of Massachusetts) has done much to
reinvent itself and is positioned to be the next trendy hot spot for
travel. Renowned for its Pacific Ocean beaches, surfing, lush
landscapes and unspoiled natural habitats, El Salvador is an eco-
traveler’s paradise that is also known as the Land of Volcanoes with
25 active volcanoes, which, with their beautiful mountain ridges, are
eye-catching as they rise stark and majestic against the background of
blue skies. Looking out from high above while standing on one of the
many natural overlooks within the ridges, visitors can see monster
waves crashing against soft, black sand beaches, which are a haven for
surf enthusiasts.
Activity 3: Think of a social issue you feel strongly about. Write an
essay that proposes a solution to a problem related to that social issue.
Make sure to support your claim with substantial evidence.

UNIT XI
Development of a Text: Context, Intertextuality, and
Hypertext
Judith Still and Michael Worton, in their introduction of the work
Intertextuality: Theories and Practices, say that a text “cannot exist as
a hermetic or self-sufficient whole; and so, does not function as a
closed system.” In other words, one cannot understand a text fully
without considering its context and its connection to other texts. The
context and other texts shape the meaning of that text.
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Objectives:
 Define context.
 Recognize the components of context.
 Use guide questions to examine and understand a text's
context.
 Define intertextuality and identify texts that are connected or
linked to other texts.
 Define hypertext and give examples of hypertexts.
 Relate the concepts of context, intertextuality, and hypertext to
critical reading.
I. Importance of Context in the Development of a Text
• The Oxford Dictionary defines context as “the circumstances that
form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which
it can be fully understood.” Such circumstances, which can be cultural,
historical, political, social, or economic events, shape or influence a
writer in writing his or her work. For instance, a personal narrative
entitled “How I Spent My Summer Vacation” was likely written to
relate the writer’s summer experience. With this purpose in mind, the
writer narrates the experience in relation to his or her context: where
and how he or she usually spends the summer and with whom, what is
summer like where he or she lives and how other people there spend
the summer, and what prompted him or her to spend the summer that
way.
• Depending on the type of text, the context can include the following
components:
1. Subject: This is the main topic of the author’s work. It can be
anything under the sun: culture, history, politics, society, economy,
religion, current events, etc.
2. Purpose: This is the author’s reason for writing. It can be one of the
following: a. To narrate a story b. To compare and contrast ideas c. To
review or evaluate a work d. To explain an idea or concept e. To
explore and investigate an issue f. To argue a point g. To persuade the
audience 3. Audience: The tone, style, diction, organization, and
content of the author’s work depend on his or her target audience or
readers.
4. Occasion or situation: This may compel the writer to write
especially if it is significant or relevant to him or her personally. It can
be his or her personal motivation to choose what to write about and
how to write it.
• Below are some questions that you can ask about the text that you are
reading to examine or understand its context.
1. When was the text written? What was the society like back then?
2. Where was the text written? How did the place influence the
author’s writing?
3. What were the political, social, cultural, economic, or even religious
influences in the author’s life that are reflected in his or her writing?
4. What were the influences of the genre and the author’s
contemporaries in his or her work?
II. Intertextuality
• Writers often reference another literary, media, or social text in their
own writing. They create a link or connection then between their work
and other texts. The relationship formed between the two texts is
called intertextuality.
• Julia Kristeva, a French author, coined the term intertextuality. In her
essay “Word, Dialogue, and Novel,” published in 1967, she says,
“Any text is constructed as a mosaic of quotations: any text is the
absorption and transformation of another.” A text, she argues, depends
on other texts and discourses. With this definition, intertextuality then
is not only important to the creation of text but also to its
interpretation: for a reader to understand the meaning of a text.
• The author’s choice of reference in his or her writing asks the reader:
1. Why did the author reference another text in his or her writing?
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2. How is the text incorporated in the author’s writing? How did the
author reimagine it?
3. What effect does the text have on the author’s writing?
• The following are two forms of intertextuality:
1. The writer references either a brief or prolonged portion of a literary
text in his or her writing. He or she mentions the title of the book, uses
one of its characters, or recreates one of its scenes. An example is
Miguel Syjuco’s novel Ilustrado, which references Jose Rizal’s Noli
Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. One of the novel’s protagonists is
named Crispin, and the main plot revolves around a balikbayan who
experiences the corruption and hypocrisy of his homeland. His
experience echoes the character Crisostomo Ibarra/Simon.
2. The writer references a media or social text in his or her writing. He
or she mentions a film, a TV show, a song, or any event in society,
history, politics, etc. and becomes part of the writing.
• As a literary device, intertextuality is used by many writers to shape
the meaning of their work or add to it. Using the device allows them to
tell stories from a new perspective and to create new possibilities in
them. Also, it enhances the reading experience: it allows the reader to
see the story transform and be transformed by the text being
referenced. The reader is compelled to read (or reread) the text being
referenced in order to understand its purpose in the current text and the
meaning of the current text eventually.
Below is an excerpt from James Joyce’s novel Ulysses. Notice that
Joyce references a newspaper.
IN THE HEART OF THE HIBERNIAN METROPOLIS
Before Nelson’s pillar trams slowed, shunted, changed trolley, started
for Blackrock, Kingstown and Dalkey, Clonskea, Rathgar and
Terenure, Palmerston Park and upper Rathmines, Sandymount Green,
Rathmines, Ringsend and Sandymount Tower, Harold’s Cross. The
hoarse Dublin United Tramway Company’s timekeeper bawled them
off:
—Rathgar and Terenure!
—Come on, Sandymount Green!
Right and left parallel clanging ringing a doubledecker and a
singledeck moved from their railheads, swerved to the down line,
glided parallel.
—Start, Palmerston Park!
THE WEARER OF THE CROWN
Under the porch of the general post office shoeblacks called and
polished. Parked in North Prince’s street His Majesty’s vermilion
mailcars, bearing on their sides the royal initials, E. R., received
loudly flung sacks of letters, postcards, lettercards, parcels, insured
and paid, for local, provincial, British and overseas delivery.
GENTLEMEN OF THE PRESS
Grossbooted draymen rolled barrels dullthudding out of Prince’s
stores and bumped them up on the brewery float. On the brewery float
bumped dullthudding barrels rolled by grossbooted draymen out of
Prince’s stores.
—There it is, Red Murray said. Alexander Keyes.
—Just cut it out, will you? Mr Bloom said, and I’ll take it round to
the Telegraph office. The door of Ruttledge’s office creaked again.
Davy Stephens, minute in a large capecoat, a small felt hat crowning
his ringlets, passed out with a roll of papers under his cape, a king’s
courier.
Red Murray’s long shears sliced out the advertisement from the
newspaper in four clean strokes. Scissors and paste.
—I’ll go through the printingworks, Mr Bloom said, taking the cut
square.
—Of course, if he wants a par, Red Murray said earnestly, a pen
behind his ear, we can do him one.
—Right, Mr Bloom said with a nod. I’ll rub that in.
We.
III. The Hypertext
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• Commonly, hypertext is associated with computing. The term was
coined in 1965 by Ted Nelson, an American pioneer of information
technology. It is an arrangement of information in a computer
database, in which objects like text, pictures, and programs are linked
to one another. When a user selects an object, he or she can see the
other objects linked to it. In reading an online article, for instance, the
user can click on highlighted words or phrases (called hypertext
links) to go to new Web pages with related content.
• In his article “Intertextuality vs. Hypertextuality,” Michael Riffaterre
states that computers have transformed the reading process: from
reactive to interactive. Reading has ceased to become linear: by simply
clicking on hypertext links, the reader is led to “an endless series of
imagined connections, from verbal associations to possible worlds.”
• In literature, however, a hypertext is a text that references, alludes to,
or derives from another text, which is called the hypotext. According
to French literary scholar Gerard Genette in his book Palimpsests:
Literature in the Second Degree, hypertexts derive from hypotexts
through a process called transformation. In this process, the hypertext
transforms, modifies, elaborates on, or extends the hypotext. Below
are a few literary works that can be considered hypertexts.
1. Ulysses – This novel by the Irish modernist writer James Joyce
(1882–1941) features characters that correspond to the
characters of Homer’s Odyssey. The two protagonists, Leopold
Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, correspond to Odysseus and
Telemachus, respectively.
2. “The Tiger’s Bride” – This short story by the British writer
Angela Carter (1940–1992) is a retelling of the well-known
fairy tale Beauty and the Beast. The original tale was written
by the French novelist Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve
(1695–1755) and was published in 1740. However, the most
retold version of the fairy tale was written by Jeanne-Marie
Leprince de Beaumont (1710–1780). In Carter’s version, the
narrator is Beauty herself. Unlike in the original story, she
transforms into a beast and joins the Beast as his mate.
 3. “Lot’s Wife” – This poem by the Polish poet Wisława
Szymborska (1923–2012) is a retelling of the biblical story of
Lot’s wife, who became a pillar of salt when she looked back
to their city, Sodom. In Szymborska’s poem, Lot’s wife is the
persona. She gives reasons for her looking back.
IV. Applications to Critical Reading
• To read critically means to make judgments about how a text is
presented. Knowing the context of the text and being able to recognize
its relationship with other texts provide a way for the reader to
examine the text.
• Below are some guidelines in reading a text critically.
1. Analyze the context of the text. Determine its subject, purpose,
audience, and the occasion or situation in which it was produced.
2. Determine the thesis of the text. What does it say essentially about
the subject?
3. Analyze the given evidence. What kind of evidence is cited? Is it
historical, literary, or statistical? What kind of sources does the
information come from? Are the sources credible? How does it support
the author’s main argument?
4. Examine whether the text references another text. What purpose
does the other text have in the author’s writing? How does the author’s
work transform the other text? How does the other text affect the
meaning of the author’s writing?
5. Examine the reasoning used in the text by looking at the
organization of its ideas. How does the author present the information?
Why does he or she present the information in that order or pattern?
6. Evaluate the text. Is the main argument strong based on the evidence
presented? Does the writer provide enough evidence? Overall, has the
author achieved his or her purpose? Are there any inconsistencies or
gaps? Is there a better way of presenting the evidence? What can you
suggest to make the text better?
Answer the following questions about your choices of fan fiction.
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Learning Module Page 62
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. Read the paragraph below and analyze its context. In your
analysis, define the subject, purpose, and audience of the text and
determine the situation in which the text is produced.
In Scott McCloud’s seminal scholarship on the graphic novel
Understanding Comics, nowhere does he state an overall
understanding of comics as a genre and medium in itself, instead
prioritizing the narrative and sequential rendering of images. This has
raised the eyebrows of those working on non-narrative comics, from
the abstractionists to those whose primary output is what they call
comic poetry. Much of the resistance to this relatively new kind of
comics might be coming from a lack of exposure to it or defining what
it actually is. For decades, when one hears comics poetry, what comes
to mind is the illustration of poems, as seen in Classics Illustrated and
more recently, the Graphic Canon. What existed then was mere
representation of an existing poem, particularly one that is part of the
English literary canon. No creative liberty can be taken by the artists
—if the text says “raven,” then they must draw the actual bird.
Activity 2. Together with a classmate, read about the genre of fan
fiction. Then read three pieces of fan fiction and fill in the table below
with the right information.
TITLE AND THE SOURCE OR STORYLINE,
AUTHOR OF THE THE BASIS OF THE CHARACTERS, OR
WORK WORK THEME THAT WORK
RETAINS
1. How does the original text influence each work?
2. What is “new” in each work that you have chosen? In your opinion,
does each work change the original story or does it add to it? Why?
3.From reading fan fiction, what can you conclude about
intertextuality? How about hypertexts?
Activity 3. Choose any Filipino literary text and do a critical reading
of it. Follow the guidelines in reading critically. Then write a 300-
word critical analysis of the text. In your analysis, you should be able
to analyze the context of the text and the references it makes to other
texts.
UNIT XII
Formulating Assertions
When reading critically, you do not immediately accept and believe
the information that is in a text. Rather, you assess the author’s ideas
and evaluate them before forming your own opinions regarding the
text or its subject matter. This unit will help you identify assertions in
reading and come up with your own in writing.
Objectives:
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 Define assertion.
 Identify some types of assertions.
 Explain the importance of identifying and formulating
assertions. Formulate assertions about the content and
organization of persuasive, argumentative, and literary texts.
I. Assertions: Definition and Types
• An assertion is a statement or declaration made regarding an idea, a
topic, or an issue. It expresses a person’s opinion, feelings, or belief.
• Below are some types of assertions.
a. Basic assertion – This is a simple and direct expression of
one’s opinion, feelings, or belief.
Examples:
I wish I had more time to read and analyze this book.
Informing the homeowner association officers on security
issues is the best action to take.
b. Emphatic assertion – This shows sympathy to another
person. It is an acknowledgment of the other person’s feelings
or situation and at the same time a show of support to the rights
of the person.
Examples:
I understand that it was a difficult decision for the school
management to increase the tuition this year because of the
economic crisis that the country is facing; so, in support of that
decision, I will personally talk to the parents of my students to
give them the news.
As a son of an OFW, I feel for those children who are
growing up without their parents beside them; the best advice I
can offer them is to be in the company of caring relatives and
true friends.
 c. Positive assertion – This expresses positive feelings or
emotions. To make this assertion, one gives a reason or an
explanation for feeling good.
Examples:
I am pleased that the author chose to end the story with a
dramatic twist to the protagonist’s decision to leave the
country. Otherwise, the exciting story line would have had an
anticlimactic ending. I am very satisfied with the local
government’s efforts to solve our city’s garbage problem.
Thanks to a cohesive and persistent barangay council, every
household now is segregating trash.
d. Confrontive assertion – This states three closely related
actions: an action that was supposed to be done, the actual
action, and the action that the speaker wants done.
Examples:
In the introduction of his paper, the author mentions three
reasons supporting his main argument. However, the main
discussion of his paper only presents two reasons. It is then
necessary that the author revises his work to explain the third
reason.
In her e-mail, Ms. Cindy Ramos said she would call me
last night. I waited, but there was no call. I will send her a
message to ask her about the phone call, and I hope she sends a
reply.
e. Escalating assertion – This is a firm but respectful
statement made by a person who is expecting another person’s
response to his or her earlier assertion. However, the other
person has not given any response.
Examples:
Earlier assertion: Our group understands the situation, and we
are willing to wait for your decision. Escalating assertions:
Though a few of us are still willing to wait for you, most of us
really want to know your decision now. If you cannot give us
your decision tomorrow, we will consider other options.
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f. I-language assertion – These expresses negative feelings. It
describes the person’s feelings toward a certain negative
behavior and states what he or she desires to happen.
Examples:
Whenever you wear my clothes without asking me for
permission, I cannot be in the same room with you. Seeing you
in my clothes, I feel very annoyed. That’s why I will ask our
parents to build me my own room.
If you leave home again without telling me where you
are going, I will never go to sleep until you return. I will feel
very worried. Once you’re home, I will talk to your friends’
parents and decide what to do with you and your friends.
II. The Importance of Identifying Assertions in Texts and
Formulating One’s Assertions
• Writers often make assertions to convey their message or their stand
on an issue. They frame their arguments as assertions so that the
statements are strong and convincing to their readers.
Take a look at the text below.
How to Make History Dates Stick (An Excerpt)
By Mark Twain
Dates are difficult things to acquire; and after they are acquired it is
difficult to keep them in the head. But they are very valuable. They are
like the cattle-pens of a ranch—they shut in the several brands of
historical cattle, each within its own fence, and keep them from getting
mixed together. Dates are hard to remember because they consist of
figures; figures are monotonously unstriking in appearance, and they
don’t take hold, they form no pictures, and so they give the eye no
chance to help. Pictures are the thing. Pictures can make dates stick.
They can make nearly anything stick—particularly IF YOU MAKE
THE PICTURES YOURSELF. Indeed, that is the great point—make
the pictures YOURSELF. I know about this from experience. Thirty
years ago I was delivering a memorized lecture every night, and every
night I had to help myself with a page of notes to keep from getting
myself mixed. The notes consisted of beginnings of sentences, and
were eleven in number, and they ran something like this:
“IN THAT REGION THE WEATHER—” “AT THAT TIME
IT WAS A CUSTOM—” “BUT IN CALIFORNIA ONE NEVER
HEARD—”
Given the title and the clause “IF YOU MAKE THE PICTURES
YOURSELF” as clues, Twain’s main assertion is that one can
remember history dates better through pictures.
• Identifying assertions is essential to critical reading. Below are some
questions you can ask yourself as you read a text and identify the
author’s assertions.
1. What does the writer discuss in the text?
2. What point is the writer trying to make?
3. What ideas is the writer trying to disprove?
4. What does the writer want readers to believe?
5. What does the writer feel regarding the issue?
• After reading a text and identifying the author’s assertions, you can
formulate your own assertions regarding the text and the author’s
ideas. Your assertions can be about the content and organization of the
text. Also, your assertions can express your agreement or disagreement
with the author’s assertions.
• When you formulate your own assertions, you should cite textual
evidence to support the assertions you make. Below are some
guidelines.
1. State your assertions regarding the text or the author’s ideas.
2. Cite the actual statements in the text that led you to make such
assertions.
3. Explain your assertions. Place them side by side with the author’s
assertions.
Take a look at the text below.
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It is true: History dates escape us. We acquire them only to lose them
right after. In Mark Twain’s essay “How to Make History Dates
Stick,” he suggests that we use pictures to remember the dates. Says
he: “Pictures can make dates stick. They can make nearly anything
stick— particularly IF YOU MAKE THE PICTURES YOURSELF.
Indeed, that is the great point—make the pictures YOURSELF. I know
about this from experience.” To some extent, I agree that pictures let
us remember more, including dates.
In response to Mark Twain’s essay, the author agrees to the writer’s
main assertion and cites his statements verbatim.
III. Formulating Assertions about Persuasive and Argumentative Texts
• Persuasive texts and argumentative texts naturally contain assertions.
Persuasive texts like advertisements, campaign speeches, and
persuasive essays have assertions that are not always backed up by
evidence. On the other hand, argumentative texts have assertions that
are supported by evidence like facts, statistics, and examples. Also,
they present opposing arguments and rebuttals for those arguments.
• Below are some guide questions you can ask yourself as you read
persuasive and argumentative texts critically. By answering the
questions, you can formulate your own assertions about those kinds of
texts.
1. What is the author’s purpose?
2. What is the main assertion in the text?
3. What evidence does the author cite to support the main assertion?
4. How substantial is the evidence presented?
5. How is the information in the text organized?
6. Is the author’s main assertion convincing? Why or why not?
7. Do you agree with the author’s main assertion? Why or why not?
8. Is the concluding statement strong enough to win the readers?
• Below is a reader’s assertion about an advertisement of diapers.
According to the advertisement, Brand X is the best brand of diapers
because it is the most affordable in the market. However, I am not
convinced of it. The advertisement features no testimony from its
current users. It cites no concrete evidence to prove that the product is
indeed the most affordable. Aside from the affordable price of the
product, its quality, which I think is more important than its price, is
not mentioned at all in the advertisement.
The second sentence directly states the author’s main assertion—he or
she is not convinced of the advertisement. Then to support the
assertion, the author cites two items that the advertisement lacks.
IV. Formulating Assertions about a Literary Text
• Although the primary purpose of a literary text is to entertain or
amuse readers, it may contain political messages, religious beliefs, or
other kinds of assertions. It can be challenging to identify such
assertions because they are implied in the text. The assertions can be
concealed through literary devices.
• It is important to read a literary text critically in order to discern the
author’s assertions. To formulate assertions regarding literary texts, on
the other hand, is relatively easy. You just need to evaluate the content
and organization of the literary text.
• Below are some guide questions you can ask yourself as you read a
literary text critically. By answering the questions, you can formulate
your own assertions about the text.
1. Is the literary text interesting, thought-provoking, entertaining, or
touching?
2. Are the characters relatable?
3. Is the language used by the author easy to understand?
4. Does the organization of the text make it easy to follow?
5. How does the literary text make you feel?
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• Below is an example of a reader’s assertion regarding a literary text.
Personally, I find the story entertaining and fun to read. The
characters’ wit and sarcasm provide freshness and uniqueness to the
story. Each of the characters has a distinct personality, and even the
protagonist’s flaws make him all the more endearing and relatable.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. Define assertion in your own words and explain why
identifying and formulating assertions are important in reading and
writing, respectively.
Activity 2: Read the text below and answer the questions about it.
Curbing Bad Behavior: App Seeks to Harness Overbilling by
Contractors
(An Excerpt) By NewsUSA
That contractors routinely overbill governments at the expense of
taxpayers may come as no surprise. That these overbillings likely total
hundreds of billions of dollars should shock and infuriate us all.
Consider the recent example involving the city of New York
and its contractor called SAIC. In 2000, New York City contracted
SAIC for a project called CityTime, an employee time management
system budgeted at $73 million. After flagrant overbilling and
kickbacks, the total project cost had ballooned to over $600 million. In
2005, an SAIC whistleblower alerted authorities about this massive
overbilling. This led to a criminal fraud charge, and, in March of this
year, SAIC (now called Leidos) admitted wrongdoing and agreed to a
settlement of over half a million dollars.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the author’s purpose?
2. What is the main assertion in the text?
3. What evidence does the author cite to support the main assertion?
4. How substantial is the evidence presented?
5. How is the information in the text organized?
6. Is the author’s main assertion convincing? Why or why not?
7. Do you agree with the author’s main assertion? Why or why not?
Activity 3. Read any Philippine short story and answer the following
questions: 1. What can you say about the literary text in general? 2.
How relatable are the characters? 3. Is the language used by the author
easy to understand? 4. How is the text organized? 5. How does the
literary text make you feel?
UNIT XIII
Formulating Meaningful Counterclaims
A counterclaim is simply an opposing claim. The prefix counter-
means “as a reaction against,” from the Latin word contra meaning
“opposite, contrary to.” On the other hand, the root word claim refers
to a statement that says that something is true when others may say it
is not. In reading, you most probably have formed counterclaims in
your mind whenever you react to an idea.
Objectives:
 Define what a counterclaim is and explain its importance.
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 Formulate meaningful counterclaims that disprove, weaken, or
undermine claims of fact, value, and policy.
 Use textual evidence to validate counterclaims.
I. The Nature and Importance of Counterclaims
• A counterclaim is a statement that goes against or disagrees with a
stated claim. In persuasive or argumentative writing, a writer can cite
several counterclaims to his or her own claims. The purpose of such
counterclaims is to show all the sides of the issue at hand. By
providing counterclaims and explaining the pros and cons of the
counterclaims, the writer further strengthens his or her own claims. He
or she uses phrases like “An opposing point of view is . . .,” “One
counterclaim to this is . . .,” and “An alternative viewpoint to consider
is . . .” to introduce the counterclaims.
Example:
Many thinks that people are the main cause of global warming, though
there are others, including scientists, who are skeptic about that
statement. One of their counterclaims is that there is no scientific
evidence to prove that human activities are causing the planet to heat
up. According to the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, a United Nations organization, there is no accurate
means to represent changes in climate.
• As claims are often implicit in literary texts, counterclaims are
implied, too. Writers present such counterclaims through the use of
different techniques.
Below is an excerpt from Mark Twain’s essay “Advice to Youth.” It
uses satire, a technique of using humor to show that a person, an
institution, or a way of thinking is foolish, weak, or bad.
Always obey your parents, when they are present. This is the best
policy in the long run, because if you don’t, they will make you. Most
parents think they know better than you do, and you can generally
make more by humoring that superstition than you can by acting on
your own better judgment.
In the first sentence, Twain seems to claim that it is good to obey one’s
parents always when they are present. However, the next two
sentences imply what he really meant, that is, blind obedience.
• Readers formulate their own counterclaims in response to the claims
that they read in a text. The counterclaims express their disagreement
with the stated claim and state a side of the issue that they support.
• To formulate meaningful counterclaims, a reader should look at a
text with a critical eye. The reader should consider the different sides
of the issue that the author excludes from his or her argument.
• Being able to formulate meaningful counterclaims helps one become
better at argumentation. Such ability would come in handy during
debates, in writing a persuasive or argumentative text, or even in a
simple conversation where the people have different perspectives.
II. Formulating Counterclaims that Disprove Claims of Fact
• Claims are debatable, that is, they are open to discussion or
argument. Therefore, a counterclaim should cite evidence or
counterarguments to rebut or disprove the claim.
• Below are things to consider in formulating counterclaims.
1. Understand the main claim of the author and examine the supporting
information.
2. Determine the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s claim.
Identify the points that are backed up by insufficient or outdated
evidence and those that are explained by illogical reasoning.
3. Think of opposing arguments that can disprove or weaken the
author’s main claim and cite some textual evidence. This evidence
may come from the author’s writing or from other credible sources.
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4. Formulate your counterclaims and provide the necessary support.
Be clear, concise, and precise.
• Read the paragraph below. Notice the main claim stated in the first
sentence and the reasons supporting it.
Homework gives children additional burden and does not
significantly help in their education. Doing homework often feels like
a chore for children. It consumes much of children’s free time, which
they could use for doing other activities that will make them well-
rounded individuals. Excessive homework, on top of school projects
and exams, may cause children too much stress, and eventually, they
may experience burnout.
In the given paragraph, the author makes a claim of fact. He or she
supports it by citing a cause and an effect.
Cause: It consumes much of children’s free time, which they could
use for doing other activities that will make them well-rounded
individuals. Effect: Excessive homework, on top of school projects
and exams, may cause children too much stress, and eventually, they
may experience burnout.
Now read the paragraph below. It presents a counterclaim (set in
boldface).
Homework, the author asserts, gives children additional burden and
does not significantly help in their education. By saying so, the author
overlooks the numerous benefits of doing homework. Homework is an
effective learning tool. Glenda Faye Pryor-Johnson, a writer of
Memphis Parent magazine, identifies responsibility and time
management as two qualities that children develop when they
accomplish their homework. Children take responsibility of their own
learning; they review their lessons in class and solve problems on
their own. Also, they learn to manage their time and set their
priorities. It is true that doing homework could be time consuming, but
the hard work is all worth it. As a result, the children grow up to be
not only well-rounded individuals but also critical thinkers.
In the given paragraph, the author restates the previous claim in the
first sentence and points out the weakness of the claim in the second
sentence. Then the author states the counterclaim, which is another
claim of fact, and supports it by citing an expert.
• Facts and statistics do not show the whole picture. To gain a different
perspective on a claim of fact, you can do any of the following:
1. Verify the cited source of the claim not only to see if it is true but
also to see its limitation.
2. Check other sources that support the claim. Some or a few of the
sources may contain inconsistencies that you can use to disprove the
claim.
III. Formulating Counterclaims that Weaken Claims of Value
• A claim of value is more subjective than any other type of claim
because it is largely influenced by a person’s own culture, background,
and religion, among other factors. Read the paragraph below. Notice
the subjective tone of the author’s main claim, which is stated in the
first sentence.
It is wrong for vegans to impose their lifestyle on people who
consume animal products. Vegan choices are often more expensive;
not everyone can afford to buy only vegan products. Moreover, a
vegan diet lacks certain nutrients that are found in a regular diet, such
as protein. It is then annoying to hear vegans call for such a drastic
change in one’s life, especially when that change does not really
benefit the many.
• The paragraph below presents a counterclaim that attempts to
weaken the claim in the previous paragraph. Notice the statement set
in boldface.
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The author thinks that vegans impose their lifestyle on people who
consume animal products and tells the reader several reasons why it
is wrong for vegans to do so. Vegans are just doing what they can in
order to promote a healthier lifestyle. I agree that vegan choices are
often more expensive; however, a person who is dedicated to become
vegan can certainly find more affordable options. For instance, many
varieties of vegetables and fruits cost less than meat. Also, a vegan
diet can be rich in protein; it can include beans, spinach, broccoli,
and other protein-rich vegetables. To say then that the vegan lifestyle
does not benefit the many is unwarranted.
In the given paragraph, the author restates the previous claim in the
first sentence and then states a counterclaim that puts on a positive
spin on vegan lifestyle. He or she agrees to the claim that vegan
choices are more expensive, but offers an alternative. Moreover, the
author corrects the claim that a vegan diet lacks protein by citing
protein-rich vegetables.
• The subjectivity of a claim of value leaves ample room for discussion
and argument. To take advantage of that subjectivity, you can do any
of the following:
1. Identify the limitations of the author’s point of view. Then select
one that you can use in your counterclaim.
2. Find flaws in the author’s reasoning. Then select one and build your
counterclaim on it.
3. Examine the standards that the author uses as a basis for his or her
claim. Then from your perspective, evaluate the author’s claim based
on his or her own standards. State whether it falls short of its own
standards or if the standards themselves are not an appropriate
measure.
IV. Formulating Counterclaims that Undermine Claims of Policy
• A claim of policy argues for or against a course of action. In the
paragraph below, the author argues for a course of action. Notice the
author’s claim of policy made in the first sentence.
The government should raise the minimum wage in order to improve
the living conditions of the people. The raise would increase the
people’s buying power. With enough money, they could afford to
provide themselves with their basic needs. Like in countries where the
minimum wage is significantly higher than that in the Philippines,
people are able to provide their families adequately with what they
need. In the long run, the raise could improve the quality of life for
most people and increase their happiness as well.
• The paragraph below presents a counterclaim that attempts to
undermine the claim in the previous paragraph. Notice the statement
set in boldface.
At first glance, raising the minimum wage seems to help people who
do not earn much. However, the raise does not guarantee an
improvement in the quality of life in the long term. Though many
would have more money to spend, many businesses would resort to
cutting jobs to cope with the raise. According to the report “The
Effects of a Minimum-Wage Increase on Employment and Family
Income” by the Congress of the United States Congressional Budget
Office, in one of the scenarios in which the minimum wage is
increased by a certain amount, businesses would likely lay off about
500,000 workers. Also, businesses would most likely raise the cost of
their services and products; as a result, prices would rise. According
to a Purdue University study in 2015, a pay raise for fast-food chain
employees could lead to an estimated 4.3 percent increase in the
prices of their products. Eventually, people would deal with a higher
cost of living. Thus, raising the minimum wage may not be an effective
way of improving the living conditions of people in the Philippines.
With many people who are unemployed or underemployed, the
government should focus on providing more job opportunities for the
people.
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In the given paragraph, the previous claim in the first sentence is
restated. Using the phrase “at first glance,” the author suggests that the
proposition sounds good on the surface. Then he or she states the
counterclaim in the second sentence. In the rest of the paragraph, the
author attempts to lessen the effectiveness of the proposition by citing
a report and a study as evidence. Finally, he or she concludes by
giving a better proposition.
• Below are some things you need to consider in formulating
counterclaims that undermine claims of policy.
1. Based on some known standards, assess the course of action
proposed by the author in terms of its feasibility and effectiveness.
2. Cite some critical studies related to the author’s proposition.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. In your own words, explain what a counterclaim is and
why it is important to learn how to formulate counterclaims. Write a
five-sentence paragraph.
Activity 2. Read the claims below, and then write a counterclaim for
each claim. Remember to give a clear, concise, and precise
counterclaim.
CLAIM COUNTERCLAIM
1. All factories should be closed
down in order to help save the
environment and make cities a
better place to live in.
2. Clubs and extracurricular
activities just serve to distract
students from their academics.
 3. It is better to take public
transportation than to drive your
own car.
Activity 3. Think of a current issue and ask another person about his
or her stand on the issue. You may ask a friend or a family member.
After learning about that person’s stand on the issue, ask for two or
three reasons why he or she chooses that stand. Take note of the
information the person gives. Then make a counterclaim to disprove,
weaken, or undermine the person’s claim and explain it in a five-
sentence paragraph. Support your counterclaim with textual evidence.
UNIT XIV
Considerations in Academic and Professional Writings
Paddy Chayefsky, an American writer, says this about writing: “Artists
don’t talk about art. Artists talk about work. If I have anything to say
to young writers, it’s stop thinking of writing as art. Think of it as
work.” Indeed, writing requires a lot of work. In academic and
professional writing, for instance, one has to consider many things. In
this unit, you will learn more about those kinds of writing.
Objectives:
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 Determine the purposes, audiences, and general features of
academic and professional writings.
 Identify some common academic and professional writings.
I. Academic Writing: Purpose, Audience, and Different Kinds
• Academic writing is a discourse which aims to explain or argue. In
expository writing, the writer aims to inform readers. He or she
clarifies or explains a phenomenon by presenting an in-depth
discussion. Also, the writer defines what something is based on a
particular context. On the other hand, in argumentative writing, the
writer aims to persuade readers. He or she makes claims and
counterclaims and presents evidence, which can be statistics, studies,
and expert’s opinions, among others.
• In academic writing, one usually expresses his or her insights about a
specific concept or theory in a scholarly way. Its audience is specific;
it is mostly comprised by scholars, professors, and other individuals
who belong to the same field as that of the author.
• Some examples of academic writing include summaries, paraphrases,
syntheses, and analyses.
○ Summary – This is a brief, complete, and objective
restatement of the central idea of a given passage in one’s own
words. Below is an excerpt from “Author Creates New
Christmas Classic” by NewsUSA. In the excerpt, a very brief
summary of Alastair Macdonald’s book First Christmas is
given.
Macdonald’s enchanting book, entitled “First Christmas,”
tells the story of Christmas through the eyes of an unexpected
narrator—Joseph’s loyal donkey, Zeke. Zeke faithfully
 recounts the events of the Christmas story in a playful,
singsong voice that appeals to children without compromising
the dignity and seriousness of the birth of Christ.
○ Paraphrase – This is a full restatement of a given passage in
one’s own words. The purpose of the restatement is to make
the passage more accessible.
Example:
Main text: “Small Businesses Have Happy Workforces” by
NewsUSA New research shows that small-business employees
are among the happiest people in the workplace. One major
reason for their happiness stems from the way many small-
business owners show workers how much they appreciate,
respect and value them on a professional and personal level.
Opportunities offered by small businesses, such as a family
atmosphere, flexible work schedules and a greater
understanding of how current goals fit into long-term plans for
the company, may be harder to come by in larger companies.
Small businesses can play to their strengths by frequently
communicating and taking action in areas where their
employees see opportunities for improvement.
Paraphrase:
According to a new research, among the happiest people in the
workplace are the workers in small businesses. One important
reason for that is the fair and kind treatment given by the
owners of the businesses. The workers are considered family to
the owners; the owners allow flexible work times; and the
workers understand that the company’s current goals are part
of its long-term plans. These opportunities are not offered in
larger companies, though. Also, there is regular
communication between the owners and the workers. The
owners act on areas that the workers think need improvement.
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○ Synthesis – This written discussion of a certain topic
combines information and ideas from different sources. It
highlights the relationship among those sources.
○ Analysis – This is an explanation of how the elements or
features of a certain text contribute to the meaning and
significance of the text.
II. General Features of Academic Writing and Some
Considerations
• General Features of Academic Writing
1. Academic writing uses a formal language. The third person point
of view is used to maintain an objective tone. The sentences are mostly
in the passive voice, and their subjects are usually abstract or
inanimate nouns. Contractions and slang are not used.
2. Academic writing is precise. Its scope and limitations of the
topic is defined. The methods used in gathering data and the
interpretation of the data are fully explained. Also, the facts are
validated whether they are accurate and up-to-date.
3. Academic writing can either be objective or subjective
depending on the type of writing. Writings in the sciences such as
scientific reports and studies are generally written in the third person
point of view, and they have an objective. For instance, the writer
refers to himself or herself as “the researcher” instead of using the
pronoun I. In giving an interpretation of the data or a recommendation
for further studies of the topic, the writer says “The study proves
that...” rather than “I believe” or “I think.”
Example:
This study argues that popular texts have an extensive audience
appeal as they are written mainly for their benefit and commercial
viability. Also, it examines popular texts as tools in propagating non-
secularized and elitist ideals and in manipulating the masses not to
engage in transgressive or subversive acts, rendering them as passive
towards social issues.
On the other hand, writings in the humanities and the arts like critiques
and essays are subjective, and they are written from the writer’s
perspective. In writing an argumentative essay, for instance, a writer
proposes or refutes an argument. He or she insinuates that there is a
better approach to solve a specific issue other than the current one.
Then he or she suggests a different solution or premise and supports it
with factual information. Moreover, the writer may be biased toward
certain issues as he or she is influenced by several factors, such as
culture, experiences, and social environment.
4. Academic writing is explicit. The writer directly states his or her
stand and supports it with factual information clearly and completely.
5. Academic writing may contain jargon. Jargon refers to special
words or expressions that are used and understood by experts. Because
the words are very specific to a context or setting, they are difficult for
ordinary readers to understand.
Example:
The appropriation of colonial language is one of the essential
characteristics of postcolonial literature. It seeks to identify how the
postcolonial writer used the language of the colonizer to impart views.
Raja Rao, in J. Neil Garcia’s Postcolonialism and Filipino Poetics,
Essays and Critiques, explained when asked about an Indian writer’s
choice of language, that “they cannot write like the English…We can
only write as Indians” (Garcia, 8).
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The given example is jargonistic. It includes special terms like
“colonial language,” “postcolonial literature,” and “postcolonial
writer,” which ordinary readers may not be able to understand fully.
6. Academic writing cites sources. Claims are supported by accurate
and up-to-date evidence. This comes from the author’s data gathering
and other relevant, credible, and reliable sources.
• Some Considerations in Academic Writing
1. The content determines the value of an academic writing. It
should be accurate, and each major point should be supported by
evidence. The supporting details presented should be relevant to the
topic at hand. Also, the sources of information should be credible and
up-to-date.
2. The basic format of academic writing is composed of an
introduction, body, and conclusion. Some academic writings,
though, require a more specific or detailed format.
a. The introduction provides a brief background about the topic
at hand. It states the objectives of the writing and its
importance. For instance, the writer explains the significance of
addressing a certain social issue and the possible effects if it is
neglected.
b. The methods in gathering the data are discussed in the body.
Also, this is where the results are interpreted. In the body of
short texts like essays and papers, the arguments and
counterarguments are discussed.
c. The points are reiterated in the conclusion. Also, insights or
recommendations are given to serve as groundwork for future
writing.
3. The language and style of academic writing should be clear,
precise, and coherent. The sentences are paragraphs are logical and
coherent. The most appropriate logical pattern (e.g., cause and effect,
comparison and contrast, problem– solution, narration) is used to
develop the main points of the writing.
4. Citations are important in academic writing. To avoid
committing or being accused of, plagiarism, writers should cite
sources properly. They can use any citation style (e.g., the
bibliography–notes style, the American Psychological Association or
APA style, and the Modern Language Association or MLA style)
depending on their field or discipline.
III. Professional Writing: Purpose, Audience, and Aspects
• Professional writing is writing in the workplace. Its general
purpose is to persuade its reader. For instance, an applicant writes a
resume to get the attention of a hiring officer because of his or her
skills and win a job interview. Similarly, an associate who is writing a
business proposal aims to convince a manager or a client to consider
and accept it.
• In professional writing, the following aspects are important:
1. Purpose: What are the objectives in writing the document?
2. Audience: Who will read the document?
3. Stakeholders: Who will benefit from the document? Who
may be affected by it?
4. Context: What is the background of the document? What
specific situation prompts an individual to write it?
Below are some common professional writings.
1. Business letter – This is a correspondence between companies and
individuals like applicants, customers, or clients. It is written in a
formal language and style, and usually on stationery. Also, it has an
explicit purpose.
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2. Memorandum or memo – This is the internal means of
communication of a company. It is usually a brief message sent to the
concerned personnel to inform them about any new information like a
change in policy or procedure.
3. Business proposal – This written document contains a plan or a
suggestion for developing a product, service, or action that can solve a
client’s problem or issue.
4. Resume – This brief document contains information on skills and
personal background of a person seeking for a job. A resume lists the
person’s educational attainment and work experience. It encourages an
employer to invite the applicant to an interview.
IV. General Features of Professional Writing and Some
Considerations
General Features of Professional Writing
1. Professional writing generally uses formal language.
Contractions and slang are avoided.
2. Professional writing is concise and precise. It conveys the
message in a few words that are carefully chosen.
3. Professional writing can use either the first, second, or third
person depending on the context. In business letters, for instance,
one can use the pronoun I in giving a personal suggestion or
recommendation or the pronoun we to represent the company. In
business proposals, the third person is appropriate.
4. Professional writing often uses the active voice. Though the
passive voice is necessary in certain situations, the use of active voice
is generally preferred because sentences written in active voice have
much clearer meaning.
5. Professional writing uses a direct, objective, but respectful tone.
Though a direct and objective tone makes the meaning of a statement
clear, the tone should still be respectful especially in business letters
for one to get positive responses from the reader.
6. Professional writing uses both persuasive and informative
strategies. A resume, for instance, gives relevant information about a
job applicant like his or her educational background and professional
experience. Then such information is organized in some logical order
to highlight the applicant’s strengths.
• Some Considerations in Professional Writing
1. The purpose of writing in any profession should be clear. An
individual should be able to state his or her main point right at the
beginning of a document. Then that person should know what he or
she wants the audience to do after reading the document.
2. The audience should always be considered. The document should
be tailored to their needs. Also, the tone and language of the document
should be appropriate to them.
3. The organization of ideas makes the writing readable to the
audience. Right at the beginning of the document, the audience should
be able to understand its purpose. Then they should be able to follow
the order of the information presented and understand the main points.
4. The design of the text adds to the professional look of a
document. At first glance, the audience should recognize the kind of
text that they are looking at because of its look. Then given the design,
the audience should be able to find important information easily.
Learning Tasks
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Activity 1. Explain the general purpose of academic writing in a
paragraph with at least five sentences. In your explanation, you should
be able to identify the audience and give at least two examples of the
writing.
Activity 2. Explain the general purpose of professional writing in a
paragraph with at least five sentences. In your explanation, you should
be able to identify the audience and give at least two examples of the
writing.
Activity 3. Find an academic writing sample and a professional
writing sample. Then compare and contrast their features.
UNIT XV
Writing Critiques and Reviews
According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, critique and review
overlap in meaning. A critique is a careful judgment in which an
opinion is given about the good and bad parts of something; while a
review is a critical evaluation of a work of art (as a book or play) but
written in a more casual opinion. In this unit, you will find out more
about the similarities and differences of these words.
Objectives:
 Distinguish between a critique and a review in terms of
purpose, audience, and features.
 Apply tips in how to write a critique and a review.
I. Critique: Purpose, Audience, and Features

• A critique is an in-depth analysis of a particular work of art, a literary
work such as a novel, short story, poem, or play. It is argumentative;
the writer, who presents arguments about whether or not a certain
work is good, aims to persuade readers to think about the work from
his or her perspective.
Below is an excerpt from Andrew McConell Stott’s “The
Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi.” The first sentence states the main idea
of his critique:
Despite all its evident haste, The Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi
remains unmistakably “Dickensian,” recalling passages from
Nicholas Nickleby, Hard Times and others. Without doubt, his
[Dickens’s] most important decision was to place the biographical
details of Grimaldi’s life within a strict economy of pleasure and pain
that draws stark contrasts between the tinsel of the stage and the
shabby reality of his many hardships. Laughter and misery becomes
the balance-beam on which Grimaldi’s existence is constantly
weighed as every career triumph is paid for with a proportionate
personal agony, and every moment of joy countered by grief.
• The person who writes a critique is usually an expert on the matter.
He or she uses a critical approach or theory to evaluate a certain work.
He or she may tackle either specific components of a work or its
overall aesthetics. A critique then has a specific audience. The readers
must have a similar educational or professional background as the
author to understand what he or she is trying to point out in his or her
critique.
Below is an excerpt from another work by Andrew McConell
Stott, “The Poet, the Physician and the Birth of the Modern Vampire.”
Stott is Professor of English at the University of Buffalo, SUNY.
Using the biographical or historical approach, he makes connections
between the story “The Vampyre” and the events in the life of its
author John William Polidori (1795–1821), an English physician and
writer.
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Knowing the context of Polidori’s story, it is hard not to read “The
Vampyre” as an allegory of the doctor’s relationship with Byron, a
text that is seamed with the mocking laughter of a man possessed of
the power to debilitate through the force of personality alone.
Furthermore, it rewrites the well-known story of Byron’s success since
the publication of Childe Harold, wherein a young nobleman goes
abroad and returns filled with capacious understanding of himself and
the world, by showing that his melancholy air is a deceit, a
mendacious con perpetuated on a gullible claque of fools for the
purpose of their exploitation.
• A critique is subjective. It is written from the writer’s perspective.
Below is an excerpt from Gillen D’Arcy Woods “Frankenstein,
the Baroness, and the Climate Refugees of 1816.” From his
perspective, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a “climate change novel.”
Shelley’s miserable Creature, in the context of the 1816 worldwide
climate shock, appears less like a symbol of technological overreach
than a figure for the despised and desperate refugees crowding
Switzerland’s market towns that year. Eyewitness accounts frequently
refer to how hunger and persecution “turned men into beasts”, how
fear of famine and disease-carrying refugees drove middle-class
citizens to demonize these suffering masses as sub-human parasites,
and turn them away in horror and disgust. Two hundred years on, in a
summer of more record temperatures, and worldwide droughts, when
refugees once again stream across the borders of German-speaking
Europe, can we really afford to ignore this reading of Frankenstein as
a climate change novel? The novel is a cultural treasure, but it doesn’t
belong behind a glass case. It’s alive, like the monster itself. It’s on
the loose in our world and our minds, stoking our darkest terrors.
Shelley’s untameable tale of human pathos, suffering, and destruction
is headline news: on the TV and internet, in a million images, filling
well-fed, well-housed citizens with horror.
• A writer has to be critical of the work that he or she examines. Being
critical means questioning the validity and accuracy of the information
presented and looking at it from a certain perspective.
• The following are the features of a critique:
1. A critique is comprehensive. It contains a thorough discussion or
analysis of the material. For every claim presented by the author, he or
she clearly explains it and supports it with evidence.
2. A critique uses a specific approach or theory. Based on that
theory or approach, a writer makes his or her observations and claims
about the text and then cites portions of it as support.
3. A critique can have an objective tone. Although the writer can be
influenced by culture, social environment, and experiences, he or she
can use an impartial tone to express his or her claims. Using the third
person point of view, for instance, allows the writer to put the focus on
the critique rather than on himself or herself.
4. A critique uses formal language. The writer observes proper
grammar, punctuation, and capitalization, among others. He or she
makes sure that words or terms are correctly used, and he or she avoids
using incomplete sentences or fragments.
5. A critique uses credible references. Each argument in a critique
should be well supported. The evidence or supporting details should
come from reliable sources.
Example:
According to Georg Lukacs’ “The Ideology of Modernism,” modernist
texts reject objective narrative as the story is told in a subjective tone,
thus the thoughts of the characters. These texts try to counter the
bourgeois realism during that time. Lukacs further noted that man is a
solitary being that can foster relationships with others but in a
“superficial, accidental manner only” (1219).
In the example, the critic made use of a renowned scholar’s work to
prove or justify a point.
II. Tips in Writing a Critique
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The following are some tips that can help you write a critique with
ease:
1. Read, watch, or listen to the material more than once. Some
concepts may not be clear at the first time, so reading, watching, or
listening to the material for a few times can give you some clarity. At
first, do it for pleasure, and then be critical in the succeeding times.
2. Develop an outline. List the major points and the supporting ideas
in an appropriate logical order. The outline will be your guide as you
write the critique.
3. Develop compelling claims. Look at the material from different
perspectives. Avoid presenting statements that are universally
acknowledged as right or wrong. In a narrative, for instance, the
protagonist is viewed as a hero because he freely gives to the poor
what he has stolen from the rich. A possible counterclaim is “Giving to
the poor does not justify his wrongdoings, such as stealing.” This
statement allows the readers to question the morality of the
protagonist.
4. Present balanced information. A good critique acknowledges not
only the strengths and weaknesses of a material but also recognizes
possible counterarguments from the readers. Its assumptions should be
well supported.
Example:
While most of the characters in the first book are flat, the author
improves the dynamics of the characters in the sequel. They emerge as
round characters. The setting, which is supposed to play an essential
role in the character development (especially of the protagonist), lacks
in emphasis. Nonetheless, the author perhaps thinks it prudent to
provide an exposition to explain certain situations.
The example shows how a writer presents both the positive and
negative aspects of his or her criticism of a specific work.
5. Observe a logical structure. The standard structure of a critique
includes an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
a. Introduction –Indicate the objectives of the critique and its
significance. Moreover, include some relevant information,
such as:
(1) The creator (writer or director)
(2) The major elements of the work (major characters,
cast, and the like)
(3) The publication or released date
(4) The version or edition (if there are other versions or
editions of the work)
(5) The publisher or the producer
b. Body – Provide a brief summary of the work. Then analyze
the material using an approach or a theory and present your
arguments or counterarguments. Use an appropriate
organizational pattern (comparison and contrast, problem–
solution, cause and effect, advantages and disadvantages, etc.)
to present your ideas.
c. Conclusion – Restate the points or claims and present any
recommendation.
6. Cite sources. Acknowledging any information from another author
is an important practice to avoid committing plagiarism.
III. Book Review: Purpose, Audience, and Features
• A review refers to a writer’s evaluation of a specific work of art in a
general context. He or she examines how a part contributes to the
totality of a material. Like a critique, it is argumentative in nature.
However, unlike the critique, a review has a general audience.
Below is an excerpt from Thomas Christensen’s review of
Arthur C. Clarke’s novel The City and the Stars. It highlights the
setting of the story.
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Clarke has always been good in creating alien worlds. The city of
Diasper is totally alien in its technology and society. But it seems
logical that people that live their lives in that city are happy and never
have to fear anything. I found the discoveries Alvin makes outside of
Diasper and inside very compelling, and the true nature of the
Intruders is disturbing and fascinating. A good, solid hard-sf story,
with a bit of adventure thrown in.
• A writer who writes a review may or may not be an expert. Also, his
writing is subjective as it depends on his or her perception of the
material.
Below is an excerpt from Aaron Miles’s review of Allen
Stroud’s anthology of short stories, A Bag of Bedtime Tales. Notice
the subjective tone of his writing.
Some of my favourites include “Being Dead,” a tale dealing with a
character’s experiences after his death. The story does a good job of
relaying the character’s fears and feelings to the reader, while
keeping the narrative interesting despite the lack of action. This
thought provoking tale might actually keep you awake at night.
• The following are the features of a book review:
1. A review is usually brief and concise. In the introduction, the
writer gives the basic details about a work, such as the author or
director’s name, the publication or released date, the publisher or
producer, and the like. In the body, the writer provides a brief
summary of the material. Then he or she discusses the overall
impression of the material. In the end, he or she restates important
points or some things that could have been done to improve the work.
2. A review is subjective. The reviewer’s analysis of the work is
influenced by his or her personal taste.
3. A review uses informal language. Since most reviews are found in
blogs and magazines, they are usually written in a conversational and
spontaneous manner. A review may contain contractions and slang.
Notice how the author’s style is conversational in nature.
Below is an excerpt from Alice Wybrew’s review of Mark
Chadbourn’s The Sword of Albion.
Main man Will Swyfte is great fun and easily likeable. He has his own
‘Q’ in the form of Doctor Dee and an amiable and trustworthy friend
in Nathaniel Colt. There is however something missing from his
ensemble. While not as irritating as he could’ve been (the last thing
we need is another smarmy, quick-with-a-knife ladies’ man). Will
lacks the depth and charisma that makes it easy to truly invest in his
plight.
5. Present balanced information. Show the strengths and weaknesses
of the material. Avoid focusing on the negative points. Even though
you are not satisfied with the material, acknowledge the positive points
no matter how few they may be.
6. Take note of the elements of the material. Though a review does
not need to be technical, you may explain some noteworthy elements
of the work. You may give a brief definition of the term if necessary.
7. Observe a logical structure.
a. Introduction – Give relevant information about the work,
such as the author or the director, the major characters, the
publication or released dates, and others.
b. Body – Provide a brief summary of the work, and then
present your main points using the most appropriate
organizational pattern.
c. Conclusion. Restate the points or claims and present any
recommendation.

IV. Tips in Writing a Book Review

Learning Tasks
Below are some tips in writing a review:
Activity 1. Identify the similarities and differences between a critique
1. Read, watch, or listen to the material more than once. Going and a review. Present your answers in a Venn diagram.
through the material for a few times can give you some clarity. At
first, do it for pleasure, and then be critical in the succeeding times.
2. Be brief and concise. A review should only be about 350 to 500
words.
3. Develop an outline. Write down the major points and supporting
ideas in a logical order. The outline will serve as guide in writing the
review. CRITIQUE REVIEW
4. Assert and support claims. Do not state the obvious. Then support
the claims by citing lines, scenes, or dialogues from the material.

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Activity 2. Read “The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allan Poe.
Then write a critique of the story. Below are guide questions.
1. What is the central theme of the story?
2. How do you describe Montresor and Fortunato?
3. What do the carnival, crypt, and wine symbolize?
Activity 3. Find any of the following Filipino works: novel, collection
of short stories, collection of poems, or play. Then write a brief review
of the work.
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UNIT XVI
Writing a Research Report
Research is a tedious process. It requires discipline and diligence in
gathering information and writing. Thus, doing research and writing a
research report are necessary skills, especially as you continue your
studies.
Objectives:
 Identify the purpose, audience, and format of a research report.
 Analyze the features of an abstract and a literature review.
 Identify and cite different sources of information for research.
I. The Research Report: Purpose, Audience, and Format
• Research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. An
essential part of learning, research allows you to delve deeper into a
subject matter and articulate what you think about it based on what
you have learned.
• A research report is a document that presents a complete piece of
research in a focused and coherent manner. It follows a definite
format, which depends on the discipline. For students, the purpose of
making research reports is to demonstrate their full understanding of a
problem or topic, the methodology used, and the implications or
applications of the results. The students’ audience is composed of
faculty members who would review their works.
• Below is a general format of a research report. The format conforms
to the guidelines set by the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association Sixth Edition (2013).
FEATURES DESCRIPTION
This page presents the title of the
Title Page research, the author’s name, and
the school’s name.
This is a brief, comprehensive
Abstract summary of the contents of the
report.
This is the first section of the
Introduction body of the report. It is where
the problem is stated; the
background or review of
literature is given; and the
hypothesis is stated.
This is the second section of the
Methodology body of the report. It mentions
the subjects or the participants of
the study and the actual steps in
conducting the study.
This is the third section of the
body of the report. It is where
Results the research data and analysis
are summarized. It shows
graphical, tabular, and textual
presentations of the data.
This is where the implications
and applications of the study are
explained, such as whether the
hypothesis previously stated is
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Discussion supported or disproved. Also, it
is where the limitations of the
research and recommendations
are discussed as well as the
conclusions that shed light on or
solve the problem.
This part contains the different
References sources mentioned in the report.
The style depends on the
research adviser.
• Below are some considerations regarding some features of the
research report.
○ The title should be a concise statement of the main topic of the
research report. It should clearly indicate the purpose of the research or
study. It should be self-explanatory.
Example: Effects of Serif and Sans Serif Typefaces on Reading Speed
○ The statement of the problem should be clear and definitive. It
should tell why the research or study is important.
○ Thy hypothesis must be clear as to how it will be tested. The
important terms should be clear, and the outcomes should be
measurable. Example: Learners have more significant gains in
comprehension in reading texts encoded using the sans serif typeface
than in those encoded using the serif typeface.
○ The methodology allows the reader to evaluate the procedure and
the results of the research or study. Thus, it should have sufficient
details for the reader to repeat the procedure in a future study.
○ The Results section should state the results or outcomes of the
research or study, including those that counter the expectations made
in the beginning.
○ The Discussion section should present the similarities and
differences of the results between the current study and those of the • Below are some abstracts in different types of research reports. Note
previous ones done on the same subject. The similarities and the information that each abstract gives or tells the reader.
differences will provide context to the results of the current research as
well as clarify and confirm those results. RESEARCH DESCRIPTION INFORMATION IN
REPORT THE ABSTRACT
II. The Abstract In this study, the data 1. Problem
being analyzed are 2. Participants
• The abstract is a condensed version of the research report. Usually Empirical study collected from direct 3. Essential features
150 to 250 words in length, it states the problem, the subject, the observation or of the methodology
methodology, the findings, and the conclusions. experiences. 4. Basic findings
5. Conclusions
• The purpose of the abstract is to present a quick view of the essential 6. Implications
elements of the research being studied. It provides useful information or applications
to help draw readers with their judgment and evaluate if they find the This research or 1. How the theory or
topic relevant in their own research. study is built on the model works and its
Theory oriented ideas and principles
• Below are the two general types of abstracts. assumptions of a 2. Phenomenon that
certain theory or the theory or model
model explains
This is a careful and 1. Subject
Case study intensive study of a 2. Nature of the
specific subject or problem or its
variable (e.g., solution
ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION person, phenomenon, 3. Questions to be
This is the most common type of epidemic, event, etc.) asked in the future
abstract. It presents the purpose, in which scientists or study
Informative methods, scope, results, researchers identify
conclusions, and recommend- what leads to its
dations of the study. success or failure.
It presents the purpose, methods,
and the scope of the research or • Below is a sample informative abstract of an empirical study. Notice
Descriptive study but does not include the the purpose, the method, and the scope, as well as the results,
results, conclusions, and conclusions, and recommendations of the study.
recommendations. It is written in
less than a hundred words.

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Super Typhoon Haiyan entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility
(PAR) 07 November 2013, causing tremendous damage to
infrastructure and loss of lives mainly due to the typhoons storm surge
and strong winds. Storm surges up to a height of 7 meters were
reported in the hardest hit areas. The threat imposed by this kind of
natural calamity compelled researchers of the Nationwide
Operational Assessment of Hazards, the flagship disaster mitigation
program of the Department of Science and Technology, Government
of the Philippines, to undertake a study to determine the vulnerability
of all Philippine coastal communities to storm surges of the same
magnitude as those generated by Haiyan. This study calculates the
maximum probable storm surge height for every coastal locality by
running simulations of Haiyan-type conditions but with tracks of
tropical cyclones that entered PAR from 1948-2013. DOST-Project
NOAH used the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Storm Surge
Model, a numerical code that simulates and predicts storm surges
spawned by tropical cyclones. Input parameters for the storm surge
model include bathymetric data, storm track, central atmospheric
pressure, and maximum wind speed. The simulations were made using
Haiyan’s pressure and wind speed as the forcing parameters. The
simulated storm surge height values were added to the maximum tide
level obtained from WXTide, software that contains a catalogue of
worldwide astronomical tides, to come up with storm tide levels. The
resulting water level was used as input to FLO-2D to generate the
storm tide inundation maps. One product of this study is a list of the
most vulnerable coastal areas that can be used as basis for choosing
priority sites for further studies to implement appropriate site-specific
solutions. Another product is the storm tide inundation maps that the
local government units can use to develop a Risk-Sensitive Land Use
Plan for identifying appropriate areas to build residential buildings,
evacuation sites, and other critical facilities and lifelines. The maps
can also be used to develop a disaster response plan and evacuation
scheme.
- From “Identification of Storm Surge Vulnerable Areas in the
Philippines through Simulations of Typhoon Haiyan-Induced Storm
Surge Using Tracks of Historical Typhoons” (October 25, 2013) by
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 83
J.P. Lapidez, J. K. Suarez, J. Tablazon, L. Dasallas, L. A. Gonzalo, J.
Santiago, K. M. Cabacaba, M. M. A. Ramos, A. M. F. Lagmay, and V.
Malano
• Below are some considerations in writing an abstract.
1. The abstract should be accurate. It should reflect the purpose and
content of the research.
2. The abstract should be informative rather than evaluative. It should
be free of the author’s personal comments on the topic.
3. The language should be clear and coherent. The active voice should
be used rather than the passive voice. Also, be consistent in verb tense;
use the present tense in stating your conclusions and the past tense in
recounting the procedure and the results.
4. The abstract should be concise. Mention at most five important
details from the findings or implications of the research or study.
III. The Literature Review
• As part of the introduction of a research report, the literature review
contains the background material of the research or study. It offers an
overview of published literature, such as journals and books, relevant
to the research topic at hand.
Below is an excerpt from the review of related literature in a
research report on the 2006 Guinsaugon landslide in St. Bernard,
Southern Leyte, the largest known mass movement of soil in the
Philippines. The text defines the term “mass wasting.”
Mass wasting (also called mass movement) is a term used to
collectively call the downslope transport of surface materials in
response directly to gravity. Gravitational force is represented by the
weight of such surface materials. This movement operates in a variety
of ways and scales. Even a single rock rolling down a hillslope is a
form of mass wasting as well as the transport of an entire hillside
sliding downhill which could cover hundreds to thousands of
properties at the base of the slope. Mass wasting can occur slowly or
at very rapid rates.
 - From “Hazard Mapping of Structurally Controlled Landslide
in Southern Leyte, Philippines Using High Resolution Digital
Elevation Model” (October 24, 2013) by Luzona, Montalbo, Galanga,
Sabado, Escape, Felix, and Lagmay
• The literature review has the following purposes:
1. To define and limit the topic of the research or study,
2. To relate the current research or study to the existing literature, and
3. To place the current research or study within the existing literature.
• Below are the four stages of developing the literature review.
1. Formulation of the problem – The researcher determines the topic
or field to be examined and the significant issues in it.
2. Search for related literature – The researcher finds materials
relevant to the subject.
3. Evaluation of data – The research determines which literature
makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic.
4. Analysis and interpretation – The researcher examines the
findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.
• Below are the steps on how to begin your review.
1. Define the topic or subject of your research and then the scope of
the review.
2. Find relevant works in the library catalogue, subject databases, and
other search tools.
3. Determine whether the works are suitable to the subject or topic of
the research.
4. Create a list of the suitable works with their essential publication
details.
5. Analyze, interpret, and discuss the findings and conclusions in the
works that you have selected.
• Below are some considerations in making a literature review.
1. The literature review should not be exhaustive. Only the pertinent,
directly related works should be included in the report.
2. The literature should highlight any significant findings, methods,
and conclusions made in the earlier works.
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3. The literature review should differentiate how the evidence from
previous works is used in the current research or study.
IV. Sources of Information and Documentation
• The literature review contains information from previous research or
studies; thus, the sources of that information must be cited. Those
sources can be primary or secondary.
1. A primary source contains information that has a direct link to the
subject or topic of a research or study. Reports on groundbreaking
research and pioneering studies can be considered as primary sources.
One can use the findings in these studies as source of relevant
information.
2. A secondary source refers to items that are not directly connected
to the subject or topic of a research or study. Journal articles that
evaluate another research or study are examples of secondary sources.
• The documentation style to be used depends on the research adviser
or the school. Below are the three most common styles.
1. Modern Language Association Style (MLA) – This is commonly
used in English and the humanities.
2. American Psychological Association (APA) – This is commonly
used in psychology and the social sciences.
3. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) – This is commonly used in
the physical and natural sciences as well as in the social sciences.
• The reference list should not be confused with a bibliography. The
reference list is a list of works cited in the report, while a bibliography
includes the works mentioned in a work and other useful source that
are not mentioned. For the format of entries, you may consult the
following:
1. MLA Handbook Eighth Edition (2016)
2. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,
Sixth Edition (2013)
3. Chicago Manual of Style 16th Edition (2010)
Learning Tasks A project is a piece of work with a specific purpose. It needs a
feasible, realistic, and sound plan to make it successful. In the
Activity 1. Think of three research topics. For each topic, state a professional world, a project calls for a proposal. In this unit, you will
problem, a possible hypothesis, and a working title. learn more about writing proposals.

RESEARCH PROBLEM HYPOTHESIS TITLE

TOPIC Objectives:

 Identify the purpose and audience of a project proposal and its

types.
 Determine the general features of a project proposal.
 Take some considerations into account before creating a
Activity 2. Select a topic in Task 1 and develop a one-paragraph project proposal
informative abstract.

Activity 3: Based on the topic in Task 2, develop a two-paragraph
review of related literature. Remember to cite your sources in the
appropriate style.
I. Project Proposal: Purpose, Audience, and Types
• In the professional world, a project proposal is a document that
shows a company how to address and solve a certain problem.
Persuasively, the document describes what is being proposed, why it is
proposed, who will run the project and how, and what resources are
needed to achieve the goals of the project. In the long run, a sound
proposal can bring about a successful project that can generate profit,
raise more funds, and spur more projects.

• Activities such as organizing an event, selling equipment, and

providing a particular service call for a project proposal. The proposal
is then subject to approval usually by those who will fund the project,
and to a number of revisions before the plan is implemented.

• Proposals can be classified according to use: they can either be

internal or external. An internal proposal is used within a company.
UNIT XVII An example of that is an employee’s proposal for a free weekly
aerobics class for the employees to promote a healthy living. The
proposal is for the company’s management to consider. On the other
Writing Project Proposals
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
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hand, an external proposal is written for the clients of a company. An
example is a sales representative’s proposal offering his or her
company’s products and services to a new client.
• Proposals can also be classified as solicited or unsolicited. A
solicited proposal is requested by the reader. An executive of a
company solicits a proposal from an associate to address an issue
within the company, or a client looking to get products or services asks
a vendor for a proposal. On the other hand, an unsolicited proposal is
not requested by the reader. An associate, for instance, makes a
proposal on his or her own initiative to pitch an original idea to an
executive within the company or to a client.
II. The General Features of a Project Proposal
In the book Technical Communication Today 2nd Edition (2007), the
author, Richard Johnson Sheehan, mentions the following features of a
proposal:
1. Introduction – This part includes the subject, purpose, and main
point of the proposal.
Example:
Get Moving International, our company, holds two major annual
events to promote wellness among its employees: the Sports Fest,
which is held in May, and the Fun Run in October. Since 1990, both
activities have not only encouraged us to live an active life but also
fostered camaraderie among us. Now, we would like to add to the
benefits that we enjoy from doing such activities by proposing a free
weekly aerobics class for the employees.
2. Background – This section presents the current situation that the
proposal addresses. It describes the problem and identifies its causes
and effects.
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Example:
A large number of our employees are overweight and obese. Based on
the results of the recent Annual Physical Examination (APE), roughly
50 percent of the total workforce is overweight, which is up by 10
percent from last year. About 5 percent is classified as obese, up by 1
percent from last year. According to medical studies, people who are
overweight or obese, like many of our employees, have a higher risk of
heart attack.
What seems to be an obvious cause of weight gain among the
employees is their sedentary lifestyle. In a recent survey done by the
Human Relations Department, 7 out of ten 10 employees say that they
sit for more than four hours straight. With only an hour and 30
minutes of break from work every day, the only chance that they get to
move is when they stand from their seats and walk for a short distance
from their station to the cafeteria.
3. Project Plan – Usually, this is the longest section in a proposal
because it shows the step-by-step solution to the problem described in
the background section of the proposal. It also states the objectives and
outcomes of the solution.
Below are the objectives and outcomes of a project plan.
The current condition of most employees can be improved by
encouraging them to live a more active lifestyle. To do so, we propose
a solution that meets the following objectives:
1. Help the employees, most especially those who are overweight and
obese, lose weight
2. Help the employees, including the healthy ones, to maintain a good
health
To meet these objectives, we propose a free weekly aerobics class.
Aerobics has many benefits.
Five of those benefits are:
1. Lower risk of heart disease and stroke,
2. Lower blood pressure and cholesterol,
3. Stronger heart and lungs,
4. Stronger immune system, and
5. An increase in stamina and endurance.
4. Qualifications – This section highlights the qualities, skills, and
experience of the team or company that will run the project.
5. Costs and benefits – This section gives the total cost of the project
and gives a summary of the benefits that the readers can gain from the
project.
6. Budget – This section gives a breakdown of the costs of the project.
It lists the people and items and the funds needed for the project.
III. Considerations in Writing a Project Proposal
• The format of a project proposal generally varies. The choice of
format then depends on the subject, purpose, readers, and context of
the proposal.
1. Subject – The proposal must have a clear, definite subject. The
information about the subject should be relevant to the readers.
2. Purpose – The purpose of the proposal should be clearly stated for
the sake of the readers. All the details in the proposal should contribute
to the achievement of that purpose.
3. Readers – The needs, values, and attitudes of the readers, especially
the ones who will give the green light to start the project, affect the
way they understand a proposal. Therefore, an individual making the
proposal should fully understand the readers.
4. Context – In making a proposal, one should consider the
circumstances in which it is going to be read or used. For instance, a
project proposal is traditionally printed on paper. However, given the
advances in technology, one may choose a different format or medium
IV. Considerations in Designing a Project Proposal
in making a proposal to get the readers interested.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 87
• The introduction of the proposal should be concise. One should be
able to relate the subject, purpose, and main point of the proposal in
one to three paragraphs.
• The familiarity of the readers with the subject of the proposal
determines the length of the background information. For readers
who have little or no knowledge about the subject, several paragraphs
of background information may be appropriate. On the other hand, a
briefer background may suffice for those who have considerable
knowledge about the subject.
• The project plan does not only give the steps in solving the
problem, but it also states the reason for taking each step. This
way, the readers can see how the plan works.
• The qualifications section should have enough positive, relevant,
and useful information about the personnel and the organization.
That information is essential to convince the readers that the team or
company is the best choice for the project and to make the readers
agree to the proposal eventually.
• Readers measure the costs of the project against the benefits that they
will gain from it. For many, the cost determines whether or not they
will accept the proposal. Therefore, it is crucial to stress the positive
outcomes of the project and the credentials of the team or
company immediately after the statement of the total cost of the
project. Doing so assures the readers that they are making the right
decision to accept the proposal.
• The budget section of the proposal should list all the possible
expenses of the project. In making reasonable estimates of the costs,
it would be helpful to call other businesses and ask for the prices of
their products or services.
In giving a proposal a professional look, one should consider the
following design components:
1. Graphics – A proposal should have graphics like charts, graphs,
photos, and illustrations to reinforce the important points. Ann
appealing proposal page gives the edge to catch client’s attention.
2. Page design – The page design should be appropriate to the readers
and the context. At the same time, it should be creative yet uncluttered
to enhance the look of a proposal.
3. Medium –Choose only the most appropriate medium in presenting
a proposal. Traditionally, a proposal is printed on special paper.
Nowadays, a proposal can be saved on a CD, or it can be uploaded and
downloaded on a Web site. To make an impression, though, others can
choose to present their proposal using multimedia software.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. Find a partner and accomplish the steps below to produce a
project proposal.
1. Identify an issue or a problem that your school or community is
facing and think of a possible solution.
2. Write a three-paragraph introduction and a three-paragraph
background.
3. Make a detailed project plan.
4. Provide the qualifications, cost and benefits, and budget sections.
Activity 2. Make an appropriate page design for your proposal. It
should be impressive but not cluttered.
Activity 3. Present your proposal to the class. Based on their feedback,
revise the project
UNIT XVIII
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 88
Writing a Position Paper
“Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to
pause and reflect,” says Mark Twain (1835–1910), an American
writer. In taking a position on an issue, for instance, you may find
yourself taking a side popularly chosen by many or sometimes a side
chosen by only a few. In writing a position paper, regardless which
side you take, you should be able to express your position effectively.
At the end, the audience should find themselves agreeing with you and
taking your side.
Objectives:
 Explain the purpose of a position paper and identify its
audience. Explain the features of a position paper.
 Use deductive and inductive reasoning in writing a position
paper.
I. Position Paper: Purpose and Audience
• A position paper is a type of academic writing in which the author
presents his or her position on a debatable issue and defends or
supports it with evidence.
• The main purpose of a position paper is to persuade readers to take
the position of the writer. In order to achieve that purpose, it is
important for the writer to address all sides of the issue. The audience
or readers should see that the writer clearly explains the issue at hand
and has compelling evidence to support his or her stand.
• The audience is a very important consideration to take into account
in writing a position paper. The author should know the audience of
his or her writing. Below are some guide questions to ask.
a. Who is likely going to read the paper?
b. What are the general interests of the audience regarding the issue at
hand?
c. What is the stand of the majority of the audience on the issue? d.
How does the issue affect the audience in general?
e. What kind of evidence would convince the audience to take the
writer’s stand?
II. Features and Structure of a Position Paper
• A position paper has various features that make it different from
other types of writing. Below are some of those features.
1. It uses a formal language. Contractions and slang are avoided.
2. It defines an issue. Through research, the writer explores the issue
and gathers relevant information that can help him or her take a
position on it. He or she examines the beginning of the issue and any
recent development. Also, he or she looks into different writings by
people who made significant contributions to the discussion of the
issue.
3. It states the writer’s position explicitly. In a single thesis
statement, the writer takes sides on the issue.
4. It makes claims or assertions that support the writer’s position.
The claims or assertions are stated plainly and supported by evidence.
5. It disputes counterclaims. The writer states the weaknesses of
those counterclaims, further highlighting the strengths of his or her
stand.
6. It uses a logical pattern in presenting the arguments. The ideas
are arranged in an organized manner that is appropriate to the author’s
purpose and that is easy and understandable for the readers. For
instance, the writer presents his or her claims in increasing importance.
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• The structure of a position paper is made up of three parts:
introduction, body, and conclusion.
a. Introduction – Contains the background of the topic and the
issues to be discussed. In this part, the author usually states his
or her position on the issue.
b. Body – Each paragraph in the body focuses on a particular
claim of the author and the supporting evidence. Also, to show
readers that all sides of the issue are taken into account, the
author discusses the counterclaims. Then he or she disproves
them to strengthen his or her stand.
c. Conclusion – This restates the author’s position on the issue
and the claims. In this part, the author emphasizes the
relevance of the issue and urges them to take his or her side of
the issue.
III. Deductive Reasoning and Inductive Reasoning in a Position
Paper
• A writer uses deductive or inductive reasoning in writing a position
paper. Which reasoning the writer should use depends on his or her
purpose.
• Using deductive reasoning, the author begins with general
statements or premises before arriving at a specific conclusion. The
general statements are assumed to be true in order for the conclusion to
be considered logical. Below are arguments using deductive reasoning.
a. Heavy traffic contributes to the stress and fatigue being
experienced by the commuters. The commute is very
exhausting for many people. They reach their destination late
despite their efforts to leave their homes very early.
Recently, a man in his thirtieswas interviewed by a local radio
station. He takes the bus to work daily. He leaves his
apartment at around 6 AM and rides the bus at exactly 6:15
AM. Without traffic, he can be at work in thirty
minutes, giving him enough time to have a quick breakfast.
 Because of the heavy traffic nowadays, he arrives at work an
hour later. According to him, he tried to leave home as early
as 5:30 AM, but the traffic seemed to hinder him from getting
to work early. As a result, he now feels more stressed, and he
gets easily tired because of the commute.
b. Overpopulation is a huge problem in big cities. The population
continues to grow in those places partly because many people
move there to find jobs, which are simply not plenty
elsewhere. In a recent nationwide survey, 500 graduates of
various universities and colleges outside Metro Manila were
asked about their plans. Almost all answered that they were
going to the big cities to start a career. According to them,
they would not find a suitable job in towns where
they grew up and studied. With more graduates coming to
Metro Manila to look for work, the cities would very soon
become more overcrowded than they were before.
• When using inductive reasoning, the author begins with specific
statements that lead to a general conclusion. He or she begins by
stating some data or facts, and then thinks about which general theory
or idea would best explain those facts or data. Below are some
examples of arguments using inductive reasoning.
a. In a recent interview, 200 high school students of
Knowledge Village Senior High School admit to sleeping fewer
than six hours a night. Also, they say that they have trouble
concentrating in their classes. Therefore, getting adequate
sleep is important for high school students to be able to
concentrate well in their classes.
b. In a recent interview, 50 practitioners from different yoga
classes in Metro Manila attested to the health benefits of
yoga. Mary Samonte, a 24-year-old sales representative, has
suffered from chronic back pain since she was in college.
Yoga, she says, has greatly helped reduce the pain she feels.
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
Learning Module Page 90
Ray dela Cruz, a fitness instructor says that doing yoga has
greatly contributed to the peace of mind and mental clarity he
now enjoys. Therefore, doing yoga is a great way to become
and stay healthy.
• An author of a position paper is not limited to using just one of the
two types of reasoning. An argument in a position paper may be
developed using inductive reasoning, while another may be supported
using deductive reasoning. A mix of the two may help the author to
convey his or her ideas better for the audience to understand.
IV. Writing a Position Paper: Prewriting, Writing, and Revising
Writing a position paper involves going through the following stages:
1. Prewriting
a. The author chooses a topic for his or her position paper. It
should be a debatable issue, which others have differing
opinions on. He or she uses any prewriting techniques, such as
brainstorming or concept mapping.
b. The author researches the topic. It is important for him or
her to have facts about the issue and its different sides or
arguments. c. The author chooses a position on the issue. He or
she writes it as a thesis statement.
d. The author makes an outline of his or her main claims and
evidence to support the position.
2. Writing
During this stage, the author writes the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion of the position paper.
a. Introduction – The writer defines the issue using the
information that he or she gathered from research and states his
or her main position.
b. Body – The writer presents the main claims using a logical
pattern. He or she uses either inductive or deductive reasoning
 to present the evidence that supports each claim. Also, he
presents and disproves counterclaims.
c. Conclusion – The writer restates his or her position and
claims and urges the readers to take his or her side.

3. Revising
Revision is important because it is necessary for the author to go over
his or her work and spot the mistakes and take the chance to improve
his or her paper. In this stage, the author develops his or her ideas UNIT XIX
further and ensures the mistakes and fallacies have been attended to.
Below are considerations the author should look into during this stage:
Writing for College Admission
a. Content – Is the author able to support the position fully?
Should he or she provide more information?
b. Language – Has the author used a formal language? Is the When you apply for college, you would have to fill out an application
language biased? Does he or she use the right choice of words? form and send a copy of your transcript, an official record of your
c. Organization – Do the ideas flow smoothly from one grades, to your choice of school. Some schools may also ask you to
sentence to another or to one paragraph to another? Are there submit recommendation letters from your teachers. Aside from these,
any transitional devices used in order to make sure that the some schools may ask you to send your college resume, an admission
paragraphs are coherent and cohesive? letter, and an admission essay. You need to know how to make those,
d. Mechanics – Are there any grammar or spelling errors? Are and this unit gives you tips.
there any words to be capitalized?
Objectives:
Learning Tasks
 Identify the purpose and audience of writing for college
admission.
Activity 1. In your own words, explain the purpose of a position paper  Analyze the features of a college resume, an admission letter,
and state how the author can address the needs of his or her audience. and an admission essay.
 Follow some tips in writing for college admission.
Activity 2. Using a Venn diagram, illustrate the similarities and
differences of writing a position paper and different types of paper
(narrative, expository, or descriptive).
I. Writing for College Admission: General Purpose and Audience
Activity 3. Think of an issue that you are currently experiencing in
school or community. What are the various arguments you have been • Although your grades in your subjects in high school and your scores
hearing about the issue? Choose your side on the matter and write a in the admission test are two most important things that colleges look
position paper. into, you need to keep in mind that writing for college admission is not
Grade 11 Reading and Writing Skills
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to be taken lightly. Writing for college admission typically involves a
resume, a letter, and an essay, the purpose of which is to persuade the
reader, the admission officer in particular. Your writing will allow the
officer to get to know you better as a person, which is not evident from
your grades or exam scores.
• Your writing should set you apart from the others applying for
college. Your resume, letter, and essay could be used as bases for your
admission to the college program, particularly when there are many
other applicants that have high grades in high school and achieved
high scores in the entrance exam. If you happen to have grades or
scores that are not up to the college’s standards, being able to write
well might give you a better chance of being considered for admission.
• Before writing anything, a student should read about different
colleges and universities and the courses that they offer. Doing so
helps the student focus on what he or she wants to pursue in the future.
With a course and school in mind, he or she should be able to make
important decisions when he or she finally goes through the writing
process.
• When you write for college admission, your audience or readers will
be the members of the admissions committee. Keep in mind that they
will most likely be looking for applicants who will be able to:
1. Succeed in their chosen program,
2. Contribute positively to the educational experience of their peers,
and 3. Bring honor to the college or university and be a productive
member of society upon graduating.
• Through your writing, you should be able to show your audience
that: 1. You are ready to move on from your previous life as a high
school student.
2. You are excited and eager to learn new things.
3. You are prepared for the rigors of the course or program that you
would like to take as well as college life in general.
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II. The College Resume
• A college resume is a summary of a student’s accomplishments in
high school. It shows the reader the achievements and activities of the
student in a nutshell. Usually, the student needs a resume for college or
scholarship application, for requesting a letter of recommendation
from a school or a teacher, or for job or internship application.
• Lynn Radlauer Lubell (2011) lists the following features of a college
resume:
1. Heading – This shows the student’s name, address, phone number,
and e-mail address.
2. Education – Under this section, the student’s rank and average are
given. Also, the student’s current high school as well as the previous
ones that he or she attended are listed.
3. Honors, Awards, and Special Recognition: This section highlights
the student’s academic achievements, such as the awards and honors
that he or she received.
4. Extracurricular activities: These include the student’s
memberships in clubs or organizations and the major leadership
positions that he or she held in them.
5. Community activities: This section details the student’s
engagement in volunteer work or community service.
6. Employment: This section presents the student’s work experience,
such as internship or a part-time job.
7. Interests and Other Activities: In this section, the student can list
his or her hobbies (e.g., sports, traveling). Also, he or she can mention
any special skills, such as speaking a foreign language fluently or
using basic and advanced multimedia applications.
 1.

Make your resume one to two pages in length only. Leave at least a
one-inch margin on all sides.
2. Use bullet points and headings and set some texts in boldface so that
the readers can easily scan your resume.
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3. Include a brief description of your work experience. You can state
your main roles or duties.
4. Arrange the items under each section in a logical sequence. For
instance, you can arrange the awards, honors, and recognition in
reverse chronological order, listing the most recent one first.
5. Use the past tense in stating your roles or duties in a previous
activity or job, and the present tense in stating your roles or duties in a
current activity or job.
6. Do not forget to proofread your resume. Make sure that there are no
errors.
7. Ask another person, like your English teacher, to help you refine
your resume.
III. The College Admission Letter
• A college admission letter is written by students for the following
purposes:
1. To express their main reason for choosing a certain school for
college 2. To persuade the admissions committee that they are a good
fit in the school
• Below are the common features of a college admission letter.
• What you write in the body of the admission letter is very important.
Your message should be clear, concise, and precise enough to set you
apart from the other applicants and to make the admissions officer
think that you might be a good addition to the school.
Paragraph 1: State the reason why you want to be accepted in the
program or course that the school is offering. Briefly, you can tell how
you came to learn about that program. Also, you can say why you have
chosen the school among others that offer a similar course.
Paragraph 2: State your career goal and what you wish to pursue and
achieve by the time you graduate from the school. Then write about
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your most positive characteristics (determination, passion, and
creativity, for example) that would help you achieve your goal. Also,
you can share a unique but relevant detail about your life that has
encouraged or inspired you to choose the course and the school.
Paragraph 3: Mention the documents that you are sending together
with the letter. Also, you can express your hope for being considered
in your chosen program.
• Below are some tips in writing your college admission letter.
a. Be honest and sincere in telling your reason for choosing the school.
Avoid superlatives, such as “Your university has the best students in
engineering, and I just simply want to be part of the best.”
b. Tell your story in an interesting manner. Find an angle that makes
your story fresh and captivating.
c. Write specific details. Do not simply state your goal and say that
you would like to achieve it. Make sure you give concrete reasons for
pursuing that goal.
d. Choose your words well. Use words that are clear and easy to
understand. Avoid highfalutin words.
e. Revise and proofread your letter. Once you are done writing it, it
would be good to set it aside for a couple of hours (or even days, if
time permits) and look at it again. Ensure that there are no errors; a
simple spelling error can detract your readers from an otherwise well-
written admission letter.
IV. Writing a College Admission Essay
• A college admission essay has the following purposes:
1. It lets the admissions committee know more about the applicant
personally.
2. It assesses the applicant’s writing skills and the way he or she
organizes their thoughts and ideas in writing.
• Below are some of the features of a college admission essay.
1. Often, a college admission essay features one or several questions
that an applicant needs to answer. According to the College Board (see
collegeboard.org), the questions can be any of the following:
a. Questions about the applicant
Examples:
Think about the lowest grade that you have ever gotten in a test in high
school. How did you tell your parents or whoever is raising you about
it? Remember the highest grade that you have ever gotten in a test in
high school. What did you do to get that grade and how did it feel
when you finally got the grade?
b. Questions about the applicant’s choice of program or college
Examples:
Who or what has inspired you to pursue your chosen course or
program? What have you learned about our school that made you think
we are the right one for you?
c. Questions to test the applicant’s ability to think and write creatively
Examples:
Would it be harder for someone who is new to college to make friends
in college? Why do you think so? What is the best piece of advice that
you can give a person who has always been bullied?
2. The essay is written in the first person. Through this point of view,
the applicant should be able to answer the essay question from his or
her unique perspective; that is, the writing should be based on the
applicant’s personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings.
Sample question: Think about the lowest grade that you have
ever gotten in a test in high school. How did you tell your parents or
whoever is raising you about it?
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Example:
My parents are accomplished engineers. Other people such as their
friends, other parents who are friends with them, and doting relatives
think that I am at least good at math. Unfortunately, I am not as good
as them. That is why I can never forget the time when I got a 75
percent rating in a math test. It was a passing score, though it was not
good enough for someone like me who had the genes of both
accomplished engineers. For the first time, I never felt so ashamed in
my entire high school life.
3. The language is generally formal, though it can become casual
especially when an applicant tells a personal story. However,
contractions and slang are avoided.
Sample question: What is the best piece of advice that you can
give a person who has always been bullied?
Example:
“Ignore them and keep your head down,” the guidance counselor
advised me when I told on two of my classmates who were making my
life miserable back in grade 10. It wasn’t that the advice was a bitter
pill to swallow for me. I was an ordinary kid who had only two people
to call best friends and who kept pretty much to himself. But
something I felt was amiss in the counselor’s advice. His advice was
supposed to make the bullies stop, but I could not shake the feeling
that things would get worse if just kept quiet. So, I did the opposite—I
told them to stop—and you should, too.
4. The overall tone of the essay is personal. It can be dramatic to make
an emotional impact on the reader.
• Below are some tips that may help you out in writing a college
admission essay.
a. Read the instructions and question carefully. Make sure that you
understand the question well and that you follow the instructions.
b. Do not exceed the word count. The length of an essay would not
make it seem more impressive to the admission committee. Be
concise, but make sure to address all the questions adequately.
c. If the prompts ask you to take a stand on an issue, think about the
various viewpoints and choose your position carefully. Make sure that
you provide adequate reasons for your argument.
d. Write in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Use vivid
language that would be able to make readers “see” your point.
e. Do not be overdramatic. Your writing should sound honest.
f. Go over your essay and revise and proofread it. Ensure that the ideas
are well developed and that the text is free from errors in mechanics.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. In a creative way, explain why writing for college
admission is important. You may create a comic strip or write a poem
or short story.
Activity 2. Imagine that you are applying for one of the schools below.
Create a resume and write an admission letter.
a. A university best known for its courses in bible and religious studies
b. A university best known for its courses in physics, chemistry,
biology, and other sciences
c. A college well known for its courses in engineering and multimedia
d. A college popularly known for its humanities and arts courses
Afterward, exchange resumes and admission letters with a partner and
give feedback on each other’s writing.
Activity 3. Choose one of the prompts below and write a five-
paragraph essay about it. The essay should be at most 650 words long.
a. There are many persons in our lives who help shape who we are. In
your life, who do you look up to the most? How has this person helped
you become who you are now?
b. What makes you think that our university is the right one for you?
c. Discuss a problem that you would like to solve. It could be a social
issue, an ethical concern, a racial matter—anything that matters much
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to you. Describe why it is important to you and state what you think
should be done in order to solve or alleviate it.
UNIT XX
Writing for Employment Application
As you graduate, your journey to secure a job as a professional begins.
The employment process is not as easy as it seems. You have to sell
yourself by telling prospective employers your credentials. Also, you
have to think of ways on how to secure an interview with them. To do
all of these, you need to learn to make a professional résumé and a
cover letter.
Objectives:
 Identify the purposes of a résumé and a cover letter in a job
application.
 Analyze the features of a résumé and a cover letter.
 Make a professional résumé and a cover letter on your own.
I. Résumé: Purpose and Features
• A résumé is piece of document showing a summary of a job
applicant’s qualifications, such as his or her educational attainment
and professional experience. It has the following purposes:
1. For employers: To examine a job applicant’s educational and
professional backgrounds if he or she would be suitable to the job
position
2. For job applicants: To secure an interview
• The following are the common features of a résumé:
1. Heading – This shows the job applicant’s full name, current
address, and personal contact information like mobile number,
landline, and e-mail address.
2. Employment history – This presents a list of jobs, both the current
one and the previous ones held by the job applicant. It includes the
names of the companies and the duration of the job applicant’s
employment in each company.
3. Special abilities/skills – This part presents the job applicant’s
abilities or skills relevant to the job.
4. Education – This presents the name of the school where the job
applicant has graduated, his or her degree, and the year of graduation.
5. References – This part presents a list of people who can describe
the job applicant’s abilities, talents, and skills. The list may include
former professors or bosses.
II. Types of Résumés and Some Tips in Making a Résumé
• The following are the different types of résumés:
1. Chronological résumé
○ This résumé presents a job applicant’s professional experience in
reverse chronological order; that is, it begins with the individual’s
current job or with the most recent job that he or she has held.
○ Hiring officers prefer this type of résumé because it is
straightforward. At a glance, they can see the job applicant’s growth
and development in his or her own field.

• Below are some other features of a résumé. They are added only
when they are necessary and appropriate to the job.
1. Professional licenses and certificates – This section includes any
appropriate professional license or certificate that the job applicant has
obtained. It may appear before or after the Employment History
section.
2. Related experience – This part presents any special training that the
job applicant has received. They may not be relevant to the job, but
they contribute to the applicant’s image as a professional.
3. Professional affiliations – This part presents the job applicant’s
association with other organizations in his or her field. It can be a
summary of the applicant’s significant positions and contributions to
the organizations.
4. Publications/Presentations – This part presents a summary of the
published works of the job applicant or the presentations that he or she
has demonstrated in his or her field.
5. Hobbies – This part presents the activities that you like doing
outside work. Though this part is optional, it gives the hiring officer a
hint of your personality.

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○ Because of its simple format, this résumé is said to be the easiest
type of résumé for any job applicant to prepare. It can show his or her
steady and progressing career, though it can reveal any gap in his or
her employment history.
2. Functional résumé
• This type of résumé presents the job applicant’s professional
experience by his or her major skills. These skills are indicated by the
job positions that the applicant currently holds and has held before.
Then each position is described briefly, mentioning the company, the
duration of the employment, and the main duties and responsibilities.
• In this type of résumé, the applicant can highlight his or her skills
and experience that match the job position.
• This type contains the following features:
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a. Objective – This state the job position, the job applicant’s main
skills, and how those skills can help the company.
Example:
To obtain a part-time teaching position in which my skills in teaching
and developing curriculum and instructional materials can contribute
to the fulfillment of the school’s vision and mission
b. Summary of qualifications – This section highlights the job
applicant’s special skills, experience, and knowledge that match the
job.
Example:
Have extensive experience in writing feature articles, especially on
health and sports, for a local newspaper and an international online
magazine. Have considerable experience in desktop publishing. Highly
proficient in using Adobe applications, especially InDesign, experience highlights your skills, you may use the combination
Photoshop, and Illustrator. résumé.
Below is a template of a functional résumé.
2. Limit your résumé in one to two pages.
3. Explore and examine your experiences. You can include even minor
work that you do to highlight your work ethics, such as time
management and rapport with people. However, make sure to identify
experiences that fit the description and requirements of the job.
4. Be very selective of the achievements that you want to include.
Make sure they are relevant to the job you are applying for.
5. Choose professionals as your references. However, if you need time
to sort and talk to your references, you can put “Available upon
Request” under the References section.
6. Make sure that the information in your résumé is factual and
3. Combination résumé accurate.
This type of résumé combines the most useful features of the
chronological and functional résumés. It includes the following: 7. Use font style and font size that make the text readable and keep the
a. layout
Summary of qualifications – A feature from the functional résumé, simple.
this section highlights the job applicant’s special skills, experience, Avoid
and knowledge that match the job. symbols
b. Special skills – The same as the Special Abilities section of a that can
chronological résumé, this section is a list of skill areas that the distract
applicant excels in and that are relevant to the job. the
c. Highlights – This section is a list of significant functions of the reader.
applicant in his or her current and previous jobs that are relevant to the
job he or she is applying for. 8. Use
powerful
1. Use the type of résumé appropriate to you. You can use the and
chronological résumé to highlight your growth and development in active verbs in relating your work experiences as well as the right
your field. If your work experience is limited, you may use the tense. For a current job, use the present tense. For a previous job, use
functional résumé to highlight your skills instead. If your work the past tense.

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9. Use formal e-mails that include your full name or initials (e.g.,
kevincruz@gmail.com or kcruz@gmail.com).
III. The Cover Letter: Purpose and Features
• A cover letter is a letter of application. Through this letter, the job
applicant sells himself or herself to the employer by mentioning his or
her valuable characteristics, and requests an interview.
• Employers use cover letters to screen applicants for a certain job.
Therefore, a cover letter should be well written to show that the job
applicant can communicate well and to stimulate the employer’s
interest as well.
Take note of the following:
1. Inside address – This contains the full name and title of the hiring
manager of the company and the company’s name and address.
2. Salutation – This phrase begins with the word Dear and is
punctuated with a colon. The word Dear is usually followed by the
title of the hiring manager and the hiring manager’s last name.
3. Body – This conveys the main message of the job applicant.
a. First paragraph – In this part, the job applicant states his or
her purpose in writing the cover letter. He or she mentions the
job position as well as the job posting or advertisement that he
or she is responding to with its date and source.
b. Second paragraph – In this part, the job applicant
highlights one or two of his or her skills that are relevant to the
job. He or she states some brief information about the company
or the industry and relates how his or her qualifications can
benefit the company in the long run.
c. Third paragraph – In this part, the job applicant encourages
the hiring manager to view his or her résumé, which is attached
to the letter. Then he or she requests an interview so that the
hiring manager can meet him or her personally.
IV. Tips in Writing an Effective Cover Letter
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1. Research the company that posted the job advertisement. Be sure
that you have the correct and up-to-date information about the
company.
2. Find out the full name of the hiring manager, his or her official title,
and the name of his or her department, so you know who will read
your letter and view your résumé.
3. Use the hiring manager’s last name in the salutation. In case the
information is not available, or you are not sure of the gender of the
manager, simply write “Dear Hiring Manager.” Avoid using clichéd
salutations like “To Whom It May Concern” or “Dear Sir/ Ma’am.”
4. Compose brief and concise paragraphs in the body of the letter.
5. Write about your strengths in the letter and not your weaknesses,
such as your lack of experience or qualifications. The details should
make the hiring officer think you are a strong candidate for the job.
However, do not make any exaggerated claims about your skills and
experience. Avoid using superlatives to describe yourself.
6. Write in a formal language. Avoid colloquialisms or words that are
mostly used in informal or conversational speech.
7. Revise and proofread your letter to make sure it is clear, coherent,
and free of any errors in grammar, spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation. You can ask another person to edit your letter and give
you feedback on how to improve it.
8. Do not forget to enclose or attach your résumé if you are sending
the cover letter with it.
Learning Tasks
Activity 1. Explain the purposes of a professional résumé and a cover
letter in a job application. Write your answer in a five-sentence
paragraph.
Activity 2. Think of yourself as a new college graduate, and you are
looking for a job in your chosen field. Create your own professional
résumé. Make sure to choose the appropriate type of résumé and to
include all the necessary features of that type.
Activity 3. Write a compelling cover letter for your professional
résumé. For authenticity, research a company that you would like to
work for in the future and address your letter to its hiring manager.
UNIT XXI
Forms of Professional Correspondence
The task of keeping a job is quite a challenge. It is not only about
presenting one’s skills related to his or her profession, but it is also
about communicating with others especially in writing. One way of
being professional is showing the mastery in writing business
correspondence in order to communicate well.
Objectives:
 Identify the purposes, features, and formats of different forms
of professional correspondence, namely, the business
correspondence, the office memo, and the business e-mail.
 Compose business letters, office memo, and business e-mails
properly.
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I. Business Correspondence: Definition and Purposes
• Business correspondence simply refers to business letters, which
are written forms of communication that deal with day-to-day
transactions in the workplace. Business correspondence is composing
letters sent to customers or clients of a company or an organization as
well as to its employees, managers, and subordinates.
• Business correspondence is a method of communication that deals
with different business activities. Below are different types of business
letters, each of which has a specific purpose:
1. Inquiry letter – A prospective buyer writes this type of a business
letter to a seller (a business or a person selling goods) to inquire about
the offered merchandise. The buyer asks for the specific details about
the products, such as design, size, and quantity, and requests for a
price list and product samples. In this manner, the seller replies with a
quotation letter. A quotation letter contains the information about the
product including the payment scheme and the discount if there is any.
2. Order letter – A buyer writes this letter to place an order if he or
she intends to purchase. In this correspondence, the buyer mentions the
specific items to order, gives instructions on delivery or shipping, and
indicates the preferred mode of payment.
3. Complaint letter – A complaint letter is a business correspondence
written by the buyer about a problem with the products received. In
this letter, the buyer writes the problem in detail. Some of the
problems include the following reasons: the products are not exactly
what are specified in the order letter—that is, the buyer received the
wrong ones; the number of orders is incorrect; or the products received
are defective or damaged. For any of these reasons, the buyer may ask
for an immediate replacement of the product, for example, and
requests that a corrective action be done at a specific time or period.
4. Recovery letter – A seller writes this letter to the buyer to collect
payment from the products purchased. In a respectful tone, the seller
mentions the amount that needs to be paid and the last payment made
by the buyer if the seller has not received the full payment yet.

• Business correspondence is very important in the workplace. Below

are some reasons.
1. Business correspondence is a proof for all the important transactions 2.
made by a business. Sellers, buyers, and other individuals involved in
a business transaction can refer to the business letters that they sent
and received for important facts in the future.
2. Business correspondence helps maintain good relations between
individuals inside and outside a business. It is an appropriate channel
for making requests, giving information, and resolving issues.
3. Business correspondence is an effective way for businesses to create
and maintain goodwill. Merriam-Webster Learner’s Dictionary defines
the term in business as “the amount of value that a company’s good
reputation adds to its overall value.” Through letters that are written
with respect and courtesy for clients or customers, businesses add to
their good reputation, which can bring positive results.

II. Business Correspondence: Features and Formats

• The following are the three formats of a business letter:

1. Full block format – This is the most common format. In this

layout, the entire text is left justified.

Example:

Modified block format – In this layout, the inside address, the

salutation, and the body of the letter are left justified. However, the
heading, the date, complimentary close, and signature are typed from
the center of the page.
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 3. Semi-block format – This format is almost the same as the
Example: modified block format except for the paragraphs in the body. The first
line of each paragraph is indented.

Example:

• The following are the parts of a business letter:

1. Heading – This contains the sender’s address, which includes the
street, city, and zip code. However, official business letters nowadays
have a letterhead, which contains the name and address of a company.
In such letters, a heading is not necessary.
2. Date – This indicates the date the letter was written. The month is
usually spelled out, followed by the day and the year.
3. Inside address –This includes the name of the recipient and his or
her address. The name is usually written with the person’s appropriate
title.
4. Salutation – This phrase usually begins with Dear followed by the
recipient’s title and last name. If the recipient’s gender cannot be
determined, it is advisable to address the recipient by his or her job
title or full name.
5. Body – This is where the message of the letter is found. The first
line usually opens with a friendly greeting, and the paragraph that
follows state the main purpose of the letter. The next paragraph gives
more information about why the letter is written. Then the last
paragraph requests some action from the recipient.
6. Complimentary close – This phrase begins with a capitalized word
and usually ends in a comma.
7. Signature – The printed name of the sender is set four lines below
the complimentary close. The sender signs his or her name on top of
the printed text.

• A business letter is always written with the recipient in mind who can
be a prospective buyer or a seller. It should have the following
characteristics:

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1. It should be professional and courteous. It should reinforce positive
relationship with the recipient, and it should never be annoying or TO: Faculty Members
sarcastic. The memo has the following features:
FROM: Hilda Cruz, HR Officer, St. Matthew University
1. Heading – This shows the recipient, the sender, the date, and the
2. It should be factual. It should have the correct and up-to-date DATE: June 5, 2015
subject of the memo.
SUBJECT: Newly-Appointed Dean of the College
information. 2. Body – This conveys the message of the memo.
3. Closing – This part asks or requests the target audience to do some
3. It should be concise. It should not include unnecessary information This is to inform everyone that Dr. Criselda G. Monesta has
action.
that could distract the recipient from understanding the main point of recently been appointed college dean. She will oversee
the letter. • administrative
Further featuresand
of instructional
an office memofunctions in our school.
are explained below.
4. It should have concrete words. These words, because they are 1. All intended recipients of the memo are mentioned after TO in the
heading. If the subject of the memo concerns only one individual, only
specific enough, make the message clear.
his or her name is written after TO.
2. The subject of a memo should be appropriate in the situation as well
as to the intended recipients. Sensitive subjects such as violations of
III. The Office Memo: Definition, Purpose, and Features policies that call for face-to-face meeting or a phone call should not be
put in a memo.
• An office memo, which is also called office memorandum
(memoranda in plural) is a brief notice exchanged among the
members of the same organization. The term came from Latin
memorandum meaning “thing to be remembered.” Originally, the term
memorandum referred to a word written at the top of a note until the
word became to refer to the note itself.

• An office memo is usually written for the following purposes:

1. To give new information, such as a new policy or a change in
current policy, to concerned people in an organization
2. To remind specific members of an organization of some particular
information, such as a current policy or procedure
3. To give orders or instructions to concerned members of an
organization to address a particular issue or problem

• Below is an example of an office memo:

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3. The body of a memo varies in length. It can be as brief as the given
example or a full-page length. Nonetheless, its language is simple and
straightforward. It can be formal or informal depending on the context.
A memo written by a supervisor to remind his or her staff to submit
their reports on time, for instance, is likely written in informal manner.
On the other hand, a memo written by the president of the organization
for the different departments about an important change in policy is
written in formal manner.
4. Aside from the intended audience of a memo, other concerned
people may receive the same memo. Their names may appear at the
end of the memo beside cc, which stands for “carbon copy.”

IV. The Business E-mail

• Electronic mail, or simply e-mail, refers two things: (1) the system
for sending messages from a computer to another, and (2) the
messages sent through that system. Both as a system and as a medium,
e-mail is the primary medium of business communication in most
companies today. It is mostly used for both external and internal
correspondence. For instance, prospective buyers can simply e-mail
their inquiries to the seller about the products that they wish to buy,
and the seller sends a prompt reply with the price list. Within an
organization, managers can send their memos to their respective staff The e-mail has the following features:
members, and the members reply to the e-mail to acknowledge that 1. To field – This contains the recipient’s name and e-mail address.
they have received and read the memo. Nowadays, many businesses 2. Cc field – This contains the name and e-mail address of a person
use automated mail, a system that allows them to send a huge volume who needs to be kept up-to-date about the subject of the e-mail.
of e-mail to their customers at specific times. An example of such 3. Subject field – This contains the main topic of your message.
automated mail is the notification e-mail that a user receives 4. Salutation – This phrase begins with Hi, an informal word,
whenever he or she makes an online business transaction. followed by the first name of the recipient and a comma.
5. Body – This conveys the message.
• Below is an example of a business e-mail.
6. Sender’s name – This is the first name of the sender.
7. E-mail signature – This block of text contains the full name of the
sender, his position and company, and his contact information.

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• Below are proper ways of using the e-mail for business 1. To give information about the newly released company uniform 2.
communication. To remind employees about wearing uniform when coming to work
1. Write concisely. Messages should be brief and direct to the point. 3. To give orders or instructions to employees who do not have their
2. Adjust the level of formality of your message. Use formal or uniforms yet
informal language depending on the situation.
3. Use proper letter cases. Avoid composing an entire text using Activity 3. Think of yourself as a supervisor managing a small group
uppercase letters. Using all capital letters gives the impression of anger of people. Send an e-mail to the group to solicit ideas on an
or frustration. Avoid composing the text using all lowercase letters, appropriate bonding activity for the group.
too. This implies laziness or being too casual on your part.
4. Use the courtesy copy (CC) appropriately. Only put the names of
those concerned people. Remember that the recipient can see who has
read the message, too.
5. Use the blind copy (BCC) appropriately. BCC appears in most e-
mails right under the CC field. It is in this field where you write the
name of the person whom you want to inform about the e-mail but the
recipient does not see his or her name. Only use this feature of the e-
mail if you prefer the recipient not to know about who else will read
the e-mail.
6. Do not leave the subject line empty. Filling in the subject line
allows the recipient to know the topic of your e-mail beforehand.
7. Observe correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Glaring errors
in a business e-mail indicate unprofessionalism.

Learning Tasks

Activity 1. Assume the role of a buyer. Compose any of the business

letters below. You can choose any format as long as you use it
properly.
1. Inquiry letter
2. Order letter
3. Complaint letter

Activity 2. Write a memo for any of the purposes below.

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