CHAPTER FOUR

AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Avionic General Test Equipment

Introduction

Welcome to Chapter 4, the syllabus gives no indication of what test equipment

it wishes us to cover except to say it is general. I have interpreted this to mean
the equipment that would usually be found in general use on most aircraft
types rather than on a select few. In this chapter, we will examine avionic test
equipment used during ramp maintenance and in some of the more common
on-aircraft tasks in base maintenance. The equipment includes:

• Portable Air Data Test Set

• Air Data Test Set

• Transponder, DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) / TCAS (Traffic

Alert and Collision Avoidance System) Test Set ı
""',:; .
if-'o;:5'

• VOR/ ILS (VHF Omni-direction Ranging/ Instrument Landing system) @

VHF Communications Test Set c;::
t';'.
~

• Fuel Capacitance/ Quantity Test Set ğ_

~
I would have included the Aircraft Bonding Test set in this list but we dealt " r
with that piece of equipment in detail in Chapter 7 of this module under {
Bonding Techniques and Testing. &
<:o"

The use of the test equipment I have listed requires some knowledge of the
associated avionic systems contained in Module 11.5 for B 1.1 and Module 13.4
for B2. However, I will include abbreviated descriptions of these systems for
you so that you can get an idea of what tests are required. This is done more
for the benefit of the Bl students; B2 students will know these systems. We
will be dealing with general principles and descriptions of the various items of
test equipment rather than concentrating on specific proprietary makes. Ali this
means is that the illustrated test equipment may show controls and displays in a
different layout to those you may observe on a particular make.

I will remind you at times through the chapter that you must abide by the
instructions in the User Manual associated with each item of test equipment
that you use. Additionally, you must comply with the approved system test
instructions contained in the appropriate Aircraft Maintenance Manual
(AMM).

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

If you wish to look up a few of these, relevant ATA100 AMM chapters are:

Chapter 22 Autoflight

Ch apter 23 Communications

Chapter 31 Instruments

Chapter 34 Navigation

Portable Air Data Test Set

This is a very commonly used item o f test equipment so we will need to
examine it in detail. We will not be dealing with any specifıc proprietary brand
of equipment in this section. I will describe the features that would be typically
incorporated into this type of test set and how they might be used. However,
you must abide by the User Manual for the particular item of equipment you
are using and comply with the system test instructions in the appropriate
maintenance manual.

A simple, portable, Pitot/S tatic test set incorporates a hand-operated air pump
that can be selected to generate positive or negative pressure for testing aircraft
systems and their components that use Pitot or Static pressures. These include:
~
'9,.
• Altitude indication ~;....
((i

• Airspeed indication (i
~
;
• Altitude switch operation "'o..
::ı

<
1:..
r,

• Airspeed switch operation p

1:::::
of!
• Vertical Speed Indication &"
e,,"

The hand pump is regulated to limit the maximum pressure/vacuum output to

a safe value that will not cause damage to the aircraft instruments. System
venting and the rate of change of air pressure are achieved through a Release
Valve that is throttled to permit a controlled vent rate. It is opened manually
to gradually vent the system pressure. It is very important to control the rate of
change of air pressure in Pitot/ Static systems to avoid creating excessive
pressure or temperature changes, which may cause damage to sensitive
instruments. Consequently, venting the system through the Release Valve may
take several minutes.

The output port incorporates a second manual Letdown Valve that allows the
operator the choice to control the rate o f venting back to ground level
pressure. The same rule applies, the system must be returned to ground
atmospheric pressure at a safe rate. For example, the Letdown Valve may be
used to vent a system that was already down to a safe altitude or airspeed.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Switch Connections
(Altitude & Speed)

Manual Letdown
Valve

Outlet to
Controlled PX/VAC
Pitot or Static
Release Valve

-PX

Positive or Negative
Handpump - - - Pressure Selector

Figure 4.1 - Portable Air Data Test Set

The hand-operated pump is used to set the output pressure to an approximate

value. A fıne pressure adjustment control is then screwed in or out to raise or
lower the output pressure in small increments to achieve the required value. %_
'cf.>-:5"
"' ·
The output port incorporates a standard connector to which a single flexible '@
hose carrying the required Pitot or Static aircraft connector may be fıtted. The ~
test set is calibrated for use with a specified length and bore hose, for example, ~
Sın at 6mm bore. g_
~
r,
The battery operated display section of the set incorporates a task menu for the p
selection of the required test option. The possible selections for Altitude are off1::::: ()

either Leak Test or Switch Test. The possible selections for Airspeed are either.._~
Leak Test or Switch Test. English values for Altitude can be displayed in feet~
ft/ sec, ft/ min. Metric values for Altitude can be set in metres, m / sec, m / min.
English values for Airspeed can be set in mph or knots and metric values in
kph. The test set incorporates electrical socket connections for voltage and
current measurements and for testing Altitude and Airspeed switch operations.

There is a facility for entering the ambient pressure of the day, ie QNH or
QFE, as a correction to the display readings as an altimeter reads altitude in
feet not units of barometric pressure. If you do not want to use local pressure
correction, the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) table gives standard
mean barometric pressures for given altitudes. We know that in reality, the
actual pressure at any given altitude will vary from day to day or even hour to
hour. This is why we may need to correct altitude-measuring systems for
ambient pressure changes. Üne problem that occurs when we consider altitude
is what we use as a reference point for zero altitude. Zero altitude may be
expressed as the atmospheric pressure at Sea Level or the pressure at some
point above Sea Level. When we express barometric pressure, we usually
annotate it with a Q code as follows:

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Q Codes
QNH

This refers to the local barometric pressure compensated back to Sea Level,
which is then used as zero altitude. When QNH is used, the aircraft's altimeter
will display the aircraft's actual altitude above Sea Level.

QFE

This refers to the local barometric pressure at airfield level; at this setting the
altimeter will read zero (O) feet on take-off and landing.

QNE

Above a point known as the transition altitude, normaliy around 6,000feet in

the UK, ali aircraft reset their altimeters to1013.25 millibars (mb), now calied
Hectopascals (hPa), or 29.921 inches of Mercury (in Hg). This is the ISA
standard barometric pressure setting. This ensures that ali aircraft operating
above the transition altitude are using the same altimeter setting. QNE is more
often referred to as 'Flight Level' expressed as a multiple of feet above the ISA
zero feet level. When you hear that an aircraft is flying at Flight Level 80 for
example, it means that the aircraft is at an altitude of 8,000feet above the ISA
zero feet level.

Pitot/Static System Leak Tests

When conducting system leak tests, the test set must be connected to the
correct aircraft sampling point. When carrying out an Altitude leak test, the
flexible hose is connected from the output port on the test set to the Static
pressure port on the aircraft. When carrying out an Airspeed leak test, the hose
is connected from the output port on the test set to the Pitot probe or tube on
the aircraft.

Static Connection
for Altitude Leak Test
(N egative Pressure)

Pitot Connection ZJ
for Airspeed 8
Leak Test _ _ _,__ _ _ _..
(Positive Pressure)

Figure 4.2 - Connection Points on Aircraft for System Leak Tests

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 CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Before carrying out any test on the aircraft, you must ensure that the test set
and aircraft system have been fully vented to atmosphere.

Wait Time

When you alter the pressure of air in an enclosed space, it will alter its
temperature and this affects the pressure. The W AIT TIME is the time
required to allow the air temperature and pressure to stabilise before
commencing any test that requires you to set an accurate altitude or airspeed
reading by altering the air pressure in the associated system. The time will
normally be specifıed in the test instructions and can be as much as fıve
. .
mınutes ın some tests .

Altitude Leak Test

For this test, the flexible hose from the set is connected to the Stadc port on
the aircraft. The display menu is selected to Altitude Leak Test together with
the required units . The ambient pressure of the day or QFE correction can
then be entered if so required. The controls on the set should be set as follows .
The Fine Adjustment is set to the halfway position. The Release Valve and the
Manual Letdown Valves are closed and the hand-pump output selector is set to
vacuum (negative pressure).
~
The hand-pump is used to set the instrument pressure to the altitude specifıe cfı
in the test instructions using the fıne adjustment as required. The required leak if-'~
test time is then entered together with the specifıed WAIT TIME. To remind ı,,
you, the W AIT TIME is the time that must elapse from activating the RUN 'fu
TEST key to the start of the actual test period to allow the temperature and i
c:ı..
pressure of the air to stabilise. ef
n"
When the RUN TEST key is pressed, the display will count down the WAIT ft=
TIME. When this expires, the START ALTITUDE will be displayed and the ;J
TEST TIME will begin to count down. On completion of the TEST TIME~ç;
the STOP ALTITUDE will appear in the display.

12530
Altitude FT
Time 60 SEC
Start 12550 FT Static
Stop 12530 FT Connection
Change -20 FT
Leak Rate -20 FT /MIN

Negative PX- - ~

Figure 4.3 - Altitude Leak Test

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

If you examine the illustration, this particular test gave a START ALTITUDE
of 1255 feet. O ver the 60 sec duration of the test, the altitude reduced to 12530
feet. This occurred because leakage of air into the system reduced the vacuum
and thus reduced the altitude reading. The altitude change in this case was -20
feet over 60sec, which gives a leak rate of -20 feet/ min. This leak rate must
then be compared with the permitted leak rate value in the Maintenance
Manual.

On completion of the test, the vacuum should be reduced to a safe value,

certainly below 1500 feet, before slowly opening the Manual Letdown Valve to
bring the system pressure gradually back to ground level.

Airspeed Leak Test

For this test, the flexible hose from the set is connected to the Pitot probe or
tube on the aircraft. The display menu is selected to AIRSPEED LEAK. TEST
together with the required units. The hand-pump output is selected to deliver
positive pressure. The Release Valve and Manual Letdown Valves are closed
and the Fine Adjustment is set to the halfway position.

The displayed airspeed is set to zero and the hand-pump is then used to deliver
the instrument pressure required to set the Airspeed reading specifıed in the
test instructions using the fıne adjustment as required. The desired WAIT and
TEST TIME fıgures are entered and the RUN TEST key is pressed. As soon
as the test commences, the START SPEED will be displayed. On completion
of the TEST TIME, the STOP SPEED will appear in the display.

220
Airs eed K.TS
Time 60 SEC
Start 250 KTS
Pitot
Stop 220 KTS Connection
Change -30 KTS
Leak Rate -30 KTS/MIN @-P

Positive PX--- -- ~

Figure 4.4 - Airspeed Leak Test

If you examine the illustration, this particular test gave a START SPEED of
250kts. This reduced to 220kts over the 60sec duration of the test. This
occurred because leakage of air out of the system reduced the positive pressure
resulting in a reduction in the displayed airspeed. This gave a change of - 30kts
over a 60sec duration, which gives a leak rate of -30 kts / min, which is
obviously a major exaggeration, but is used here to illustrate the test set
function. The duration of the test time can be set to any value you wish, it does

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 CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

not have to be 60sec, longer duration tests will give you a mean leak rate per
rrunute.

On completion of the test, the system pressure should reduced to a safe value,
certainly less than 80kts, before slowly opening the Manual Letdown Valve to
return the system pressure gradually back to ground level.

Altitude & Airspeed Switch Tests

Pressure-operated switches serve functions that include:

• Low altitude warning

• Height-lock

• Landing gear confıguration warning

• Speed brakes

• Speed lock

• Mach warning (MM 0 )

• Maximum lAS warning CVMo)

~
~
,:,.
cjQ,:5'
...
@
It is important that these switches close and open at the specifıed altitude or ç:
airspeed values. Additionally, a Pitot or Static pressure-operated switch will ~
often have a hysteresis between the closing and opening pressures and this ğ_
must be within a specifıed limit. Most of these switch operations activate a ;f
visual indicator or annunciator and an aural warning that is usually more p"
prevalent. Sometimes these warnings may not be cancelled unless the flight ~t::::
crew reduce the aircraft's speed. If it is not possible to connect the test set ,&
directly to the switch, we can use the set manually by observing the indicationsc:".,
of switch operation.

Altitude Switch Test

From the display menu, select ALTITUDE SWITCH TEST and select the
desired units . If so desired, enter the ambient pressure of the day or QFE
correction, but these test are usually carried out at QNH, ie ISA. The flexible
hose should be connected to the Static port serving the switch. Where the
electrical connections to the switch are accessible, these should be connected
to the switch test socket connections on the test set. This will produce a visual
display of the contact state of the switch. The Release Valve and the Manual
Letdown Valve should be closed and the hand-pump should be selected to
deliver negative pressure.

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

The RUN TEST key is pressed and the hand-pump is operated to gradually
raise the system altitude until the switch operates. The altitude at which the
switch operates will be displayed. The Release Valve is then slowly opened to
gradually reduce the vacuum and lower the altitude until the switch operates
again. The altitude at which this occurs will also be displayed.

Static Connection

Opened 9950
Closed 10000 Closed 10000

Switch Test ---------

Switch Test
10000 9950
Altitude FT Altitude FT
Run Run

Figure 4.5 - Altitude Switch Test

If you examine the illustration, you will see that the switch closed at 10,000 feet
as altitude was increased and opened again at 9,950 feet as altitude was
decreased. This gave a hysteresis of 50 feet between closing and opening.
These recorded values should be checked against the limits shown in the
Maintenance Manual.

On completion of the test, the vacuum pressure should be allowed to reduce

until a safe altitude is displayed, ie less than 1500 feet, before slowly opening
the Manual Letdown valve to return the system pressure gradually back to
ground level.

In a situation where it is not possible to access the electrical connections to the

switch, the test set can be used in Manual. In this instance, the indicated
altitudes have to be read in conjunction with the appearance of the switch
operation indications.

Airspeed Switch Test

From the display menu select AIRSPEED SWITCH TEST and select the
desired units. The flexible hose should be connected to the Pitot probe or tube
serving the switch. Where the electrical connections to the switch are
accessible, these should be connected to the switch test socket connections on
the test set. This will produce a visual display of the contact state of the switch.
The Release Valve and the Manual Letdown Valve should be closed and the
hand-pump should be selected to deliver positive pressure.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

The clisplayed airspeed is set to zero, the RUN TEST key is pressed and the
hand-pump is then used to gradually raise the system pressure until the switch
operates. The airspeed at which this occurs will be clisplayed. The Release
Valve is then opened slowly to allow the pressure to gradually decrease until
the switch operates again.

Pitot Connection

Opened 160
Closed 180 Closed 180

Switch Test ---------

Switch Test
180 160
Airspeed KTS Airs eed KTS
Run Run

Figure 4.6 - Airspeed Switch Test

If you examine the illustration, you will see that our switch closed at 180kts as
speed was increasing and opened again at 160kts as speed was decreasing. Tlıiş;
gives a hysteresis of 20kts, which again is exaggerated just to show the point'%_
These fıgures should be compared with the permitted lirnits in the acı~
Maintenance Manual, which will usually be between ±1 knot and ±5 knots. As ç
before, if the switch connections are inaccessible, we can operate the test set in 'fu
Manual by recorcling the airspeeds in conjunction with the switch inclications. i
0-

On completion of the test, the pressure should be allowed to fail until a safe n,
i
speed is inclicated, ie less than 80kts, before slowly opening the Letdown Valve ogg
to return the system pressure gradually back to ground level. &
e,,"

Vertical Speed Test

With this portable test, Vertical Speed (VS) operation may be observed by
looking at the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) while changing the altitude
during an altimeter or altitude switch test. As the pressure vacuum is created
using the hand pump, it is not possible to get a calibrated reading of the VSI,
but it will show if it is sensing correctly in the right direction.

Air Data Test Set

The Air Data Test Set can be used to carry out ali the tests that we described in
relation to the portable Pitot/Static system tester plus a few more. Again, we
will not be dealing with any specifıc proprietary brand of test set in this section.
We will confıne our examination to what features would be incorporated in a

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

typical test set. For that reason, you do not need to memorise particular key or
menu selections given here to illustrate general features of the test set. Y ou
must abide by the instructions contained in the User Manual for the particular
item of equipment you are using.

The Air Data Test Set has full pressure and vacuum control and measuring
capacity for on-aircraft sense and leak testing and functional testing of air data
systems, components and instruments. The set has to be connected to an
external electrical power supply. It incorporates two independent pneumatic
systems, one for Static and one for Pitot, each served by an integral, electrical
motor driven pump.

The Static and Pitot systems may be used independent of each other to carry
out altitude or airspeed tests respectively or, they may be used together to
provide any combination of altitude and airspeed values . Typical tests that can
be conducted using this equipment include:

• Static system tests

• Pitot system tests

• Combined Pitot and Static system tests

• Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) tests

• MM 0 /VM 0 tests

• Airspeed and Altitude leak tests

• Airspeed and Altitude switch tests

• Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) tests

~ - - - - - -------Power
Earth Switch
Stud ---t--rı Unit Select
l!!::::~~!l::::::!!~=:::!l::::!!:!!!l!!!!!!!!!::::!!!i:,;,:,,:=::::!J
Power ~ - - - -----+--H+- - - Keys

Supply Display ~ ık Pitot

Function IE:I Connector
Keys ---t-+-ı---+-DDD [IJ[]l]l2J~ Static
DDD [I][S::Jllil p Pt Connector
Number DDD [IJ12J[3JD 5 C
----,r-+-+----+ D illl im arrying
Keys Handle

Figure 4.7 - Air Data Test Set

The set can be selectively operated in different modes that include:

measurement, control, leak measurement and return to ground. In
measurement mode, you can select the parameters to be displayed and the
units to be used. The control mode allows you to set rates of change to

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 CHAPTER FOUR
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selected values of altitude, airspeed, Mach Number or Engine Pressure Ratio

(EPR). The display then shows the chosen parameter changing as the set
controls the rate of change. The Aircraft Maintenance Manual will state
maximum lirnits for parameters and rates of change and these need to be
entered to enable the set to exercise control.

When you wish to return the system to ground, the set will register the airfıeld
pressure and set the target or airn value of the parameter to zero before
returning the system to ground at a safe rate. When the system has returned to
ground, the display will show that it is 'Safe at Ground'.

The conduct of Pitot and Static system leak tests and airspeed and altitude
switch tests is similar in principle to those we examined in the previous section,
the difference being that the parameter airn and rate of change values are pre-
selected and are automatically controlled. We will take a couple of examples
using the illustrated test set to give typical test sequences.

Static Tests

Leak Test

For this test, the flexible hose is connected from the Static port on the set to
the Static vent on the aircraft. Select the required units, select Altitude and the~
press the Leak Measure/Control function key. The number keys are then use cfı
to enter the required altitude and the required rate of climb. The WAIT TIME <f'~
and TEST TIME are then entered. On selecting Enter, the Static system pump ç
will run to generate negative pressure. The displayed altitude will change 'fu
towards the selected value at a controlled rate, slowing as it approaches the
c..
3
value to avoid overshoot. The test commences after the pre-set WAIT TIME i
and at the end of the timed test, the leak rate is displayed. nı
$
At the end of the test, the GROUND function key is pressed and the set will ;!
automatically return the system back to local atmospheric pressure at a saf~ ç;
rate.

Static System Test

This test allows you to compare selected altitude values on the test set with
values indicated on Static instruments and can be used to check the operation
of Static system components. The set is connected and set up as for the Leak
Measure/Control mode above. The set will control the rate of climb to the
selected altitude. N ew altitude values can be entered as required and the set will
control the change to each new value. At the end of the test, pressing the
GROUND function key automatically returns the system to local atmospheric
pressure at a safe rate.

Altitude Switch Test

The preparation for this test is similar except that there is a 'nudge' facility that
allows you to approach the target altitude in increments on ascent to obtain an

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CHAPTER FOUR
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accurate reading when the switch closes. The target altitude is then raised
above the switch operation height and is then 'nudged' back down to obtain a
reading for switch opening.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Test

In a basic VSI, Static pressure is fed directly to the internal capsule and the
inside of the instrument's case. However, the static pressure input to the
instrument case goes through a restricting channel, commonly called a
restrictive choke. As altitude is increased or decreased, at a set rate chosen on
the test set control panel, Static pressure in the capsule changes faster than the
Static pressure in the case because of the restriction. The difference in
pressures is calibrated to give an indication of the rate of climb or descent in
thousands of feet per minute. There is a 'lag' when altitude levels out after a
prolonged climb where the instrument continues to register a climb until the
pressures in the capsule and the case equalise. The modern inertial lead VSI
(ILVSI) reduces this 'lag'.

Pitot System Tests

Leak Test

For this test, the flexible hose is connected between the Pitot port on the set
and the Pitot probe or tube on the aircraft. Select: the required units followed
by Speed Leak Measure/Control and then enter the target speed. Enter the
specified WAIT TIME and TEST TIME. On pressing E nter, the Pitot system
pump in the set will generate positive pressure and increase the displayed
airspeed to the target value at a fixed rate. After the pre-set wait time, the test
will run and the leak rate will be displayed. On selecting GROUND, the set
will automatically return the system to airfield atmospheric pressure at a safe
rate.

Pitot System Test

This procedure is sirnilar to that for the Static system except that you select
Speed Leak Measure/Control. When the target airspeed has been entered, and
the Enter key is pressed, the displayed airspeed changes at a controlled rate to
the target value. A new target value can be entered if required and the system
will change to the new value ata controlled rate.

Airspeed Switch Tests

Again, the procedure is sirnilar to that used for the altitude switch test except
that you select the Speed function. When the target speed is neared, the 'nudge'
facility may be used to raise the speed in incremental steps to obtain an
accurate reading of switch closure. The target speed is then raised above the
switch setting and is then 'nudged' back down to check the airspeed when the
switch opens.

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Combined Pitot/Static System Tests

Some system tests require the simultaneous display of speed and altitude in
order to observe rates of speed and altitude changes. Before carrying out this
type of test, the Pitot and Static ports on the test set must be connected
through flexible hoses to the Pitot and Static probes or vents on the aircraft.

ADC Test Set

Figure 4.8 - Air Data Test Set Connection to Aircraft

The illustration shows a typical connection between the test set and an aircraft.
Note that the position of the set in relation to the equipment being tested can
result in a difference in Static pressures between the set and the item beinl
tested, as with some aircraft this can be several tens of feet. The illustration~.;.
shows that an altitude correction has to be applied for the height difference @
between the test set and the Air Data Computer. Without this correction, the i
test set would be displaying an altitude value lower than the equipment. ;
;:ı
0-

i
....
g
Indicated versus True Airspeed f
&
2
c.;
Pitot pressure is the sum of Dynamic air pressure (1 /2p V and Static pressure.
)

The Pitot method used to measure airspeed is dependent on air density (p). As
we k.now, air density reduces with increasing altitude, which means that at
altitude, the air speed indicator is not showing the true speed of the aircraft, it
is showing what is called the Indicated Airspeed (IAS). The indicated
airspeed (IAS) at altitude will be less than the True Airspeed (TAS).

Mach Test & Constant Mach Test

The Mach speed of an aircraft is the quotient of its true airspeed and the speed
of sound in air. If the true airspeed is the same as the speed of sound in air,
then the aircraft is said to be flying at Mach 1.0.

The speed of sound in air varies in proportion to air temperature. This means
the speed of sound in air reduces as altitude increases and air temperature falls .

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An aircraft flying ata given percentage of the speed of sound in air at Sea Level
will actually start to increase that percentage as it climbs to altitude at a
constant airspeed and may even reach the speed of sound. In simple terms,
Mach 1.0 would be reached at a lower TAS at altitude than it would at Sea
Level. Commercial transport aircraft are mainly transonic and they suffer
adverse compressibility affects when airflow over their surfaces reaches the
speed of sound. An aircraft that is designed to fly at a given Mach speed, say
0.75 Mach, will have a Flight Management System (FMS) acting together
with the autopilot to maintain this value if altitude changes. There will also be a
Mach warning system to alert the crew when the Mach speed reaches a critical
value (McRJT or M~m) . This system would be activated by a Mach switch or
CADC, the operation of which can be tested with the test set.

The Mach test involves setting a target Mach value and then altering the
altitude and checking that the airspeed adjusts to keep the Mach value
constant. We do not need to look further into this, it is just another test facility
provided by the Air Data Test Set.

Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

The Air D ata Test Set m ay be used to check the operation of the EPR
indicators and their sensors and to test the leak rate in the system. E PR is the
ratio of turbine discharge total pressure to intake total pressure. This is shown
as Discharge Px/Intake Px. A target EPR is entered and when this has been
reached, the actual engine inlet and outlet pressures are displayed to confırm
the E PR reading. For example, if the EPR reading was 0.8 and the intake and
discharge pressures were 500 millibars (mb) and 900 mb respectively, the EPR
indication is confırmed. A leak rate test may then be conducted over a
specified test time.

That concludes our examination of the Air Data Test Set. Y ou can see that it is
more versatile than the portable Pitot/S tatic tester and is suited to the testing
of complex systems that use Pitot and Static pressures.

Transponder/DME/TCAS Test Set

There is a range of proprietary test sets available that are designed for single or
multiple sys tem ramp or bench testing. Some are designed for Transponder/
Interrogator testing whilst others also include DME and TCAS testing. We will
be examining this type of equipment in general terms to illustrate the tests they
would be used for under each system heading. The fıne detail associated with
each test such as: test sequences, keypad selections, display formats ete are
peculiar to individual makes of equipment and it would serve no purpose to
include them ali in this section. You must consult the User Manual for the
equipment you are operating and comply with the test procedures in the
appropriate Aircraft or Component Maintenance Manual.

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When testing SSR equipment using ramp test sets, B2 Engineers require a
greater understanc:ling of the test sets and the indications that appear on their
front panels. In addition, also need to be aware of any special regulation, such
as Airworthiness Notices (A W7\? that are applicable from time to time. Over
the years there have several A WN s that were applicable to avionic systems, eg
A WN 84 & 91, but after a defineci period these are usually replaced with more
permanent solutions. At the time of writing this Chapter, late 2007, only one
Airworthiness Notice is currently applicable to avionic systems; A WN 12
Appendix 69.

This Notice provides general guidance material to aircraft maintenance

organisations and maintenance personnel, ie you, relating to ATC Transponder
and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS). It includes
information on the TCAS system together with precautions to be considered
when ground testing A TC Transponders in order to minimise the possibility of
causing nuisance advisory warnings on TCAS equipped aircraft.

I have tried throughout this chapter to avoid quoting or representing

proprietary suppliers and I will continue in this vane here and so similarities to
any existing test equipment is accidental.

Most modern ramp test sets will have combined testing facilities for ATC
Transponder and DME. The latest ones will also include facilities for testing
Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B), Ground
Initiated Communications - Broadcast (GCIB) and the currently USA onl~
based Traffic Information Service (TIS). These ali work with the Mode ~
Transponder to provide information in one form or another using the Mode S ~@

datalink. ç:
~
All Transponder/DME/TCAS test sets contain a precısıon simulator that "::,o..
allows one person to functionality test aircraft Transponder (XPDR) modes
~
ro
A/C/S, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) systems and TCAS I and II.

General Description of Test Set

The equipment used for testing these systems is typically a NICAD

rechargeable battery-operated, portable precision simulator that enables an
operator to functionally test installed aircraft systems. The set incorporates
Radio Frequency (RF) signal generators and modulators that operate in the
frequency ranges of the associated aircraft systems, together with a pulse
generator to create the interrogation and/ or reply pulses needed in most tests .
When testing installed units, the radio frequency transmissions from the test
set are passed to the aircraft antenna through a remote antenna connected to
the test set. Some makes of equipment incorporate an integral, mono-pulse
antenna whereas other types require the use ofa remote antenna. When testing
uninstalled equipment in an approved component repair organisation, co-axial
cables are connected to the unit in place of an antenna.

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Üne signal generator may not cover the entire frequency range of the
equipment under test. A number of RF signal generators may be required to
achieve this. For example, one generator may cover 1O k.Hz to 50 MHz,
another 100 k.Hz to 110 MHz each increasing the frequency range in steps up
to the maximum required by the set. DME for example operates in the L-Band
frequency range from 962 MHz to 1213 MHZ .

To gain any appreciation of the equipment or tests that are carried out, you
need to have some idea of what the system under test actually does. These
systems are discussed in Modules 11 and 13 but I wi11 give you a brief
description for the function of each system before listing the tests associated
with it.

Transponder

A Transponder is an aircraft mounted receiver/ transmitter that receives a

ground transmitted radar signal on 1030 MHz and responds to it by
transmitting a second signal on a different frequency of 1090 MHz that is in
turn received by the ground based radar receiver. The system is more
commonly referred to as being Secondary SurveiDance Radar (SSR). The
signal received by the ground radar station is a lot stronger than the weak echo
signal that would be received from a primary radar transmission. The return
signal transmissions from the aircraft are displayed as a clear 'blip' on the radar
screen. The Transponder transmits coded signals that positively identify the
sending aircraft on the screen. The aircraft altitude can also be displayed as a
number adjacent to the image on the radar screen

Each aircraft is allocated a four (4)-digit code (Squawk) verbally by Air Traffic
Control (ATC) and this is dialled into the Transponder by the pilot, which then
identifıes the aircraft on the A TC radar screen. If requested, the pilot pres ses
an identifıcation button on the Transponder and this produces an enlarged
'blip' on the ground radar display. There are also emergency codes that can be
entered by a pilot when it is required to alert ground radar controllers to
situations such as an emergency, a hijack or complete radio failure. It is
therefore important that when testing Transponder systems you stay well away
from these codes, because when a ground ATC receives these codes, it sets off
an alarm. The dialled in IDENT code (Squawk) is shown on the aircraft
Transponder and wi11 be displayed on the interrogating ATC radar display or
on a test set when the aircraft unit replies to interrogation pulses from the
ground ATC or test set.

The Transponder interfaces with a CADC or an encoding altimeter that

displays an altitude code numerical readout based on height above ISA Sea
Level. This code is usually transmitted automatically and it appears alongside
the 'blip' on the ATC radar screen. This may be tested by reading the code
from the Transponder and verifying its receipt on a test set.

The improved Mode S Transponder is capable of providing a <lata link

between the aircraft, other flying aircraft and the ground station. This permits
the transmission of printed information.

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Transponder Tests

In preparation for testing, the aircraft Transponder is switched on and allowed

to run in 'standby' for a few minutes before dialling in the pilot's code. If the
test equipment requires a remote antenna, this should be set up and connected
to the test set, ensuring that you set the correct spacing between the test set
and aircraft antennas as stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or Test Set
instructions. The following tests may now be carried out:

• Transmitter peak power

• Transponder frequency

• Receiver sensitivity

• Reply delay

• Correct reply code

• Percentage reply Operation

• 'Ident' tone

• 'Ident' pulse output

• Correct pulse timing

• Correct pulse spacing

• Altitude code

• Invalid altitude code indication

• Inadvertent Side Lobe Suppression (sls) SLS operation

• Receiver - decoder limits

• Mode S testing

For B2 engineers testing a Mode A/C Transponder, the most importam factor
is the initial set-up of the test set with respect to the Transponder antenna. The
test set amenna should be set up on its tripod level at a distance from the
aircraft amenna as dictated by the test set operations manual. In most case I
have come across this is 21 inches (approximately 54 cm), but in any event,
should not be less than 15 inches (38 cm) as this could result in damage to the
test set ..

With both test set and aircraft Transponder powered, leave the Transponder in
standby for fıve (5) minutes or so for it to stabilise and work up to its normal

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operating temperature. Ünce stabilised, set the Transponder four (4)-digit

code, avoiding 77XJ(, 76XJ( and 75XJ( for obvious reasons. The test set will
now send interrogation pulses to the Transponder and it will respond
according. Ali test sets will have some method of aliowing you to verify the
Transponder code and fıgure 4.9 illustrates one example.

,...------ XPDRRPLY OMEPRF~

~ ,. . ~ .®
1
S.YTIS!P NO INVALlD F2
0-ALT--0 Q
IDLÔE-:N_T_::====:::;::::=====:;:=====--_...~_J~'>,ıw
Aı Ü BıÜ Cı Ü
INT~RR l F~NG A, 0 s,O c, O
~~~ 4
A Ü 8
4
0 4
C Ü

(i
P\\7R
• • ~ S> ::;:;D~, A DME

ENCODER o
Odb 69. : 73
-9'
77
17X SQTR

BAT • • -9db 66 XPDR

SIG
9!7Y "
OFF

Figure 4.9 - Typical Ramp Test Set Front Panel

As you are aware, Transponders output their Mode A replies in a four (4)-digit
octal format; the replies for the A pulses are shown in the foliowing table, the
B, C and D formats are the same.

Decimal Octal Code

Number A1 A2 A4

o o o o
1 1 o o
2 o 1 o
3 1 1 o
4 o o 1
5 1 o 1
6 1 1 o
7 1 1 1

Table 4.1- Typical Ramp Test Set Front Panel

Ünce ali Mode A digits have been checked, set the Transponder code to 0000
and press the Transponder's Ident button, which may be remotely mounted in
the cockpit, and confirm that it is being sent by illumination of the D4 light on
the test set. The test set should be set to A/C ALT, which changes its
interrogation mode from A to C and you should then verify its response,
which will be in thousands of feet referenced to ISA, ie 1700 feet would read
1.7.

Note: The encoded altimeter readout should be unaffected by the altimeter

barometric setting and will always indicate altitude referenced to ISA.

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Y ou should next check for the Transponder's power and frequency limits in
accordance with the Maintenance Manual.

Finally, you should check the Transponder's response to side-lobe-

suppression (sis), interrogation spacing and signal framing using the test set's
variable controls.

Ünce testing is complete, ensure that you leave the aircraft Transponder in
standby or off mode with the four (4)-digit code set to an undefıned code such
as 0000, 4321 or 1600.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

DME is another example of a system that uses secondary radar techniques. A
transmitter on the aircraft sends a stream of radio pulses that are received by a
ground located SSR station. It responds by transmitting a return stream of
radio pulses to the interrogating aircraft on a difference frequency of ±63
MHz, dependent on operating frequency. The ground station delays its
response by 50 µS and so this time, plus the time elapsed between pulse
transmissions and receiving a reply is automatically processed to produce and
display the range of the beacon in relation to the aircraft and its approach
velocity. However, the velocity reading is only accurate if the aircraft is flying
directly to or from the station. DME measures the slant distance from thij..o
aircraft to the beacon and this produces a small error when compared to1,
ground distance. The error increases as the aircraft approaches the beacon ~@
reaching a maxirnum when the aircraft is directly overhead when its vertical ç:
altitude is displayed as a distance. %,,
"o..
::ı

DME hasa range of around 300 nautical rniles (NMs). A DME ground station ~
is usually collocated with a VOR Navigation Beacon or an airport's ~
Instrument Landing System (ILS). An aircraft DME system therefore, l
shares a VüR/ILS controller to provide frequency and control selection. ,&
Although the operating frequency range ofa DME system is from 960 to 1215'>"
MHz, the DME station does not have to be selected specifıcally. All ground
based DME stations are paired with a selected VüR or ILS beacon under
ICAü rules . When a VüR or ILS frequency is selected on the controller, the
frequency of the collocated DME is also selected automatically.

The air to ground interrogation pulses are sent on a different frequency to the
ground to air reply pulses to prevent a situation where an aircraft receives reply
pulses from its own transmissions 'reflecting' off the ground. However, the
system can operate quite happily with a 50% percentage of degraded reply
signal. ünce synchronised to a ground station, the DME calculates the
range / velocity, which then appears on the aircraft display. The DME test set
has three selectable channels: 108.00 MHz, 108.05 MHz and 108.10 MHz for
use with ILS. When the Instrument Landing System (ILS) channel (108.10) is
selected, it automatically tunes in the DME to produce a continuous indication
of distance to touchdown.

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DME Tests

Prior to conducting tests, the aircraft's DME equipment should be switched on

and allowed torun fora few minutes and set to the test frequency on the VOR
controller. The test set should be set to frequency 108.00. If a remote test
amenna is required, this should be set up and connected to the test set,
ensuring that you set the correct spacing between the test set and aircraft
antennas as stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or Test Set instructions.
The following tests may then be carried out:

• DME distance operation (Distance Display Mode)

• DME velocity calculations

• DME Time To GO (TIG) calculations

• DME transmitted Pulse Rep etition Frequency (PRF)

• Transmitter peak power and frequency

• Percemage reply

• 'Ident' tone

• Channel 108.05 operation (repeat above tests)

• Channel 108.10 operation (repeat above tests)

For B2 engineers required to test DME operation, the test set should be set-up
in the same way as with the Transponder system, but obviously with the test
set antenna located near the DME amenna of the system under test.
Remember though that there must be at least 15 inches between antennas to
prevent damage to the test set.

ünce set up, tune the VOR controller to 108.00 MHz and set the test set mode
switch to D ME, if required, as in fıgure 4.12 above. If there is a
RANGE/VELOCITY switch as in the illustrated test set, set the switch to
RANGE. For VOR frequency 108.00 MHz, the co-located DME is an 'X'
channel and so if the test set has a switchable channel spacing switch, this
should be set to 17X. Channel 18X is on frequency 108.1 O MHz while channel
17Y is on 108.05 MHz. The unit under test may now be checked at various
distances by using the test set controls.

To test the DME Groundspeed (GS) and Time-To-Go (TIG) functions, the
test set should have a control to simulate increasing and decreasing DME
distance, which will allow the DME unit under test to calculate GS and TIG.
In addition, the tes t set should output a 1020 Hz Ident tone that will be
decoded by the DME unit under test and send to the Audio Integrating
System (AIS) for distribution, as required.

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Meters on the test set should allow you to check the DME's power output and
its Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) while searching and locked on. lt should
also have a switch function to reduce replies from the test set by 50% to
ensure the DME under test remains locked on.

Traffıc Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

TCAS uses aircraft to aircraft interrogation between Mode S Transponders to

provide position information about other Transponder equipped. The
equipment seans a clistance of about 15 nautical miles around the aircraft and
can measure the range, closure rate and height separation of aircraft within this
range in relation to the interrogating aircraft. A range of coloured symbols is
displayed to indicate position, range and direction of each identifıed target.
When the closure time between an 'intruding' aircraft and the interrogating
aircraft poses a level of threat, a series of visual and aural proximity warnings
are given, each depending on the threat level. These may advise avoidance
measures in the vertical plane. Systems that are scheduled for introduction in
the near future will include avoidance measures in the horizontal plane. Typical
aural warnings are 'Traffıc, Traffıc', 'Clirnb, Clirnb', Descend, Descend' or
conversely, the instructions may teli the flight crew not to climb or descend.

TCAS Tests

The TCAS /Transponder test set uses the aircraft Mode S Transponder to
provide up to eight different scenarios for TCAS testing. These are used to
simulate an intruder in proximity to the aircraft under test. Tests include:

• Static and dynamic (moving) target simulations

• Intruder closing at, above or below confıgured altitudes

• Intruder diving, clirnbing or turning

The TCAS display in the aircraft is checked to verify that the correct visual and
aural warnings are being triggered in response to each test simulated by the test
set.

TCAS testing is in its infancy and there are not many test sets around that are
capable of fully testing TCAS functions . The first thing to know when testing a
TCAS system is if it is a TCAS I or TCAS II as the tests are different. Ünce
this is established you will need to set up the test set and associated directional
antenna ::;so feet (15.25 metres) from and in line of sight with the top and
bottom aircraft antennas. When testing the bottom antenna you should use the
fuselage to block the line of sight to the top antenna. A shield is positioned to
block the line of sight to the bottom antenna when testing the top antenna.

In order to test Mode S Transponder and TCAS functions, the aircraft must be
powered with the aircraft confıgured for weight offwheels. The actual testing

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of Mode S Transponder and TCAS is quite complex and so you should always
follow the instructions of the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or test set
instruction book. However, in any event, the test set should be capable of
simulating at least four (4) intruding aircraft.

Note: If aircraft is on the ground, set the test set to MANDAL and enter
manual addresses for the Mode S Transponder all-calls tests as they do
not work when the aircraft is on the ground.

VOR/ILS, VHF Communications Test Set

Again, there are a number of proprietary makes of equipment that are designed
to test some or ali of these systems. You must consult the User Manual for the
operation of the equipment you are using and comply with the test procedures
in the appropriate Aircraft or Component Maintenance Manual.

General Description of Test Set

Most ramp test sets are portable, rugged and powered by rechargeable NICAD
batteries. A typical set would incorporate a radio wave Signal Generator with a
variable attenuator and an integral amenna for transmission of signals to the
aircraft. The signal generator can be operated under either fixed frequency
control or in variable frequency mode. It may be modulated by tones from the
equipment under test or may provide modulation, as appropriate.

The set would incorporate a display that indicates the radio frequency of the
signal generator, the frequency of a transmitter under test, any external signal
inputs or VOR bearings. There would be an integral radio frequency power
m eter suitable for measuring VHF Communication transmitter average and
peak power. An integral modulation meter would be used to measure the
percentage m odulation of the Signal Generator on any frequency band. The set
would also incorporate a 90° bearing monitor for checking VOR bearing.

The test set simulates the signals and tones normally transmitted to the aircraft
from ground-based navigation equipment. The test set acts as the sending
source for these signals so that the aircraft equipment can be checked for
correct indications and respons es. These include:

• Marker signals and tones for Outer, Middle and Airways Markers

• VOR Ground Station signals

• Localiser signals

• Glideslope signals

• Transmitted ground station Ident codes

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We will need to know what each of the systems does before looking at the
tests associated with them. The following descriptions have been kept
deliberately brief and are only intended to show you what the test set simulates,
more detailed descriptions of these systems may be found in Module 11
Chapter 5 and Module 13 Chapter 4.

Marker Beacons

Marker beacons are used in conjunction with an Instrument Landing System

(ILS) and they give an indication of distance to touch down. There are two
Marker Beacons positioned along the Instrument Landing Sys tem (ILS) path.
These are the Outer and Middle Markers. The Outer Marker is approximately
seven nautical miles from the runway threshold; the Middle Marker at about
halfa nautical mile.

Ali the Marker Beacons transmit on the same frequency (75MHz) but each
transmits a different identification code and tane. The Outer Marker is heard
as a series of low tane dashes accompanied by a blue light on the instrument
panel that flashes in unison with the code. The Middle Marker is heard as a
series of medium-tone alternating dashes and dots accompanied by an amber
light flashing in unison. The Airways Marker is heard as a series of high-tone
dots accompanied a clear white light flashing in unison.
~
The Outer Marker is often located with a low-power, ADF non-directiona'f%.
~
beacon (NDB). The aircraft is equipped with a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) 1:©
that incorporates Automatic Direction Finding (AD F) needles that point ç;,
towards the NDB. As the aircraft over-flies the NDB, the needles swing t
around to point backwards, usually indicating the point where the aircraft ~0-
should turn onto final approach. ~

g"
1
&
Localiser e,,"

An Instrument Landing System (ILS) uses two radio signals that provide
runway centreline guidance and descent path guidance to touchdown. The
runway centreline radio signal is called the Localiser (LOC) and the glide path
signal is called the Glideslope (G / S). The Localiser transmits on the VHF
frequency band (108.1 O MHz to 111. 9 5 MHz on the odd decimal frequency
channels) through a large amenna array at the end of the approach. Each
Localiser VHF frequ ency is accompanied by a Glideslope operating on a
paired UHF frequency. When an approaching aircraft drifts to one side of the
Localiser centreline, the change in received radio signal strength is used to
indicate the aircraft position on the flight instrument display as being left or
right of the runway centreline.

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Glideslope (G/S)
We have already introduced this. The G lideslope antenna is positioned
adjacent to the touch down point on the runway. When an approaching aircraft
is above or below the Glideslope, the change in received radio signal strength
is u sed to display the aircraft's position on the flight instrument display as
being high or low of the glidepath. A simple display uses two needles, one
vertical and one horizontal. Deflections of the vertical needle indicate positions
left or right of the runway centreline and deflections of the horizontal needle
indicate positions above and below the glidepath.

VHF Omni-Directional Ranging (VOR)

VOR beacons are strategically placed along airways and other navigational
reporting points like holding patterns to allow the flight crew to navigate the
aircraft along a chosen flightpath. A VOR beacon transmits a signal in the
VHF band frequency modulated (FM) at 30 Hz from an antenna that rotates at
30 Revolutions Per Second (RPS) so providing amplitude modulation (AM) at
30 Hz. An aircraft receives the 30 Hz FM signal together with the 30 Hz
amplitude modulated (AM) signal created by the rotation of the transmitter.
The FM signal phase is the same in ali directions but the AM signal phase
changes in relation to the aircraft's radial position from the beacon. The FM
and AM signals are arranged to be in phase at the N orth position so that phase
differences relate to magnetic bearings around the beacon. These positions are
referred to as 'radials'.

The VOR information can be displayed in the aircraft either as the position of
a needle on a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) or by a deviation bar, often
coloured orange, on the compass display, which has a full-deflection scale of
±10°. In the latter case, when the aircraft is positioned on the centreline of an
airway, the deviation bar lies central in the compass giving a clear indication of
the aircraft's position in relation to a selected radial. An RMI needle, on the
other hand, always points directly towards the beacon.

A VOR beacon has range of about 200 nautical miles. When the aircraft is
outside of this range, a flag appears, usually red or red and white striped, in the
aircraft display indicating that any VOR data displayed is not valid.

Tests

The following tests would be carried out on the aircraft:

• Marker operation

• VOR operation

• Localiser operation

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• Glideslope operation

• Combined Localiser and Glideslope operation

• VHF Communications receiver and transmitter tests

NAV /COMM Test Set

The navigational communications test set is used to test the operation of ILS,
VOR receivers and VHF Transmitter/ Receivers. The test set provides accurate
measurement of frequency, output power, AM/FM modulation and receiver
sensıtıvıty.

VHF Communications Testing

B2 Engineers will be expected to use NAV /COMM test equipment to a

greater depth than B 1 Engineers. Most ramp test equipment for VHF
Communication transmitter/ receivers have a fıxed 2 to 3 foot whip antenna
and will allow you to look at the peak and/ or average output power of the
transmitter. These meters usually have two settings; O to 10 Watts for light
aircraft and Oto 100 Watts for air transport systems. S
~
When testing the aircraft's receiver, most combined Nav/Comm test Sets use ~
the Marker Beacon audio frequencies of 400 Hz, 1300 Hz and 3000 Hz to ı
modulate the test signal or the 1020 Hz tone used to simulate ground station \
ident. A ramp test set will always have a 'COM Fixed' frequency, usually ~
118.000 MHz, fora stable channel centre frequency. Most modern test sets will o..
then allow variable frequency outputs from 118.000 MHz up to 156.000MHz n
i
in 25 kHz and 8.33 kHz steps. g
1
&
e,,'

VOR Testing

For VOR and ILS operation, except Marker Beacon, most ramp test sets have
a fıxed, extendable antenna that will allow you to carry out the majority of line
checks with the test set standing vertically in the cockpit. In this way, you can
set the test parameters and look at the results on the appropriate instruments
without leaving the ilight deck.

When testing VOR the ramp test will allow adjustment of the 30 Hz variable
phase signal, but not the 30 Hz reference phase as this is used as the
benchmark for ali VOR tests . The VOR ramp tester will have a 'VOR
BEARING SELECT' switch that will allow you to select any radial from 0° to
360°, although some also have a fıxed output for just testing at the cardinal
point N, E, S and W. A 'TO/FROM' switch is used to allow checking of this
function. In addition, most test sets will have an output RF attenuator for use,
as required, to establish receiver sensitivities.

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Most ramp testers work on a fixed frequency of 108.00 MHz, but there are
some with a 'HI/LO' switch that allow testing at 112.80 MHz and 108.00 MHz
respectively.

When testing aircraft VOR systems you should be checking for:

• Receiver sensitivity

• Radial accuracy

• Deviation bar accuracy, ie ±10°

• TO /FROM Operation

ILS Testing

With most ramp test sets, the Localiser, Glideslope and Marker operations are
tested together. As I am sure you are aware, if not look at Module 13 Chapter
4, Localiser and Glideslope receivers work off VHF and UHF carrier wave
frequencies respectively, modulated with a 90 Hz and 150 Hz continuous
tones. These are not decoded for aural purposes, but the receivers monitor
their Differences in Depth of Modulation (DDM), which will be equal
when the aircraft is on the runway centreline for the Localiser and on the
centre of the Glidepath for the Glideslope. Most test sets allow stepped
control of the DDM to allow specific and precise Localiser and Glideslope
deviation indications on the flight deck displays. The 90 Hz signal is used for
indicating left of the runway and above the glidepath, while the 150 Hz signal
indicates the opposite.

As with VOR testing, the output RF attenuator allows you to test for receiver
sensitivities, as required.

Fuel Capacitance/Quantity Test Set

Before we examine what the test set does, we need to learn a few simple facts
about a modern fuel contents gauging system.

Modern aircraft fuel contents gauging systems are based on the measurement
of capacitance. The principle is that the value of a capacitor having fıxed
dimensions will be dependent upon the dielectric constant of the matter
between the plates. The space between the plates in a fuel contents capacitance
unit will be fılled with fuel, air or a combination of both. Air has a dielectric
constant (k) of 1 and fuel has a dielectric constant (k) of approximately 2. The
total capacitance of a tank contents unit will therefore be proportional to the
amount of fuel in the tank.

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Air(k=1)

d = Distance Between Tubes

Fuel (k = 2)
a = Wall Area of Tubes
k = Dielectric Constant

Capacitance = k x a
d

Figure 4.10 - Simple Fuel Tank Capacitance Unit

If you examine the illustration, you will see that fuel content is proportional to
capacitance. When a tank is being fılled, the space between the capacitance unit
tubes will progressively fıll with fuel thus increasing the capacitance value of
the unit. Ç;
~

A number of tank units connected in parallel are usually installed in a fuel tank. ~~
This compensates for changes in aircraft attitude or surging of fuel in the tank. ı
For example, if the aircraft banks and fuel runs towards one end of the tank, %.;
some units will increase in capacitance whilst the capacitance of others will
0-
i
reduce, the overall capacitance remains unaltered. ~

n"
A capacitance fuel gauging system incorporates a reference or compensating #
capacitance unit. This unit is fully irnmersed in fuel and is used to compensate ;!
for changes in permittivity when different fuel specifıcations are used. e,,,.ş,

Reference Capacitor
/
ı

Tank Capacitor

Figure 4.11 - Simplified Fuel Contents Gauging System

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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

The total capacıtance value from the tank unıts is fed to a bridge rectifıer
circuit where its amplitude is compared with that of the reference or
compensating circuit. Where the bridge is unbalanced, the error signal is
amplified and used to drive a moving coil instrument calibrated to read fuel
content in lbs or kg. At the same time, a wiper arın is moved across a
potentiometer in the reference or compensating circuit to rebalance the bridge
when the instrument p ointer indicates the correct fuel quantity.

Modern fu el quantity systems stili operate on the capacitance principle but the
signals are fed to a fuel quantity processor where they are: corrected for
density, converted to lb or kg and displayed on a digital fuel quantity indicator
for each tank and on a total fuel quantity indicator.

A further advantage o f a capacitance system is that the fuel content is

m easured as mass, not volume. If the fuel temperature changes, the fuel will
alter in volume but this changes its dielectric constant. As fuel expands, the
dielectric constant reduces. The result is, the mass m easurement is not altered
by changes in fuel temperature.

Because capacitance is used as a means for measurement, it is irnportant that

the capacitance of the connecting cables in the system is kept at a constant
value. Coaxial cables having fixed, low capacitance are used in these system s.

Test Set

The test set may be called a Fuel Capacitance Test Set ora Fuel Quantity Test
Set. The test set incorporates a bridge rectifier test circuit and capacitors that
are used to carry out several tests that include:

• Measuring the capacitance values of single tank units

• Measuring the total capacitance value o f several tank units

• Checking compensating units

• Measuring the total capacitance of units and wiring

• Sirnulating capacitance output from one or more units to calibrate fuel

contents gauges

• Measuring the insulation resistance of tank units and wiring

• Conducting fault diagnosis and isolating fuel gauging system problems.

In addition to carrying out the above tests on capacitive fuel gauging sys tems,
the set can be used to test any A C capacitive fluid gauging system, including oil
and water systems. A test set is available that can test both AC and DC
systems. The sets are p ortable and have a rugged design making them suitable
for use on the ramp as well as in a repair workshop .

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 CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Calibration

A final word should be said regarding the calibration of test equipment. Each
manufacturer will stipulate the calibration period for their equipment. An
Approved Maintenance Organisation is obliged to have a system for
controlling the test equipment it uses. We discuss calibration in other parts of
this module. However, the equipment should carry proof of calibration and
information on when the next calibration is due. Y ou must not use the
equipment if this information is not available. In a sirnilar vein, if an item of
equipment proves to be defective in use, you must withdraw it from use,
quarantine it, and clearly identify it as being defective.

Conclusion

We have covered a number of items of test equipment that might be described

as being 'in general use'. What you would understand to be 'in general use'
does depend on the type of aircraft you work with. For example, I have not
included GPS, Microwave Landing Sys tems, ARINC 429 DATABUS ete. A
general use item of equipment, such as the Pitot/ Static test set, tends to be
used on virtually ali aircraft and that is the type of equipment we have covered
in this chapter. Before you take a well-earned break, there are a few multi-
choice answer questions for you to try.

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