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Digital Control System

Research Proposal · March 2009

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16113.17763

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0 5+ 0 . 2,5 +m't 5 4
-+0C 35 ~ J'


56 ul

1
roi,
/o(/i
(e+l) Z7 o. 1-

elk) -
qtAt

- V, J) 51 0 -04r
-.0j J5 j
e5
J

T--&b + ke -Gafl

4 I

k
" n! K

-1
qp, L g6~) 'I-/1 ] : -b j û5~
b .

3) C (b s) bb -- 1- e 3a4 ) C(!

m
v o I -e-(ft,) ..d
4) u( A) = - x', y(g) - &n)(2 (ê)


384 APPENDIX C MATRIX ALGEBRA 385

that is, if and only if Partial differentiation and integration of matrices are defined in an analog-
ous manner .
a„ - A a,,- a
a_, a-- A
Functions of matrices . The definition of a function can be extended to
=0 matrix arguments . This concept is particularly useful when the function
can he expanded in a convergent power series . Such a representation
a,, a„, a,,,, - A takes the following form :

Either of these last two equations is called the characteristic equation of g (A) _ > BA"' A° = I
the matrix A and the expression
f(A)=JA-A11, =A"+a„ ,A"-'+ •- •+ a,A+a,,=0 For example, the exponential function of the square matrix A

is called the characteristic polynomial for A .

A
=I+A+ I A'+
The roots of the characteristic equation, denoted by Ai (where i = This series converges for all square matrices . From the
Y
1, 2, . . . , n) are called the characteristic values, or eigenvalues, of the
Cayley-Hamilton theorem it is seen that if A is an nth-order matrix we can
matrix A . The vectors x that satisfy the equation Ax = A x are called
express A" as a polynomial in A where the highest power of A is n - 1 .
characteristic vectors, or eigenvectors, of the matrix A.
Using this relationship it is possible to systematically reduce a polynomial
If there exists a nonsingular matrix T such that B=TAT - ', the square of any order in A to an equivalent expression containing no terms of power
matrices A and B are said to he similar . All similar matrices have the same
higher than n - 1 . The resulting expression will be of the form
eigenvalues and eigenvectors .
If A is a symmetric matrix, then all of its eigenvalues are real, and the ,(A)= 'A . + IA+ "I
'A" -, + , A,:
eigcnvectors corresponding to different eigenvalues are orthogonal ; that is,
if x ; is the eigenvector corresponding to A ; (where A, = A,) . then
where A is the determinant
X, T
x k =0
I
Cayley-Hami,ton theorem . The Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that :
"Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation in a matrix A ,'
sense ." This means that if an nth-order square matrix A has as its
characteristic equation
f(A)=A"+a"_,A°-'+ •' '+a,A+a„=0 A 'I
then
~f( )=A"+a„ A ° . . .+a',A+<x„I=0 and A, . A,, . . . , A„ are the eigenvalues of A . The determinant .1, , is derived
, from A by replacing the elements of the rth row by g(A), g(A), g(A,), . . . .
Matrix calculus . If the elements of a matrix A are differentiable functions g (A" ) .
a,, (t) of a scalar parameter t, then the derivative of A with respect to t is If the n eigenvalues of A are distinct . then the expression for the
defined as matrix function can he written in the following alternative form :
da„(t)da,,(t) da,,tt) It (A-A k I)
dt dt dt g(A) =>f(A,)--
da-,(t) da,-- 2 (t) da,,,(t) H (Aj - Ak)
j-k
dt' di dt dt

This is known as Sylvester's theorem .

da,,,,(t) da- , (t) da (t)] Miscellaneous matrix relationships . It is assumed in the following that the
dt (it (it various matrix operations are permissible : that is, matrices being multi-


386 APPENDIX C

pled are conformable, matrices being inverted are nonsingular, and so on .

(ARC) = (AB)C = A(BC)

A" =AA . . . A to n factors
If D=ABC, then D - ' C 'B - 'A - '
A - " =(A - ')'
If C = AB, then C T = ( AR)' = R T A T
IfD=ABC, then 1)' =(ABC) T =C T B T A' Index
Premultiplication (postmultiplication) of A by the matrix obtained by
replacing the I in the jth row (column) of the identity matrix by a
multiplies all elements in the jth row (column) of A by a .
Premultiplication (postmultiplication) of A by the matrix obtained by
replacing the zero in the nondiagonal element 5;,, of the identity matrix by
I adds the kth row (column) of A to jth row (column) of A .
Premultiplication (postmultiplication) of A by the permutation matrix
obtained by a permutation of the rows (columns) of the identity matrix
results in an identical permutation of the rows (columns) of A .


MATRIX ALGEBRA 381

7
T
be designated as the transpose of a column vector (see below) . Accord- (-1)a1 0
ingly, boldface lowercase letters will always refer to column vectors . (-I), 11 01 ( -1) =10 o1 11
An (n x n) matrix is called a square matrix, of order n . A square matrix r' I 1
adj A =
is diagonal if, and only if, j -/- k implies a rk = 0 ; that is, all elements not on (-1)3 11 01 (-I)4 10 01 (-1) , 10 12 1
the main diagonal (from upper left to lower right) are zero . f
( - l) 1 I I1 ( - 1)6 1
A scalar is an ordinary number . It is also sometimes identified with a ( -l)x 1 2 11 1
matrix of order (I x 1)-that is, a single element . Scalars will be denoted
by ordinary (not boldface) type . 1 0 0 T -1 1 1 -
The identity matrix is a diagonal matrix that has all its diagonal ele- 1 0 -1l _ 0 0 -1
ments equal to one . It will be denoted by I . 1 -1 I 0 -1 I
The null, or zero, matrix (either square or rectangular) has all its
elements equal to zero . It is denoted by 0 .
The transpose, A T, of a matrix A is formed by interchanging the rows Matrix Algebra
and columns of A . For example, if
Equality of matrices . Two matrices A and B are equal if, and only if, they are
a„ a,_,
a„ a,, a,,, a„ of the same order and all their corresponding elements are equal ; that is,
A = then A' = a_-
a,, a,, a, 3
a3, A = B provided A and B are of the same order and a ik = b,k for all j and k.
a 131

From this definition it is seen that the transpose of a column vector is a Addition and subtraction of matrices . In order for two matrices to be added
row vector, and vice versa . or subtracted they must be of the same order . If A and B are of the same
The determinant of a matrix (necessarily square) is the determinant of order, then their sum, C, is defined as the matrix whose elements are the
the elements of the matrix and is accordingly a number or scalar . The sums of the corresponding elements in A and B . Thus .
determinant of A is denoted IAI . For example . if
C = A- B where crk = ark + h rk
1 1 2- 1 1 2 The subtraction of two matrices is defined similarly ; thus .
A= 2 1 1 then ÎA1 = 2 1 1 =3
-1 2 2 1 2 2 D = A- B where d,k = ark - b ik
A matrix (necessarily square) for which the determinant of its ele-
ments is zero is called a singular matrix : that is, if JAI =0, then A is a Scalar multiplication . The multiplication of a matrix A by a scalar (ordinary
singular matrix . If JAI, 0 . then A is nonsingular. number) k is called scalar multiplication and results in a new matrix, each
The cofactor of the element a, k of the square matrix A is the scalar element of which is multiplied by the scalar . Thus,
element formed by considering the matrix as a determinant, striking out (111 CI 1 , 0 1', ka,, ka„ . . . ka,,,
the jth row and kth column and multiplying by (-l)' ` k. For example, if ka„ ka,,- - - - ka,,,
B=kA=k a„ a„ a,,,
. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
a„ a„ a, : .. . ka,,,, ka,,,, • , • ka,,,,,
a-, a,,,,
A= a„ a- a-
- (I 3 , a„_ a 33 Scalar multiplication is commutative, and therefore, k A = Ak .
then
1 a„ a,3
cofactor of a3, _ ( ), - a,,_a, 3 - a,,a,2 Matrix multiplication . Two matrices can be multiplied together only when
a„ a,3,
the number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows
The adjoint matrix, adj A . of a (necessarily) square matrix A is formed of the second . Such matrices are said to be conformable in that order . If
by replacing each element of A by its cofactor and transposing . Thus . if two matrices are conformable, their product is defined as

1 2 1 AB=C
A= 0 I 1 where q
_0 1 0_ crk = ar ,b, k


382 MATRIX ALGEBRA 383

APPENDIX C

and the orders of the matrices A, B, and C are (in x q), (q X n), and
(in X n), respectively . The operation of matrix multiplication can be vis-
ualized as follows : To obtain the jkth element in the product matrix, take
the jth row of the first matrix and the kth column of the second matrix
and multiply them term by term and add the result . This is illustrated
below for the product of a (4 X 3) matrix and a (3 x 2) matrix .
using, a vector a is a column matrix ; therefore, when a vector premulti-
plies a matrix B the product will always be in the form a T B in order that the
matrices be conformable . When the order of multiplication is reversed the
transpose is not required, and the product will be Ba . Premultiplication
and post multiplication of a matrix by a vector leads to the scalar form
a r Ba .

1 2 2- 1-
1 -3 1 The inverse matrix . The matrix operation corresponding to division is
A= B = 1 I AB=C defined in terms of the inverse matrix . For a given matrix A . the inverse
0 1 2
_-1 1 -2- matrix A -- ' . when it exists, is defined by the following equation :

The product matrix C will be a (4 x 2) matrix . To find the element c, of AA - '=I=A - 'A
the product matrix we must multiply the elements in the third row of A by Thus, any matrix multiplied by its inverse leads to the identity matrix .
the elements in the second column of B and add Only a nonsingular matrix (that is, one whose determinant does not van-
ish) has an inverse . The inverse of a nonsingular (necessarily square) mat-
rix is
adjA
JAI
As an example, consider
A= a„ a,,_1
n l„
a, - a, ; a,,
adja=I -
u,, a„ - a„ a„
The final result is as follows : det A= a, a- - ( 1, , a,
1 2- 2 1_ 8 7- Therefore,
1 -3 1 1 0 A'-- 1 a„ ,
-a,i
X 1 1 a ,,a_ - a,,-a ., a, a„
2 0 1 2 6 4
_-1 1 -2 . -4,
In general it is not possible to reverse the order of multiplication in a A frequently occurring problem in ma-
Characteristic equation of a matrix .
product . Only for an (in x n) and an (n X in) matrix would both products trix analysis is to find values of a scalar parameter k for which there exist
be defined, since otherwise the matrices would not be conformable in vectors x ~ 0 that satisfy the matrix equation
both orders . Over and above that, however, reversing the order of a
Ax = A x
product when possible leads, in general, to a different result . Thus,
AB # BA where A is a given nth-order square matrix . Such a problem is called a
characteristic value, or eigenvalue, problem . This equation can be re-
If two matrices do have the property that their product is independent written by means of the identity matrix as
of their order of multiplication, they are said to commute . In particular the
Ax = A IX
identity matrix I commutes with any square matrix of the same order :
that is, (A-AI)x=0
IA = AI
There will be a solution if . and only if .
The product AB can be referred to in two ways : We may say B is
premultiplied by A, or that A is postmultiplied by B . In the notation we are IA-Al l =0


376 APPENDIX B CONTOUR INTEGRATION 377

A theorem from complex variable theory (Jordan's lemma) may now be I. For n =0 the integral is
applied to (B-15) to give the following results :
1 . If 1im F(~ + c) = 0 uniformly for (w/2)< 0 ~ (3-,r/2), and if t >0, 1 I dz residues at 0 . -1
=1
2 ,7J z'(z + 1)
then the integral (B-15) over C2 approaches zero as R approaches _ -t
d
infinity . K„ =d( z + 1) ' .-„ (z+1), =-1
2 . If Ii m F(6 + c) = 0 uniformly for -(-rr/2) -!~ 6 < ( , /2), and if t < 0,
ifi -Y
then the integral (B-15) over C, approaches zero as R approaches
infinity .
Note that lim fol-F(~ + c,) = Jim F(s), and in many practical cases the : .f(0)=-1+1=0
lowing more general condition is met : 2 . For n = I the integral is
3 . Iim F(s) = 0 uniformly for all 0 which meets the requirements of
1 1 -I
both I and 2 . ? T1 7(Z + 1) dz = ? residues at 0,
The procedure for inverting the Laplace transform can now be stated .
1
If conditions I or 2 are met, the value of f(t) for positive time is found by K0 - z+
closing the contour to the left and evaluating the integral as the sum of the
residues at the poles enclosed . If conditions 2 or 3 are met, the value of I
K -, = =-1
f(t) for negative time is found by closing the contour to the right and
evaluating the integral as the sum of the residues at the poles enclosed .
J(T) =0
These results may be stated more compactly as
3 . For n z 2 the integral becomes

-'iF(s)i=f(t)u(t)= I 0
\' residues to left of G
t<0
t>0
( B-ts
1 1 dz = residue at -1
+ 1)
residues to right of C 0 t<0
Y - '{F., (s )} - f(t) - -` (B-17)
residues to left of G t>0 K- = z" Th- = (-1)
It is clear that (B-16) is a special case of (B-17) since the one-sided trans- f (nT) = (-l) ., for n?2
form F(s) never has poles to the right of C„ and, therefore, is identically =0 for n <2
zero for t <0 .
The above procedures are directly applicable and reasonably the inverse transform of F„(s)=
Example B-2 . Find
straightforward when F(s) is single-valued . However, when F(s) is mul- 2
lls (s - 2), 0 < o-" < - .
tivalued, as for example F(s) = s - ' 2, the integration is more complicated . ~~ ; x e ll

Such integrals can be evaluated by deforming the path of integration to f(t)=7 1 . J ds

s'(s-7)
avoid the lines along which lim F(s) dose not converge uniformly to
residue at s = 0 for t > 0
zero . The evaluation of integrals of this type is discussed in the references (-1) residue at for t < 0
and will not be considered further .
From B-7
The following two examples illustrate the procedures discussed drE tE = (s -2)-e 'l
above . k „ =d s - 21 (s - 2) 2
Example B-l . Given F(z) = 1/z(z + 1), find the inverse z-transform .
1
f(nT) = 2 F(z)z" - ' dz
,r, J 1
=4E
1 a_


378 APPENDIX C

References
1
1. PAPOULIS, A .,The Fourier Integral and its Applications
. New York : McGraw . I
Hill Book Company, Inc ., 1962 . In Chapter 9 and Appendix 11, a readily APPENDIX
understandable treatment of evaluation of transforms by contour integration is
given .
2 . CHURCHILL, R ., Operational Mathematics 2nd ed ., New York : McGraw-Hill
C
Book Company, Inc ., 1958 . A thorough treatment of the mathematics relating
particularly to the Laplace transform is given, including an introduction to
Matrices
complex variable theory and contour integration .
3 . LE PAGE, W . Complex Variables and the Laplace Transform for Engineers . New
York : McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc ., 1961 . This book presents a detailed
and very readable treatment of the mathematics of transform analysis . It
provides an excellent discussion of contour integration as applied to the
inversion integral of the Laplace transform .

Definitions

A rectangular array of elements having m rows and n columns is

called an (in x it) matrix . A matrix is denoted symbolically by a boldface
capital letter in the following manner :

a,t a 12
a2, (1»

a"' , a,,, _

An (n x 1) matrix is called a column matrix, a column rector, or

oftentimes just a rector. Such a vector will be designated by boldface low-
ercase letters as follows :

a=

a„

A similar notation is also used for a (I X n) matrix, which is called a

role matrix, or row vector . However, in this text, row vectors will always

379


372 APPENDIX B CONTOUR INTEGRATION 373

follows : 2
2
v'-4v -3v -2
(~ (s) = A_ n + A -,,,(s - so) + A_n+2(s - s o )' + • + A_,(s - so)" - '
1 +5---V_'
4
+ Y_- Bk (s - S0)"
+k
(B-5)
k 0 -2-3v -4v 2 + v 3 12
2+3v +4v 2 - v 3
Substituting (B-5) into (B-4) and solving for G(s) gives
-3v-4v 2 +V 3
2 4

G(s) = A-n + ' An-, + . . .+ A - -I + Y_

Bk(S - So)
k
I
(B'6)
-3v - 92 -6v'+
32
(s - s0) " (s - so) " S - so k=o
Zu t + 7v3
This expansion is valid in the vicinity of the pole at s = s o . The series' 2 r4
converges in a region around s o that extends out to the nearest singularity .
Equation (B-6) is called the Laurent expansion, or Laurent series, for G(s) , 2I v 2
+4v 3 +v 4 -4v
1
s

about the singularity at s = so . There are two distinct parts to the series :
The first, called the principal part, consists of the terms containing (s - s„) 3 1 ,
+ v -4v -
raised to negative powers : the second part has no special name and con-
sists of terms containing (s - so) raised to zero or positive powers . It
should be noted that the second part is analytic throughout the s -plane (ex- 4(s)=-1 +3(s + 1)- I(s +
cept at infinity) and assumes the value B„ at s = so. If there were no
singularity in G(s), only the second part of the expansion would be 1
G(s) = 1- 1 +I)
s+I+3 4(s
present and would just be the power series expansion . The coefficient of
(s - so) - ' . which is A_, in (B-6), is called the residue of G(s) in the pole at The residue is seen to be -1 .
S = so . A useful formula for finding the residue at an nth-order pole, s = so, is
Formally, the Laurent series expansion of G(s) can be obtained from as follows : = i, In -, >(so)
~

the usual Taylor series expansion of the function /(s) and the subsequent k," (B-7)
(n - 1)!
division by (s - so)" . For most cases of engineering interest . simpler
methods can be employed . Because the uniqueness of the properties of where 0(s) = (s - so)"G(s) . This formula is valid for n = I and is not
analytic functions, it follows that any series of the proper form [that is, the restricted to rational functions .
form given in (B-6)] must, in fact, be the Laurent series . When G(s) is a When G(s) is not a ratio of p olynomials . i t is permissible to replace
ratio of two polynomials in s, a simple procedure for finding the transcendental terms by series valid in the vicinity of the pole . For
Laurent series is as follows : Form 4(s) = (s - s o )"G(s) ; let s - s o = v, or example, 3
s
s = u + so ; expand 0(v) around the origin by dividing the denominator into sin s 1 s s
G(s)= S2 _? s- +
the numerator ; and replace v by s - so . As an example, consider the s 3. 5.
following : 1 s s'
s 3! 5!
G(s)
s 2 (s 2 - 1)
In this instance the residue in the pole at the origin is 1 .
Let it be required to find the Laurent series for G(s) in the vicinity of There is a direct connection between the Laurent series and the partial
s = -1 . fraction expansion of a function G(s) . In particular, if Hi (s) is the princi-
pal part of the Laurent series at the pole s = s,, then the partial fraction
43(s)= s'(s2- 1) expansion of G(s) can be written as
Let s=v-l .
G(s) =H,(s)+H,,-(s) . . . HL (s)+q(s) (B-8)
2
-Mu) (v 2 -2v + 1)(v -2)
,where the first k terms are the principal parts of the Laurent series about


374 APPENDIX B
T CONTOUR INTEGRATION 375

the poles, and q(s) is a polynomial a„+ a,s +a . s`+ . . • + a,,,s"' represent,I giving
ing the behavior of G(s) for large s . The value of in is the difference be- !
1
tween the degrees of the numerator and denominator polynomials_ in F(s)e "= li m 27j )r F(s)e" (B-10)
2jTr - j- R,, _x Co *C,
general q(s) can be determined by dividing the denominator polynomial
into the numerator polynomial until the remainder is of lower order than = I residues of F(s )e" to the
the denominator . The remainder can then be expanded in its principal left of the vertical path of (8 - 11)
parts . integration
With the question of how to determine residues out of the way, the
only remaining question is how to relate the closed contour of (B-3) with As an example, consider the Laplace transform F(s) = . Formal
s(sl+l)
the open (straight-line) contour of (B-2) . This is handled quite easily by'
application of the inversion integral gives
restricting consideration to intergrands that approach zero rapidly enough
for large values of the variable, so that there will be no contribution to the I 1 ,
integral from distant portions of the contour . Thus, although the specified
path of integration in the s-plane may be from s = c - joe to c + joe, the
f(t)=a rj
f _j, s(s +l)etds
(B-12)

integral that will be evaluated will have a path of integration as shown in I where c is to the right of all poles . The only poles of the integrand are at
Fig . B-I . The path of integration will be taken as the lim of the contour
R,,-- -
along G, from c - jR, to c + jR, and then along either contour C, or G,
which are circular arcs closing to the left or right . The vertical portion of
the contour must lie in the region of convergence of the Laplace integral .
s = 0, -1, and the residues are readily found [for example, by equation
(B-7)], giving
f(t)=~ residues . ( s l+ I) e = ` at s =0 . 1
(B- 13)
=(l -e - ')u(t)
In any specific case the validity of assuming that the contribution over
the closure arc is zero can be investigated . However, there arc some gen-
eral conditions that can be stated that encompass many of the situations
encountered in system analysis problems . Consider the contours again as
shown in Fig . B-2 . Here a new coordinate system is defined as having its

tour . This coordinate system has the complex variable

the equation
6
vertical axis coincident with the vertical portion of the integration con-
related to s by

6 = S - C (8 - 14)

The inversion integral now becomes

Fig. B-I Path of integration in the s-plane .

For a one-sided Laplace transform c must lie to the right of a- ., the

f(t)= ~
j J`
Rim F(6+c)E `d~ (B-15)

abscissa of absolute convergence . For the two-sided Laplace transform j

the vertical path must lie in the strip of convergence . As will be discussed
shortly . the contour is always closed to the left for positive time . There-
fore, the inversion integral for the one-sided Laplace transform (or posi-
tive-time portion of the two-sided Laplace transform) can be written as

1 "'z 1 f,-,R °
F(s) e"ds = Jim F(s)e"ds (B-9)
2~j -jx R„~x -jR„

If in the limit as R . ---> x the contribution along the contour C,- is zero, then I

(B-9) can be written as an integral around the closed contour C,+C .~ Fig . B-2 Ness coordinate system .


MATHEMATICAL TABLES 369

Table A-12 z-Transforms

Table A-10 Laplace Transforms
of Elementary Functions f(nT) F( :)= .r{f(nT)}
1 .0 .0 . - 1
Time function Transform 1
1 . 1, 1 . . . . 1-=
T:
nT - '),_
(1-z
u(t)
s T'_ - '(I+z ')
OT)"
1 (I- : )'
tu ( t)
S 1
n! 1-E - _-'
t"u(t)
S
(KY 1-Kz
E " ' 7l (t)
S + a TK rz
nTK"'
1 H - K'_ Y
tE -"'u(t )
(s + a )- z - ' sin wT
sin wnT
0 1 -2z - ' cos aT+ z
sin (/3t)u(t)
.S - + f3 - (I -z 'coswT)
cos wnT 1 - 2z - 'cos wT+z
cos (,3î )le(t )
S'+

I3
E - ' sin (f3t)u(t)
(s+a)' - 0 2
S +(I
E "` cos (f3t)u(t )
(s +lr)-+R
(1
sinh atn(t) ll '

S
cosh atu(t)
- a'

Table A-11 ---Transform Operations

Operation Time function _- Transform

Definition f(u) E f(n)z - "

Inversion I . F(z)z"-'d- F( :)
r)
Linearity (If,(n)+hf_(n) uF,(_)-hF,(z)
Delay
(right shift) f(n-k)u(n-k) : -° F( :)
Advance
f(n+k)u(n) :"F( :)- : J f(i) :
(left shift)
Multiplication by a" u"f(n) F(_u
Multiplication I F,(A)F.(zA -')
of functions f,(il)f,(n) I i ~- A cU
Convolution of
>,f'(n-k)f,(k) F,( :)F,( :)
functions
Initial value lim f(ii) lim F(-- )
Final value limf(n) lim(I - :- ')F( :)


,
CONTOUR INTEGRATION 371

Vhat is meant by the left-hand side of (B-3) is that the value of G(s) at
ach point on the contour, C, is to be multiplied by the differential path
APPENDIX e ngth and summed over the complete contour . As indicated by the arrow,
he contour is to be traversed in a counterclockwise direction . Reversing

B I the direction introduces a minus sign on the right-hand side of (B-3) .

In order to utilize (B-3) for the evaluation of integrals such as (B-I)
and (B-2) two further steps are required : First we must learn how to find
Contour Integration the residue at a pole, and second we must reconcile the closed contour in
IB-3) with the apparently open path of integration in (B-2) .
Consider the problem of poles and residues first . A single-valued func-
tion G(s) is analytic at a point, s = s,,, if its derivative exists at every
point in the neighborhood of (and including) s,, . A function is analytic in a
. If a
region of the s-plane if it is analytic at every point in that region
'function is analytic at every point in the neighborhood of s,,, but not at s,,
itself, then s o is called a singular point. For example, the function G(s)
= 1/(s-2) has a derivative G'(s)=-I/(s-2)' . It is readily seen by in-
spection that this function is analytic everywhere except at s = 2 . where it
has a singularity . An isolated singular point is a point interior to a region
throughout which the function is analytic except at that point . It is evident
that the above function has an isolated singularity at s = 2 . The most fre-
quently encountered singularity is the pole . If a function G(s) becomes
infinite at s = s„ in such a manner that, by multiplying G(s) by a factor of
the form (s - W", the singularity is removed, then G(s) is said to have a
pole of order n at s = s,, . For example, the function 1 /sin s has a pole at
s 0 and can be written as
Integrals of the following types are frequently encountered in the analysis
of linear systems . 1 1
Ci (S) = =
sin s s3 s
F(z)z " - 'dz (B-1) s --+-- - . .
3! 5!

Multiplying by s [that is . the factor (s -0)], we obtain

2_ . F(s)e"ds (B-2)
s I
M(s)= , ,
The integral (B-1) is the inversion integral for the z-transform, while (B-2) s s s s`
s-3t+51+ . . . I_ 3 + 5i + . . .
is the inversion integral for the Laplace transform . In both cases the
integration is with respect to a complex variable, and only in very special which is seen to be well-behaved near s = 0 . It may, therefore, be
cases can these integrals be evaluated by elementary methods . However, ;concluded that I/sin s has a simple (that is, first-order) pole at s =0 .
because of the generally well-behaved nature of their integrands, these in- It is an important property of analytic functions that they can be
tegrals can frequently be evaluated very simply by the method of res- represented by convergent power series throughout their region of analy-
idues . This method of evaluation is based on the following theorem from
ticity . By a simple extension of this property it is possible to represent
complex variable theory : If a function G(s) is analytic on and interior to a
functions in the vicinity of a singularity . Consider a function G(s) having
closed contour, C, except at a number of poles . then the integral of G(s)
an nth order pole at s = s,, . Define a new function 6(s) such that
taken counterclockwise around the contour is equal to 2-rrj times the sum
of the residues at the poles within the contour . In equation form this (b (s) = (s - s o )"G (s) (B -4)
becomes
Now th(s) will be analytic in the region of s,,, since the singularity of G(s)
c
G(s )ds = s residues at poles enclosed (B-3) -has been removed . Therefore, d4s) can be expanded in a Taylor series as


v V

Table A-6 Fourier Transforms of Mathematical Operations

Operation F(w) F(f)

I(t)

Superposition u, f, (t)+(I,J,(t) a,F,(w)+azF,(w) a,F,(f)+a,_F,(f)

Reversal f(- t) F(- (,I) F(- f )

Symmetry F(t) 2-,,f(- w) f(-f)

I F\ 'w\ _ (f)
Scaling f( ut)
(I+I F v(I
E- '-'„lF(f)
Delay f(t - t") e ,, r ., F(w)
Complex
conjugale P "M F*(- cu ) F'"(- f )

wu
Modulation E ". "f(t ) I'1(a) -- (0,,)l t. ( f- ;7T )

Time d" f(t)

(Jw)"F(w) (12 irf)"F(f )
differentiation dt"
Frequency c! F(f)
t"f(t) ll F(w)
(J)"_w )
~z :~ df"
differentiation

Integration f (t)dt + f(t)d1 F(w) I F(f)

I' )w i?7Tf
7-,F(O)8(w)
F(w) + F(f) + ~ F(O) S(f )
Integration f(t) (I t
1 2 rf ~

Convolution f'tfz=l f,(A)f,(t - -A)A F,(w)F,(w) (f) [72 (f)

Multiplication f,(f).f2(t ) I F,(E)R_(w- E)dE F,(6)F,(f-E)dE

2 7r .I .
Correlation J f, (A)f'_l'(A + t)dA F,(w)FU (o ) F'(f)F)'(f)

Definitions : F(w)= f(t)E " dt

I

-', "tit
F(f) f(t)E --F(w) , ,,,
= 1

f (t)=2
1
f
f ( (O )E„' (1w =
f
F(f)E' 2-" df

+ z
E m
ô c \
3 `O N N
)( °
0 0 O o
o o 0

N N N

ô a
n
n O m l
O
E E PN
i o
NH
c O
N
n
m
N H

P P
+ +
éN E
e
O p N
E
N
E e
o N ON

D
s
N
a P

N O
O~
+
ôN W
s


C 0
J O 3 (D
rt 3
t
t
C O
~ O tD
t0
1
n

N
ra
O O

"M8'i M 8

8, 11 B

c 0 e
é
0
ô
v Y

rn
y
rn E
rn
I
o o
E
E
ê
O é
O

rn
I will + N

8
I
j
C rn + ti, + '^

N
'IJ X

Table A-9 Laplace Transforms Ut Mathematical Operations

Time Domain s-Domain

Property Time function Laplace transform Property

Linearity a,f,(t)+ci,f,(t) (1 ,F,(s)+a_F(s) Linearity

Time
difrcrcntiation f'( t) sF(s) -f(0) s-Multiplication
Time
J(~) / 1 F(s) Division by s
integration J1 s
dF(s)
I multiplication tf(t) Differentiation
(is

Division by t 1 f(t) f F( )dE Integration

t'
Delay Multiplication by
(t-shift) f(t - t,Jtt(t -t„) F(s) exponential
Multiplication
by exponential e "'f(t) F(s -t (1) s-shift

Scale change f(at) a >0 F(--) Scale change

u u
Time Multiplication
convolution .fl( ,Uf,(t --A lda F,(,e)F,(s)
of transforms
Initial value f(()') lim St-(s) Limit as .s -+7

Final value f l'-) Iim SF(S) Limit as s ->0

[F(s) left half-plane

poles onlyI
Second
derivative f"(t) s'F(s)--sf(O)-f'(0) s-Multiplication
Multiplication I Complex
of time fl(t)f,_(t) F,(s-A)F,(A)dA
2 rrj I convolution
functions


MATHEMATICAL TABLES 361

APPENDIX

Table A-2 Indefinite Integrals

A
sin axdx =- I/a cos ax cos axdx = I/a sin ax
l f
Mathematical Tables sin 2at
sin' axdx = x/2 -
l 4a

s sin axdx = I/a'(sin ax -ax cas ax)

J V sin asdx - 1/a'(2ax sin ax +2 cos ax - a'x' cos ax)

sin 2ax
cos' axdv = .c/2+
f 4a

x cos axdx -- 1/a'(cos ax -ax sin (lx)

J
1 x' cos axdc = 1/a'(2ax co, ax -2 sin ax -a x sin ax)

h)x _ sill (a-l h)

sill ax sill hx a' 1i -
I 2(a-h)
sin (a 2(a+b)
cos)a-h)x Cos(a+h)x
I sill a.rcoshxdx =-( 2(a-b) 2(a=b) h'
sin (ci-h)x y siil(a+b)x
1 cos ax cos h .cdc = a - #h'
~ _j 3(a-h) 3(a+h)
Table A-1 Trigonometric Identities
E"'dx = I/aE "•
sin (A =B)=sin A cas B-COs A sin B i
cos (A --!: B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
J xE"`dx 1)
a-
cns A cos B = I /2[co, (A + 1l)
+cns (A - B) l
x'E"'`dx (a'x' -2ac - 2)
sinA sill B = 1/2[eos(A-B)-Cos(A B)l a
sin A cos B = 1/2(sin ( .A + B)-sin
(A - B))
( E"` sin dx ,(a sin (Ix - I, cos ),x)

sin A sin 13 2 sinI/2(A+B)cos1/2(A-B)

Cosbxdx= (acnsbx+h sill hx)
sin A -sin B - 2 sin 1/2(A - B)
cos 1/2(A + B )
cos A +cos B = 2 cos 1/2(A + B)
cos 1/2(A - B )
cos A -cos B =- 2 sin I/2(A ;- B)
sin I /2(A - B) Table A-3 Definite Integrals
n l'(n r I)
sin 2A =2 sin A cos A
cos2A-=2co,'A-1= =1-2sin'A . eos'A - A
x
2r
i
sinl/2A=V1/2(1-CosA) sin'A=1/2(1 - cos2A)
xE dc = 1,
Cosl/2A=A-'I/2(I+CosA) cos'A=1/2(1+cos2A) 2
2,2
I „ c'E dx
sin x --
E ll _E_,'
E" +E " 4r'
2j COS X =
',E-
r 1 '[(ti+1)/21
E " =CosX+j sin x 9y^`~

sin ax 7
A cns (cat + dn ) + B cos (cat + b,) __ Cens (cwt + ) dx-= .0. -', for a>O.a=0 a<O
x
where sin' x
I, 2
C=V'A' 1 B'-2AB cos (d,-b,) sin' ax a
, (lx =Ea .
x 2
A sill 6, + B sin 6 .
(b, = tan en,' T
A cos 6, + B cos A,,_ 1, sin' mxdx sin' xdx = J cos' mxdx =1 ni an integer
Jr =J
sill (<at-~cb) - 'Cos(r„t , i/i-90') =J nxdx =(1 iii li n lit . n integers
sin nix sin n-cdx ca,
J nix Col
360
'_nt
if oil + n odd
ni --n -
J sin nix cos nxdx = if in n even
O


362 APPENDIX A MATHEMATICAL TABLES 363

sin (Mx)
Table A-4 sine (x) =
Table A-5 Fourier Series Representation of Common AVaveforms

.r sinc(x) r sinc(x) x sinc(r) Waveform Fourier series

/ (2,rn/r)f
0 .0 .00000
I 1 .0 0 .00(X))) 2 .0 0 .00(X)))
0 .1 0 .98363 1-1 2 .1 0 .04684 n = -m f,+ T
-0 .08942
0 .2 0 .93549 1- I - O .15592 , '' 008504 = r f(t)e- /(2nn/T)t
In T
0 .3 0 .85839 1 .3 -0 .19809 -1- .3 0 .11196 t,
0 .4 0 .75683 .4
1 2 .4 0 .12614 General periodic wove f(t)
-0 .21624
m
0 .5 .63662
0 1 5 -0 .21221 2 .5 0 .12732 0 2,rn 2nn

0 .6 0 .50-155 1 .6 -0 .18921 2 .6 0 .11644 2 + E

n=1
an Co5 T t+ bn sin T t

0 .7 0 .36788 1 .7 -0 .15148 2 .7 0 .09538 f,+r

0 .8 0.23387 1 .8 -0 .10394 2 .8 0 .06682 o = fit) Con 2Tn t df

T J
0 .9 0.1)1929 1 .9 -0 .05177 2 .9 0)13392

2rn
f(t) sin -T f dt
t

. 1 2,(2-1)
For values of sine (x) outside the range of x given in the table the T/2 o T12 T 4
31
n=1
2n-1 r t
following procedure may he used : Odd square wave
1 . Subtract the largest integer .n . less than x from x.
Look up in the table below the value of (1/,r) sin [,n (x -- n)] .
3 . Multiply the tabular value by (- 1)" and divide by x to give sine (x) .
- IL
0
Even square wove
i
T
m
(-1)0+1
2n-1
cos
2,r(2n-1)f
T

sin (2,rnt0 )
2 t T 2 R^'
0 + -411 E :os
-t0 IOt0 T 27 n , 1 2,rnr0

Recrangulor pulse train r

e X -r(2n-1)
cos
~2 n =1 (2n-1)- '

11
0 .O 1 .0 0.(X)000O n +i
(-1) 2,rn
0 .1 .9
0 0_098363 2T 2 sin t
-1, P T
n =1
0.1
- 0.8 0.1N7098
Sawtooth wave
0_3 0.7 0- 2
-i7i 18
.4
0 0.6 0.302731
2 .1 2,rr (-1 . n 4nnf
0 .5 05 0 .318310 n(2+4 con T -~ C05 T I
T4!0 %4 r h n - 1 4n2-1

Half-wave rectified cosine wave



536 ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY

CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS APPENDIX

B
Permeability of free space . p o = 4rz x 10 - ' Wb/At m
Permittivity (capacitivity) of free space so = 8 .854 x 10 -12 C 2/N .m 2 ANALYSIS AND OPERATION OF SINGLE-
Acceleration of gravity . g = 9 .807 m/s 2
AND THREE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS
Length . . 1 m = 3 .281 ft
= 39 .37 in
Mass . 1 kg = 0 .0685 slug
= 2 .205 lb (mass)
Force . 1 N = 0 .225 lb
= 7 .23 pdl
Torque . 1 N •m = 0.738 lb-ft
Energy . 1 J (W •s ) = 0 .738 lb-ft
Power . 1W=1 .341x10 -3 hp
Moment of inertia 1 kg-m 2 = 0 .738 slug .ft 2
= 23.7 lb •ft 2
Magnetic flux 1 Wb = 10 8 Mx (lines)
Magnetic flux density . 1 Wb/m2 = 10,000 G
= 64 .5 klines/in 2
Magnetizing force 1 At/m = 0.0254 At/in
= 0 .0126 Oe
B .1 INTRODUCTION

ABBREVIATIONS A brief analysis of single- and 3-phase full converters is presented . In many
respects, this analysis for constant output current is the same for each converter .
alternating current ac megawatt M W Although this results in considerable repetition, the analysis is carried out for
ampere A meter m each converter since it allows their independent study . The objective is to provide
ampere-turn At microfarad µF a basic background in converter operation without becoming overly involved .
coulomb C millihenry mH For this reason only the constant current mode is analyzed while other modes of
direct current dc newton N operation are demonstrated by computer traces without lengthy discussion . A
foot ft newton meter N-m more detailed analysis of these and other converters can be found in the refer-
gram g oersted Oe ences at the end of this Appendix .
henry H pound lb
hertz Hz poundal pdl
horsepower hp power factor PF B.2 SINGLE-PHASE, FULL CONVERTER
inch in pulse-width modulation PWM
joule J radian rad A single-phase, line commutated, full converter is shown in Fig . B .2-1 . The ac
kilogram kg revolution per minute r/min (rpm) source voltage and current are denoted ega and iÇa , respectively . The series induc-
kilovar kvar second s tance (commutating inductance) is denoted l . . The SCRs or thyristors are num-
kilovolt kV voltampere reactive var bered TI through T4 and the associated gating or firing signals are denoted ef ,
kilovoltampere kVA volt V through e f, . The converter output voltage and current are denoted u d and i,,
kilowatt kW voltampere VA respectively . The following simplifying assumptions are made in this analysis : (1)
magnetomotive force MMF watt W the ac source contains only one frequency, (2) the output current i d is constant,
maxwell Mx weber Wh


534 ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY

inverter-brushless dc motor system . Plots of the magnitude of the 6th harmonic APPENDIX
torque for w, > 0 are shown in Fig . 14 .8-4 for 0et (0) = 0 with the parameters A
equal to those of the example machine and with r 5 and L, decreased and in-
creased, respectively . Similar plots are shown in Fig . 14.8-5 for 0Q ,(0) = ir/2 .
TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONS,

CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS,

14.9 REFERENCES

[1] T. W. Nehl, F. A . Fouad, and N . A . Demerdash, "Digital Simulation of Power Conditioner-Ma- AND ABBREVIATIONS
chine Interaction for Electronically Commutated DC Permanent Magnet Machines," IEEE
Trans . on Magnetics, Vol. 17, November 1981, pp . 3284-3286.
[2] T. M . Jahns, "Torque Production in Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motor Drives with Rect-
angular Current Excitations" IAS Conf. Rec., October 1983, pp. 476-487 .
[3] P . C. Krause, R. M . Voyles, and O . Wasynczuk, "Analysis and Simulation of a Brushless DC TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONS
Servomotor," Proc . of Sixth International Motor-Conf., April 1984, pp . 86-94.
2n\ 2 2n) = 3
cos 2 x+ COs, + cos x+ 3
2 (
3 (
2
14 .10 PROBLEMS 27j-) 2n) - 3
sin z x + sin 2 - -3 + sin 2 x +
(x (, 3 2
1 Write the voltage equations given by (14 .3-10)-(14.3-12) and the torque equation given by (14 .3-13)
in terms of flux linkages rather than currents. 2rc 2n 2rt
sinxcosx+sin x- cos x- )+sin x+ 3 )cos x+ 2n =0
2 Express the steady state torque with V',, = 0 and V, = f V, . 3 3 3)
3 Note in Fig . 14.4-3 that the steady state torque versus speed plots for V'',, = f V with V,, = 0 and 2zc) 2n)
cos x + cos x -
2n) 2n)
for Vq, = 0 with V',, _ - f V intersect. Calculate the rotor speed at which this intersection occurs . + cos x + =0 sinx+sin x- +sin x+ =0
3 3 3 3
4 Use the simplified transfer function to determine the rotor speed during free acceleration and load (
torque switching and compare these results with those shown in Figs . 14 .6-1, 14.6-3, and 14.6-5.
sin x cos y + sin (x - 23 cos (y - 3n) + sin x + 3n) cos (x + sin (x - y)
5 Derive LT(s)/Ad,,(s) with d, = 0 . 3) = 2
C
6 During the torque load of 0 .1 N .m the discontinuous current inverter and brushless dc motor
combination portrays a phase current which comes to zero from a positive (negative) value and 2n 2n 27< 2tt
then before going negative (positive) it again becomes positive (negative) . Why does this occur?
sin x sin y + sin x - 3 sin y - 3 + sin x + 3 sin y + 3 = 23 cos (x - y)
7 Mindful of the information shown in Figs . 14.4-3 through 14 .4-6, describe a means of speed control
other than PWM . What would be the advantages of this method? Disadvantages?
cos x sin y + cos (x - 3n) sin ( y - 37r) + cos x + sin 23) = - sin (x - y)
8 Show that the maximum torque plotted in Fig. 14.4-5 is three times the maximum torque plotted in 3) 2
(y +
Fig . 14.4-6.
9 If /2,F_ =F, - jP,,, show that (14 .4-1) and (14.4-2) may be expressed
, .h;
cos x cos y +cos
Cx
-3
1) cos
Cy
- 3) +cos Cx + 3n) cos Cy + 23)
=
2
cos (x - y)
V,=(r,+jm,L,)T„+ w
2 27z)
sin x cos y +sin (x + 3n) cos y - +sin x - 3~) cos y + 3) = sin (x + y)
where Lq = L, = L, and 2
V = ,,ejB sin x sin y +sin x + 3n) sin
23) +
- sin (x - 3n) sin Cy + 23) _ - cos (x + y)
10 Using the results of Prob . 9 above show that for B,(0) set for maximum torque, the phase current C Cy 2
leads the phase voltage when
cos x sin y + cos x + 22 ) sin (y - 3) +cos x - 3n) sin (y +
V, 23) = 3 sin (x + y)
~' 2 cos Bro(0)1~
23 23)
cos x cos y +cos x + ) cos Cy - + cos -7
3 ) cos + = cos (x + y)
C 3) (x Cy 2

535


where ao is the average value of the output voltage, v o(t) . The constant a,,, a n
and b„ can be determined from the following expressions :

ao = 1T JT v o (t) dt = 1 J 2~ vo (wt) d(wt) (E-5)

o 27r o
r 2'
an =-'T Jo v,,(t) cos nwt dt = 1Tr Jo vo(wt) cos nwt d(wt) (E-6)

z~
bn = f v,(t) sin not dt = 1Tr fo v,(wt) sin nwt d(wt) (E-7)
T
If v,,(t) can be expressed as an analytical function, these constants can be determined
by a single integration . If vo (t) is discontinuous, which is the usually the case for
the output of converters, several integrations (over the whole period of the output
voltage) must be performed to determine the constants, a,, a n and b n .

Fourier Analysis a n cos nuit + bn sin nuit

an hn
_ [az + b i ]12
s cos - z sin nuit (E-8)
" [Va . + bn Owl ti a ;; + bn

Let us define an angle 4)n , whose adjacent side is b,,, opposite side is a n , and the
hypotenuse is [a,, + h ]"° . As a result, Eq . (E-8) becomes
11

a„ cos nuit + b n sin nuit = [az + bz] 1z [ sin b„ cos nuit + cos 4)n sin nuit]
_ [a 2, + bz] 1/2 sin (nuit + 4)„) (E-9)

a„
where 4),, = tan -'
b l (E-10)
Under steady-state conditions, the output voltage of power converters is, generally, /
a periodic function of time defined by
Substituting Eq . (E-9) into Eq . (E-4), the series may also be written as
v„(t) = v,(t + T) (E-1)
where T is the periodic time v, (t) = a,, + Cn sin (nuit + 4)„) (E-I 1)
If f is the frequency of the output voltage in Hz, the angular frequency is tR

27r where C,, = [a, + h']'' (E-12)

w = 7. = 2 f (E-2)
Cn and 4) n are the peak magnitude and the delay angle of the nth harmonic com-
and Eq . (E-1) can be rewritten as ponent of the output voltage, v o (t), respectively .
If the output voltage has the half-wave symmetry, the number of integrations
vo(wt) = v,,(wt + 2ir) (E-3) within the whole period can be reduced significantly . A waveform has the property
The Fourier theorem states that a periodic function v,,(t) can be described by a of half-wave symmetry if the waveform satisfies the following conditions :
constant term plus an infinite series of sine and cosine terms of frequency nw, v,(t) = -vo (t + T12) (E-13)
where n is an integer. Therefore, v,(t) can be expressed as
or v,(wt) = - v,,(wt + a) (E-14)
v„(t) = a, + Z [a n cos nuit + b n sin not] (E-4) In a waveform with a half-wave symmetry, the negative half-wave is the mirror
n=1,z,

564 App . E Fourier Analysis 565



where ao is the average value of the output voltage, vo (t) . The constant a o , a„
and b„ can be determined from the following expressions :

ao
= 1Tf-7'
vo (t) dt = 1 Jz
2Tr o
~ v,,(wt) d(wt) (E-5)

1 z1

a„ = '7,1 Jor va (t) cos nwt dt = o vo (wt) cos nwt d(wt) (E-6)
-

b„ v,,(t) sin nwt dt = v o (wt) sin not d(wt) (E-7)

E T J( T Jo
If vo (t) can be expressed as an analytical function, these constants can he determined
by a single integration . If vo(t) is discontinuous, which is the usually the case for
the output of converters, several integrations (over the whole period of the output
voltage) must be performed to determine the constants, a0 , a„ and b,, .

Fourier Analysis a,, cos mot + b,, sin nwt

b,,
a„ (E-8)
_ [a- + Q11- cos nwt T sin nwt
"
11
Va,b
, + „ Va;; + b-
Let us define an angle e,,, whose adjacent side is h,, . opposite side is a,,, and the
hypotenuse is [an + b„]' /z . As a result, Eq . (E-8) becomes
a,, cos not + b„ sin nwt = [ a + b,',]" 2 [sin 4,, cos nwt + cos (~„ sin not[
_ [a'- - b sin (mot + „) (E-9)

Under steady-state conditions, the output voltage of power converters is, generally, where tan ` () (E-10)
odic function of time defined by
pe
a
Substituting Eq . (E-9) into Eq . (E-4), the series may also be written as
v„(t) = v„(t + T ) (E-1)
where T is the periodic time v„(t) = a o + C,, sin (nuit + b„) (E-11)
If f is the frequency of the output voltage in Hz, the angular frequency is
2Tr where C„ = [a2 + b„] 12 (E-12)
w = =2 Tr f (E-2)
T
C„ and d)„ are the peak magnitude and the delay angle of the nth harmonic com-
and Eq . (E-1) can be rewritten as ponent of the output voltage, co(t), respectively .
If the output voltage has the half-wave symmetry, the number of integrations
v,.,(wt) = vo (wt + 2Tr) (E-3) within the whole period can be reduced significantly . A waveform has the property
The Fourier theorem states that a periodic function vo(t) can be described by a of half-wave symmetry if the waveform satisfies the following conditions :
constant term plus an infinite series of sine and cosine terms of frequency nw, v o (t) = -v,,(t + T12) (E-13)
where n is an integer . Therefore, v„ (t) can be expressed as
-or v„(wt) = - v o (wt + Tr) (E-14)
v o (t) = a,, + n =E1,2 . [a„ cos nwt + b„ sin not] In a waveform with a half-wave symmetry, the negative half-wave is the mirror
(E-4)

564 App . E Fourier Analysis 56 5



Static Switches

11
92 Gate pulse of T 2
0 . mt
92
vIt
5-1 INTRODUCTION
(b) Waveforms

Thyristors that can be turned on and off within a few microseconds may be operated
as fast-acting switches to replace mechanical and electromechanical circuit breakers .
For low-power dc applications, power transistors can also be used as switches . The
static switches have many advantages (e .g ., vers high switching speeds, no moving
parts, and no contact bounce upon closing) .
In addition to normal applications as static switches, the thvristor (or tran-
sistor) circuiis can he designed to provide time-delay, latching, over- and under-
current, and voltage detections . The transducers for detecting mechanical, elec-
trical, position . proximity, and so on . signals can provide the gating or control
signals for the thyristors (or transistors) .
The static switches can be classified into two types : (1) ac switches, and (2)
dc switches . The ac switches can he subdivided into (a) single-phase, and (b)
three-phase . In the case of ac switches, the thyristors are line or natural com-
mutated and the switching speed is limited by the frequency of the ac supply and
the ,urn-off time of thyristors . I'hc dc switches are forced commutated and the
switching speed depends on Sic commutation circuitry and the turn-off time of fast
thyristors .
(e) Waveforms
Figure 5-1 Single-phase thyristor ac switch .
5-2 SINGLE-PHASE AC SWITCHES
The circuit diacoon of a single-phase full-wave switch is shown in Pig . 5-la . where
the two thyristors are connected in inverse parallel . Thyristor 7, is fire at wt =
0 and thyristor T is fired at opt = T . The output voltage is the same as the input
voltage . The dryristors act like switches and are line commutated . The waveforms
for the input voltage, output voltage, and output current are shown in Fig . 5-lb .
With an inductive load, thvristor T, should be fired when the current passes
through the zero crossing during the positive half-cycle of input %oltage and thyristor
Ii should be fired when the eurront passes through the zero crossing during the
negative half-cycle of input voltage . The triggering pulses for T, and 7, are shown
in Fig . 5-It- A hl.IAC may be used instead of two thyristors as shown in Fig . 5-2 .

124 Sec . 5 S nyie-Phasa AC Sa tches 125

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