Food Chemistry 126 (2011) 104–108

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Amino phospholipids and lecithins as mitigating agents for acrylamide

in asparagine/glucose and asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems
Rosario Zamora, Rosa M. Delgado, Francisco J. Hidalgo ⇑
Instituto de la Grasa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avenida Padre García Tejero 4, 41012 Seville, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The role of amino phospholipids and lecithins for mitigating acrylamide formation in asparagine/glucose
Received 15 June 2010 and asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems was analysed in order to explore the possibility of the use
Received in revised form 26 August 2010 of these common additives in decreasing acrylamide content in heated foodstuffs. Dipalmitoylphospha-
Accepted 19 October 2010
tidylethanolamine (PE), but not dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (PC), decreased the acrylamide deter-
mined in both model systems. In addition, the protective effect depended on the concentration of the
amino phospholipid and was higher in the asparagine/glucose system than in the asparagine/2,4-decadi-
Keywords:
enal system. In fact, the protection offered by PE was similar to that of glycine, therefore suggesting that
Acrylamide
Amino acids
both compounds had similar protective mechanisms, more likely as a consequence of the presence of a
Amino phospholipids nucleophilic primary amino group in their molecules. However, ethanolamine was more protective than
Carbonyl–amine reactions PE in the asparagine/glucose system and less protective than PE in the asparagine/2,4-decadienal system,
Lecithins which might be related to the different hydrophilic nature of both compounds. Analogously to PE, soy-
Maillard reaction bean and egg lecithin also mitigated acrylamide formation, mainly in the asparagine/glucose system.
Nonenzymatic browning All these results point to lecithins as potential acrylamide mitigating additives in the formulation of food
products. They may also be used in combination with amino acids and proteins.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Different recipes have been suggested for reducing acrylamide

Since the initial report at the Swedish National Food Adminis-
tration and Stockholm University regarding the finding of the
chemical acrylamide in a variety of fried and oven-baked foods
(Tareke, Rydberg, Karlsson, Eriksson, & Törnqvist, 2002), the forma-
tion mechanisms and the ways of mitigating the presence of this
toxicant in heated foodstuffs have received increasing worldwide
attention (Claus, Carle, & Schieber, 2008; De Vleeschouwer, Van
der Plancken, Van Loey, & Hendrickx, 2009; Friedman & Levin,
2008; Taeymans et al., 2004).
Acrylamide appears to form as a byproduct of high-temperature
cooking processes (usually greater than 120 °C). It does not appear
to be present in uncooked food and is present in low or undetect-
able levels in foods cooked at lower temperatures, such as boiling.
Research to date suggest that acrylamide is formed in foods upon
heating as a consequence of asparagine degradation in the pres-
ence of reducing sugars as well as carbonyl compounds deriving
from either the Maillard reaction or lipid oxidation processes
(Capuano, Oliveiro, Açar, Gökmen, & Fogliano, 2010; Mottram,
Wedzicha, & Dobson, 2002; Stadler et al., 2002; Yaylayan,
Wnorowski, & Locas, 2003; Zamora & Hidalgo, 2008).
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 954 611 550; fax: +34 954 616 790.
E-mail address: fhidalgo@ig.csic.es (F.J. Hidalgo).
content in foods, including modification of raw materials, optimi-
sation of heat processing parameters, evaporation of acrylamide,
and addition of different compounds, including pH modifiers, pro-
teins or amino acids, hydrogencarbonates, mono- or di-valent cat-
ions, antioxidants, etc. (Adams, Hamdani, Van Lancker, Méjri, & De
Kimpe, 2010; Anese, Suman, & Nicoli, 2010; Zhang, Ren, & Zhang,
2009). These strategies basically try to decrease the content of
the reactants, modify the reaction conditions to inhibit acrylamide
formation, to favour alternative pathways, or to provide com-
pounds that can react with acrylamide and produce its elimination
once it is formed.
Addition of amino acids to mitigate acrylamide content in foods
was proposed very shortly after the first findings of the presence of
acrylamide in heated foodstuffs (Rydberg et al., 2003). Elimination
of acrylamide occurs via nucleophilic groups (–SH, –NH2) on amino
acid side chains. However, reactions are more complex than ini-
tially suspected, and the existence of an addition–elimination equi-
librium in acrylamide/amino compound reactions (Zamora,
Delgado, & Hidalgo, 2010), and the influence of atmospheric oxy-
gen and antioxidants in acrylamide/mercaptan reactions (Hidalgo,
Delgado, & Zamora, 2010), have been shown.
In addition to amino acids and proteins, other important food
constituents having nucleophilic groups in their molecules are
amino phospholipids. However, to our knowledge, the potential

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.10.084
 R. Zamora et al. / Food Chemistry 126 (2011) 104–108
mitigating effect of these compounds on acrylamide content in
foods has not been previously considered. In an attempt to under-
stand the role of these compounds, this study analyses the effect of
phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), as well as commercial lecithins, in
the acrylamide content determined in model systems of aspara-
gine/glucose and asparagine/2,4-decadienal. Both systems were
selected as models of acrylamide formation by asparagine degrada-
tion in the presence of carbohydrates and oxidised lipids,
respectively.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Soy lecithin, refined and oil removed, and egg lecithin, semi-
purified (purity 60%), were purchased from ICN Biochemicals (So-
lon, Ohio). Labeled [1,2,3,-13C3]acrylamide was obtained from
Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc. (Andover, MA, USA). All other
chemicals were purchased from Aldrich (Milwakee, WI, USA), Sig-
ma (St. Louis, MO, USA), Fluka (Buchs, Switzerland), or Merck
(Darmstadt, Germany), and were analytical grade.
2.2. Asparagine/carbohydrate (or alkadienal) reaction mixtures
Model reactions were carried out analogously to Granvogl and
Schieberle (2006), with the modifications described by Hidalgo,
Delgado, and Zamora (2009). Briefly, mixtures of asparagine
(3.75 lmol), glucose or 2,4-decadienal (3.75 lmol), and the
phospholipid or amino compound (0–3.75 lmol; 25 mg for soy-
bean and egg lecithins) were singly homogenised with 0.063–
0.200 mm silica gel 60 (300 mg) (Macherey–Nagel, Düren, Ger-
many), 30 ll of 0.3 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, and
150 ll of water, and heated under nitrogen at 180 °C in closed test
tubes for 10 min. The amino compounds assayed were dipalmi-
toylphosphatidylethanolamine (PE), ethanolamine, dipalmitoyl-
phosphatidylcholine (PC), choline, glycine, soybean lecithin, and
egg lecithin. The water activity (aw) of the samples, determined
with a Pawkit Decagon analyzer (Pullman, WA, USA), was 0.95.
The reaction pH was maintained upon heating.
After cooling (5 min at room temperature and 15 min at
20 °C), 10 ll of internal standard solution (1 mg/ml of labeled
[1,2,3-13C3]acrylamide in methanol) and 2 ml of 0.3 M sodium cit-
rate buffer, pH 2.2, were added. Suspensions were stirred for 1 min,
the supernatant was then filtered and its acrylamide content
determined.
2.3. Analysis of acrylamide
Acrylamide was analysed as the stable 2-bromopropenamide by
gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) using a combi-
nation of the methods described by Castle, Campos, and Gilbert
(1991) and Andrawes, Greenhouse, and Draney (1987). Briefly,
1 ml of the supernatant was treated with 0.3 g of potassium bro-
mide and 400 ll of saturated bromine solution in water. After 1 h
in the dark at 0 °C, the excess of bromine was removed by addition
of 1 M sodium thiosulphate until the solution became colourless,
and the solution was extracted with 1 ml of ethyl acetate/hexane
(4:1). The organic layer was finally dried with sodium sulphate,
evaporated until a volume of 50 ll, treated with 50 ll of triethyl-
amine, and analysed by GC–MS. The ions monitored for the identi-
fication of the analyte, 2-bromopropenamide, were [C3H4NO]+ =
70, [C3H479BrNO]+ = 149, and [C3H481BrNO]+ = 151, using m/z 149
for quantitation. The ions monitored for identification of the inter-
nal standard (2-bromo[13C3]propenamide) were [13C2H381Br]+ =
110 and [13C3H481BrNO]+ = 154, using m/z 154 for quantitation.
105
GC–MS analyses were conducted with a Hewlett–Packard 6890
GC Plus coupled with an Agilent 5973 MSD (Mass Selective Detec-
tor-Quadrupole type). In most experiments, a 30 m  0.25 mm
i.d.  0.25 lm HP5-MS capillary column was used. Working condi-
tions were as follows: carrier gas helium (1 ml/min at constant
flow); injector, 250 °C; oven temperature: from 50 (1 min) to
240 °C at 5 °C/min and then to 325 °C at 10 °C/min; transfer line
to MSD, 280 °C; and ionisation EI, 70 eV.
Quantification of acrylamide was carried out by preparing stan-
dard curves of this compound in 300 mg of silica gel and following
the whole procedure described above. For each curve, fifteen dif-
ferent concentration levels of acrylamide (0–200 lg) were used.
Acrylamide content was directly proportional to the acrylamide/
internal standard area ratio (r = 0.999, p < 0.0001). Data are mean
values of, at least, two experiments. The coefficients of variation
at the different concentrations were lower than 10%.
2.4. Statistical analysis
Statistical comparisons among different groups were made
using analysis of variance. When significant F values were ob-
tained, group differences were evaluated by the Student–New-
man–Keuls test (Snedecor & Cochran, 1980). Statistical
procedures were carried out using Primer of Biostatistics: The Pro-
gram (McGraw-Hill Inc., New York). The significance level is
p < 0.05 unless otherwise indicated.
3. Results
3.1. Acrylamide formation in asparagine/glucose (or 2,4-decadienal)/
amino phospholipid reaction mixtures
When a mixture of asparagine and glucose was heated at 180 °C
for 10 min, the formation of acrylamide was observed (Fig. 1A). The
reaction yield did not change when either PC or choline were
1.8 a a A
a
1.2
µmol Acrylamide/100 µmol Asn
b
0.6
c
0.0
a B
a
a
3.6
b
b
1.8
0.0
None PE EA PC Ch
Compound added
Fig. 1. Effect of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (PE), ethanolamine (EA),
dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (PC), and choline (Ch) in the acrylamide deter-
mined in (A) asparagine/glucose, and (B) asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems.
The model systems were composed of asparagine, the carbonyl compound, and the
additive (3.75 lmol of each), and were heated for 10 min at 180 °C. Values are
mean ± SD of, at least, three independent experiments. Means with different letters
are significantly different (p < 0.05).
106 R. Zamora et al. / Food Chemistry 126 (2011) 104–108
added to the reaction mixture. However, the presence of PE signif-
icantly reduced the amount of acrylamide determined. In fact,
when PE was present, only 41% of the acrylamide formed in the ab-
sence of PE was determined. Ethanolamine was more effective
than PE in this system and, after its addition, only 15% of the acryl-
amide formed in the absence of additives was determined.
PE and ethanolamine were also effective in mitigating the acryl-
amide produced in asparagine/2,4-decadienal reaction mixtures
(Fig. 1B). However, significant differences were observed in this
system with respect to the above described system of asparagine
and glucose (Fig. 1A). Thus, neither PC nor choline were able to
mitigate acrylamide determined in the asparagine/2,4-decadienal
system. However, the amount of acrylamide determined was re-
duced to one half (53%) when PE was present, and a similar reduc-
tion was observed in the presence of ethanolamine (the amount of
acrylamide determined in the presence of ethanolamine was the
65% of the acrylamide determined in the absence of this
compound).
3.2. Effect of amino phospholipid concentration in the acrylamide
mitigation observed in asparagine/glucose (or 2,4-decadienal)/amino
phospholipid reaction mixtures
Acrylamide mitigation observed in Fig. 1 was a consequence of
the presence of the amino phospholipid. Thus, acrylamide mitiga-
tion increased as a function of the amount of PE present in both
asparagine/glucose (Fig. 2A) and asparagine/2,4-decadienal
(Fig. 2B) model systems.
Analogous to the behaviour observed in Fig. 1, PE had a higher
protective effect in the asparagine/glucose system than in the
asparagine/2,4-decadienal system. In fact, a significant decrease
of the acrylamide determined in the asparagine/glucose system
was observed when only 0.5 lmol of PE was present. However,
1.25 lmol of PE was needed in the asparagine/2,4-decadienal sys-
tem to observe a significant decrease. This higher protection of PE
A A
50
Acrylamide mitigation (%)
25
0
B B
50
25
0
0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75
PE (µmol)
Fig. 2. Effect of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in the acrylamide
mitigation (%) observed in (A) asparagine/glucose, and (B) asparagine/2,4-decadi-
enal model systems. The model systems were composed of asparagine and the
carbonyl compound (3.75 lmol of each), and the additive (which was added at the
amount indicated). Model systems were heated for 10 min at 180 °C. Values are
mean of, at least, two independent experiments.
in the asparagine/glucose system than in the asparagine/2,4-deca-
dienal system was observed at the different assayed
concentrations.
3.3. Comparative effect of PE, ethanolamine, and glycine in the
reduction of acrylamide determined in asparagine/glucose (or 2,4-
decadienal)/amino phospholipid reaction mixtures
PE and glycine had an analogous effect in mitigating the acryl-
amide determined independently of the model system employed
and the concentration at which these compounds were added.
Fig. 3 shows that the acrylamide determined in both aspara-
gine/glucose and asparagine/2,4-decadienal systems (Fig. 3A and
B, respectively) was always very similar at the different assayed
concentrations of the amino compound added. However, the
behaviour of ethanolamine was different. It was more efficient
than PE or glycine in the asparagine/glucose system, and was
slightly worse than PE or glycine in the asparagine/2,4-decadienal
system.
With the exception of the mitigation effect of ethanolamine in
the asparagine/glucose model system, the amount of acrylamine
determined decreased linearly (r < 0.965, p < 0.002) as a function
of the amount of amino compound added in the range 0–2.5 lmol.
This linearity was not observed in the addition of ethanolamine to
the asparagine/glucose system because of the high activity of this
compound in this system. In this case, an exponential decrease of
acrylamide as a function of the amount of ethanolamine added
was observed.
The analogous protection of PE and glycine in both systems was
also observed when mixtures of them were employed. Fig. 4 shows
the protective effect of 3.5 lmol of PE, glycine, and the equimolec-
ular mixture of PE and glycine. As observed in the figure, no signif-
icant differences in the acrylamide determined were observed
when PE, glycine, or the equimolecular mixture of them was
employed.
1.5
1.0
µmol Acrylamide/100 µmol Asn
0.5
3.6
2.7
1.8
0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75
Added compound (µmol)
Fig. 3. Effect of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (s), ethanolamine (4), and
glycine (O), in the acrylamide determined in (A) asparagine/glucose, and (B)
asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems. The model systems were composed of
asparagine and the carbonyl compound (3.75 lmol of each), and the additive
(which was added at the amount indicated). Model systems were heated for 10 min
at 180 °C. Values are mean of, at least, two independent experiments.
 R. Zamora et al. / Food Chemistry 126 (2011) 104–108
1.8 a A
1.2
µmol Acrylamide/100 µ mol Asn
b b
b
0.6
0.0
a B
3.6
b b
1.8 b 1.8
0.0
None PE Gly PE+Gly
Compound added
Fig. 4. Effect of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (PE), glycine (Gly), and the
equimolecular mixture of them (PE + Gly) in the acrylamide determined in (A)
asparagine/glucose, and (B) asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems. The model
systems were composed of asparagine, the carbonyl compound, and the additive
(3.75 lmol of each). Model systems were heated for 10 min at 180 °C. Values are
mean ± SD values of, at least, three independent experiments. Means with different
letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
3.4. Use of commercial lecithins in the reduction of acrylamide
determined in asparagine/glucose (or 2,4-decadienal)/amino
phospholipid reaction mixtures
The above results suggested that the protective effect of ami-
no phospholipids is a consequence of the presence of the free
amino group, which is present in PE but not in PC. However,
the amount of phosphatidylethanolamine in commercial lecithins
is quite reduced. Therefore, a very much reduced, or even non-
existent, protective effect of commercial lecithins as compared
to that of the assayed PE might be expected. In an attempt to
determine the effectiveness of commercial lecithins, soybean lec-
ithin and egg lecithin were assayed. The obtained results are
shown in Fig. 5. Both egg and soybean lecithins were able to de-
crease the amount of acrylamide determined in the asparagine/
glucose system, although to a lower extent than PE. In fact, the
addition of lecithins reduced the acrylamide determined by 34–
36% and the addition of PE reduced it by 59%. On the other hand,
this decrease was not significant in the asparagine/2,4-decadienal
model system.
Fig. 5 also shows that the effect of both lecithins was very sim-
ilar in both systems. However, the content of phophatidylethanol-
amine was quite different in both lecithins. According to the
analyses provided by the supplier, the employed soybean lecithin
contained 22% of phosphatidylethanolamine and the egg lecithin
contained 6% of this amino phospholipid. Therefore, the amount
of phosphatidylethanolamine in the assays –considering a molecu-
lar weight of 740– was 7.4 lmol when soybean lecithin was em-
ployed and 1.1 lmol when egg lecithin was employed. According
to the lines determined in Fig. 3, these concentrations of amino
compounds should reduce the acrylamide determined when soy-
bean and egg lecithins were present by 63% and 26% respectively,
in contrast to the observed acrylamide mitigation of 34% and 36%,
respectively.
107
1.8 a A
1.2 b
b
µmol Acrylamide/100 µmol Asn
c
0.6
0.0
a B
3.6 a
a
b
0.0
None PE Egg L Soy L
Compound added
Fig. 5. Effect of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (PE), egg lecithin (Egg L), and
soybean lecithin (Soy L) in the acrylamide determined in (A) asparagine/glucose,
and (B) asparagine/2,4-decadienal model systems. The model systems were
composed of asparagine and the carbonyl compound (3.75 mol of each), and the
additive (3.75 mol of PE or 25 mg of Egg L or Soy L). Model systems were heated for
10 min at 180 °C. Values are mean ± SD values of, at least, three independent
experiments. Means with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
4. Discussion
Increasing worldwide efforts have been taken in recent years to
reduce formation of acrylamide in heated foodstuffs. Among many
other attempts, the addition of different additives has been sug-
gested (see, for example, Casado, Sánchez, & Montano, 2010;
Pedreschi, Kaack, & Granby, 2008; Zeng et al., 2009, 2010). How-
ever, not all of these additives can be widely applied because some
of them are not recognised as GRAS substances, others are too
expensive to be applied at an industrial scale, and, finally, others
need to be added to higher extent than authorised at present to ob-
tain significant decreases in acrylamide.
Differently to other suggested additives, lecithins are recogni-
sed as GRAS substances by FDA because there is no evidence in
the available literature that demonstrates, or suggests reasonable
grounds to suspect, a hazard to the public when they are used at
levels that are now current or might reasonably be expected in
the future (FDA, 2006). In addition, lecithin is widely used in foods
as an emulsifier and, also, as an antioxidant.
The results obtained in this study suggest that lecithins may
also act as mitigating agents for acrylamide in foods. In fact, PE
had a very similar behaviour to that of the amino acid glycine.
Analogously to glycine, its mitigating action may be related to
the presence of a primary amino group in the phospholipid, which
can both: react with carbonyl compounds, thus protecting aspara-
gine from degradation, and add to the carbon–carbon double bond
of the formed acrylamide.
PE and glycine produced very similar mitigating effects in the
two assayed systems (asparagine/glucose and asparagine/2,4-
decadienal). In addition, both PE and glycine was more effective
in the asparagine/glucose system than in the asparagine/2,4-deca-
dienal system. Although further studies are needed, these last re-
sults might be related to a higher ability of both PE and glycine
in inhibiting the formation of reactive carbonyls in the aspara-
gine/glucose system than in inhibiting the degradation reaction
of asparagine by the formed carbonyls.
108 R. Zamora et al. / Food Chemistry 126 (2011) 104–108
In contrast to PE and glycine, ethanolamine exhibited a higher
mitigating power than PE and glycine in the asparagine/glucose sys-
tem, and a lower mitigating power than both of them in the aspar-
agine/2,4-decadienal system. These results suggest that the
presence of the fatty acid chains in the PE reduces its mitigating
power in the asparagine/glucose system, more likely as a conse-
quence of the loss of hydrophilic nature caused by the hydrophobic
fatty acid chains. In addition, the existence of two nucleophilic
groups in the ethanolamine might also contribute to the higher mit-
igating effect of this compound (Adams et al., 2010). On the contrary,
PE (and glycine) exhibited a similar or higher effect than ethanol-
amine in the more hydrophobic asparagine/2,4-decadienal system.
Although phosphatidylethanolamine is only a minor compo-
nent in commercial lecithins, the mitigating effect of both soybean
and egg lecithins was significant in the assayed asparagine/glucose
system. In fact, it was higher than expected for egg lecithin and
lower than expected for soybean lecithin. This higher mitigating ef-
fect of egg lecithin might be a consequence of the presence in this
lecithin of unknown components that can act synergistically with
the phosphatidylethanolamine to enhance its mitigating ability.
All these results point out to lecithins as potential acrylamide
mitigating additives in the formulation of food products. They
might also be used in combination with amino acids and proteins.
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to José L. Navarro for technical assistance. This
study was supported in part by the European Union (FEDER funds),
the Junta de Andalucía (Project P07-AGR-2846), and the Plan Nac-
ional de I + D of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación of Spain
(Project AGL2009-07638).
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