Marine Ecology 1

MARINE ECOLOGY
Impact of rapid urbanisation in marine biodiversity and ecosystems

“Marine Ecology is the scientific study of marine-life habitat, populations, and

interactions among organisms and the surrounding environment including their
abiotic and biotic factors.”
Marine Ecology 2

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 3
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 4
1. ESTUARIES .................................................................................................. 5
STATUS IN INDIA ................................................................................................... 5
2. MANGROVES ............................................................................................... 6
STATUS IN INDIA ................................................................................................... 6
3. CORAL REEF ............................................................................................... 7
STATUS IN INDIA ................................................................................................... 7
4. LAGOON ....................................................................................................... 8
STATUS IN INDIA ................................................................................................... 8
MARINE PROTECTED AREA .................................................................................... 8
URBANIZATION: ........................................................................................................ 9
COASTAL REGULATION: ...................................................................................... 9
ZONE FACTORS: ................................................................................................. 10
ZONES: .................................................................................................................... 10
1. CRZ 1: ......................................................................................................... 10
2. CRZ 2: ......................................................................................................... 11
3. CRZ 3: ......................................................................................................... 11
4. CRZ 4: ......................................................................................................... 12
PROHIBITED IN COASTAL ZONES: ....................................................................... 12
IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON MARINE LIFE: ................................................... 13
1. “750 unauthorised buildings violating CRZ under scanner- Chennai” -The
New Indian Express .............................................................................................. 13
2. Coastal Marine Pollution of Chennai City- A Case Study ............................ 15
For a case, considering the Ennore estuary, Chennai: ......................................... 16
Threat:................................................................................................................... 16
Suggestion by Experts: ......................................................................................... 16
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................... 17
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 18
Marine Ecology 3

INTRODUCTION

“Only about 4% of the

world’s oceans are
protected, and the vast
majority of existing marine
reserves are either poorly
managed, or not looked
after at all.” –WWF1

Indian Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most biologically and
economically productive ecosystems in the world where these ecosystems are both a
source of livelihood as well as of a range of ecological services that are critical for the
day to day well-being of millions of people particularly coastal communities. Despite
the existence of a substantial policy and regulatory framework, India's coastal and
marine ecosystems are under increasing threat. Numerous direct and indirect
pressures arising from different types of economic development and associated
activities are having adverse impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity across the
country. Major destruction include habitat conversion to other forms of land use,
overexploitation of species and impacts of agricultural, domestic and industrial
sewage and waste. Coastal habitats are also subject to powerful natural weather
phenomena, such as tsunami, cyclones, hurricanes and storms. Indirect drivers of
ecosystem change include demographic, socio-political, cultural, economic and
technological factors. 2

India has a coastline of 8,118 km, with an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 2.02
million sq. km and a continental shelf area of 372,424 km², spread across 9 maritime
States and seven Union Territories, including the islands of Andaman and Nicobar,
and Lakshadweep. India is also one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world,
with 7.8% of the recorded species of the world, including 45,500 recorded species of
plants and 91,000 recorded species of animals. The marine ecosystem is extremely
diverse, attributed to the geomorphologic and climatic variations along the coast. The
coastal and marine habitat includes near shore, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, mud

1 WWF, 2015. THE CASE FOR MPAS. [Online] Available at:

https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/solutions/protection/protected_areas/ [Accessed 28 04 2020].
2 Saravanan K R, K. S. B. C. C., 2011. Status of Marine and coastal environments, Dehradhun:

Wildlife institure of India.

Marine Ecology 4

flats, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes, wetlands, seaweed and sea grass beds,
deltaic plains, estuaries, lagoons and coral reefs. 3

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Different areas of the ocean can be classified as different types of marine

ecosystems. Marine ecosystems have distinct organisms and characteristics that
result from the unique combination of physical factors that create them. Some marine
ecosystems are very productive. Near-shore regions, including estuaries, salt
marshes, and mangrove forests, teem with life.

Other Marine ecosystems include:

the abyssal plain (areas like deep sea coral, whale falls, and brine pools), polar
regions such as the Antarctic and Arctic, coral reefs, the deep sea (such as the
community found in the abyssal water column), hydrothermal vents, kelp forests, the
open ocean, rocky shores, mudflats, and sandy shores.4

With reference to Indian Context, different marine ecosystems like mangrove

ecosystems, coral reef ecosystem, and estuarine ecosystem are discussed below:

3 P Laxmilatha, T. S. S. a. M. S. V., 2015. Marine Protected Areas, Kochi: Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute.
4 National Geographic, 2018. Marine Ecosystems. [Online] Available at:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/marine-ecosystem-illustrations-grades-3-5/ [Accessed 29
04 2020].
Marine Ecology 5

1. ESTUARIES

Figures Showing: Estuary showing river

meeting the sea in Guinea and Adyar
river estuary in Chennai (from left)

Estuaries and their surrounding wetlands are bodies of water usually found where
rivers meet the sea. Estuaries are home to unique plant and animal communities that
have adapted to brackish water—a mixture of fresh water draining from the land and
salty seawater.

However, there are also several types of entirely freshwater ecosystems that have
many similar characteristics to the traditional brackish estuaries. The freshwater
estuaries provide many of the ecosystem services and functions that brackish
estuaries do, such as serving as natural filters for runoff and providing nursery
grounds for many species of birds, fish, and other animals.

Estuaries are delicate ecosystems and are among the most productive ecosystems
in the world. Many animals rely on estuaries for food, places to breed, and migration
stopovers. 5

STATUS IN INDIA

A total of 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers draining fresh water into the sea
through about 53 estuaries in India. Estuaries are the natural nurseries for many
marine animals but their fisheries have declined due to over exploitation of juveniles
and anadromous stocks. Estuaries face threats are damming of rivers, construction
of barrages, fishing pressure, and pollution are the main cause for biodiversity loss
and degradation of the ecosystem.6

5 NOS, n.d. What is an estuary?. [Online]

Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/estuary.html [Accessed 29 04 2020].
6 K. K. Joshi, V. M. a. S. V., 2015. Marine Biodiversity of India –Status and Challenges, Kochi: Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

Marine Ecology 6

2. MANGROVES

Mangroves are a group of trees and

shrubs that live in the coastal intertidal
zone.

Mangrove forests only grow at tropical

and subtropical latitudes near the
equator because they cannot
withstand freezing temperatures.
Many mangrove forests can be
recognized by their dense tangle of
prop roots that make the trees appear
to be standing on stilts above the
water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides,
which means that most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day. The roots also
slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and
build up the muddy bottom.

Mangrove forests stabilize the

coastline, reducing erosion from storm
surges, currents, waves, and tides. The
intricate root system of mangroves also
makes these forests attractive to fish
and other organisms seeking food and
shelter from predators.7

STATUS IN INDIA

The vast mangroves ecosystems along the coast of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal constitute rich marine biodiversity
supporting variety of species of corals, sponges, ornamental fishes, crustaceans,
molluscs and plants. The diversity of the species provides several ecological services
like shore line protection, sea erosion, larval dispersal, breeding and larval rearing
and safe habitat for migratory species for the ecosystem. Indiscriminate fishing,
quarrying, dredging, deforestation, industrialization and other anthropogenic activities

7NOS, n.d. What is a "mangrove" forest?. [Online]

Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ [Accessed 28 04 2020].
Marine Ecology 7

are the main threats causing considerable damage to these environments and
consequently to the associated flora and fauna.8

3. CORAL REEF

Coral reefs protect coastlines from storms and erosion,

provide jobs for local communities, and offer
opportunities for recreation. They are also are a source
of food and new medicines. Over half a billion
people depend on reefs for food, income, and
protection.

Unfortunately, coral reef ecosystems are severely

threatened. Some threats are natural, such as diseases,
predators, and storms. Other threats are caused by
people, including pollution, sedimentation, unsustainable
fishing practices, and climate change, which is raising ocean temperatures and
causing ocean acidification.9

STATUS IN INDIA

A total of 26 stocks are presently exploited from the inshore waters extending up to
50 meters by mechanized craft using gears like trawls, purse seines, gillnets, hooks
and lines and a variety of indigenous crafts and gears. A large number of stocks of
them are exploited not only by the same gear but by different gears also.
Technological advances, increasing fishing effort, multiyear-multiday fishing and
higher investments kept the production increasing from about 0.6 million tonnes in
fifteen to about 3.6 million tonnes in 2010. 10

8 K. K. Joshi, V. M. a. S. V., 2015. Marine Biodiversity of India –Status and Challenges, Kochi: Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute.
9 NOAA, 2019. Coral Reef Ecosystems. [Online] Available at:

https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-
ecosystems [Accessed 2020 29 2020].
10 K. K. Joshi, V. M. a. S. V., 2015. Marine Biodiversity of India –Status and Challenges, Kochi: Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute

Marine Ecology 8

4. LAGOON

A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier
islands or reefs. Lagoons are commonly divided into coastal lagoons
and atoll lagoons. 11

STATUS IN INDIA

A total of 17 major lagoons or lakes occur along the coast of India. The lagoon
ecosystems are the most vulnerable ecosystems due to several anthropogenic
activities which threatens flora and fauna of the system. Threats include pollution
from industries, dumping of city sewages, recreational boating, navigation, dredging,
expansion of urban and rural settlements, reclamation, over exploitation of fish
stocks, intensive aquaculture practices and pollution from different sources.12

MARINE PROTECTED AREA

One of the most effective means for protecting marine and coastal biodiversity is
through the establishment and proper management of Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs). Marine Protected Area is an umbrella term to describe a wide range of
protected areas for marine conservation around the world. Marine protected areas
are essential to safeguard biodiversity and to sustain vibrant seas and can increase
biomass and biodiversity in tropical and temperate ecosystems, as well as serve as
insurance policies against the impacts of fishing and other destructive activities. 13

11 Kusky, T., 2005. Lagoon. In: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences. New York: s.n., p. 245.
12 K. K. Joshi, V. M. a. S. V., 2015. Marine Biodiversity of India –Status and Challenges, Kochi: Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute.
13 P Laxmilatha, T. S. S. a. M. S. V., 2015. Marine Protected Areas, Kochi: Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute.
Marine Ecology 9

It includes marine parks, nature reserves and locally managed marine areas that
protect reefs, sea grass beds, shipwrecks, archaeological sites, tidal lagoons,
mudflats, salt marshes, mangroves, rock platforms, underwater areas on the coast
and the seabed in deep water.

There are a total of 128 marine Protected Areas in India. Out of these, there are four
Marine National Parks, sixty-seven Marine Sanctuaries, National Parks and Wild Life
Sanctuaries, three Marine Biosphere Reserves, three Ramsar Coastal Wetlands, one
Tiger Reserve (Sunderbans), one National Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre and
Gene Centre and the Coral Reefs of Lakshadweep (seventeen), thirty two Mangrove
Notifies Forests. Four national parks (having area130 km2) and 16 wild life
sanctuaries (185 km2) have been identified for conservation measures. 14

URBANIZATION:
COASTAL REGULATION:

COASTAL REGULATION ZONE (CRZ) regulation was introduced in 1991 notice by

Indian Government under “Environment Protection Act. “ CRZ includes the rules for
development in coastal region and prevents spoiling the natural resources in the
name of development.

14
P Laxmilatha, T. S. S. a. M. S. V., 2015. Marine Protected Areas, Kochi: Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute.
Marine Ecology 10

It mainly aims to:

1. Protect the livelihoods of traditional fisher folk communities

2. Preserve coastal ecology

3. Promote economic activity necessary for coastal regions 15

A coastal hazard line was established considering disasters including the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami. While the 2011 notification recognized that there were areas of high
erosion and vulnerability along the coast, few attempts were made to develop this
hazard line scientifically or transparently across the country to regulate development.

The norms have classified the coastal areas into different zones according to type of
ecosystems.

ZONE FACTORS:

Classified into zones based on

high and low tide line and distance
from high tide line which are
explained in the figure.

ZONES:

1. CRZ 1:
This the area between the
high and low tide lines.

• No new construction is
accepted, except for defence
purpose.

• 2018: • New part as CRZ-1

15MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, 2019. FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE- NOTIFICATION, Delhi:

THE GAZETTE OF INDIA.
Marine Ecology 11

• Ecotourism activities like mangrove walk, tree hut, nature etc. in identified stretches,
subject to permission.

2. CRZ 2:
The areas built up close to
the shoreline.

• Area within the municipal

limits or in other legally
designated urban areas

• Provided with drainage

and approach roads, water
supply and sewerage.

3. CRZ 3:
CRZ-III: Land areas that are relatively undisturbed (viz. rural areas, etc.) and those
which do not fall under CRZ-II, shall constitute CRZ–III, and CRZ-III shall be further
classified into following categories:

CRZ-III A: Such densely populated CRZ-III

areas, where the population density is more
than 2161 per square kilometre as per 2011
census base, shall be designated as CRZ–III A
and in CRZ-III A, area up to 50 meters from the
HTL on the landward side shall be earmarked as the ‘No Development Zone (NDZ)’,
provided the CZMP as per this notification, framed with due consultative process,
have been approved, failing which, a NDZ of 200 meters shall continue to apply.

CRZ-III B: All other CRZ-III areas with

population density of less than 2161 per square
kilometre, as per 2011 census base, shall be
designated as CRZ-III B and in CRZ-III B, the
area up to 200 meters from the HTL on the
landward side shall be earmarked as the ‘No Development Zone (NDZ)’. 16

16MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, 2019. FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE- NOTIFICATION, Delhi:

THE GAZETTE OF INDIA.
Marine Ecology 12

4. CRZ 4:
CRZ- IVA: The water area and the sea bed area between the Low Tide Line up to
twelve nautical miles on the seaward side shall constitute CRZ-IV A.

CRZ- IVB: CRZ-IV B areas shall include the water area and the bed area between
LTL at the bank of the tidal influenced water body to the LTL on the opposite side of
the bank, extending from the mouth of the water body at the sea up to the influence
of tide, i.e., salinity of five parts per thousand during the driest season of the year. 17

PROHIBITED IN COASTAL ZONES:

 Setting up of new industries

and expansion of existing
industries, operations or processes.
 Discharge of untreated waste
and effluents from industries, cities
or towns and other human
settlements.
 Dumping of city or town
wastes including construction
debris, industrial solid wastes, fly
ash for the purpose of land filling.
 Land reclamation, or disturbing
the natural course of seawater
except for the activities permissible
under this notification and executed
LOW
with prior permission from the
competent authority.

17MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, 2019. FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE- NOTIFICATION, Delhi:

THE GAZETTE OF INDIA.
Marine Ecology 13

IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON MARINE LIFE:

Gujarat has 50 coastal talukas and 59 towns (SOE, 2005) releasing enormous
amount of solid and liquid wastes daily into the coastal areas. Sengupta and
Deshmuke (2000) estimated that coastal waters of Gujarat receive about 606mm3 of
domestic sewage annually. Continuing expanse of urbanization along with the
industrial development leads to multiply the quantities of sewage generated and in
future would pose severe impact on the coastal and marine biodiversity. 18

In Mumbai, flooding was caused by wrong developments at the Bandra estuary and
negligence along the Mithi River, and in Uttarakhand the disaster was caused by
unplanned regional development and the unholy nexus between the land mafia and
politicians. The Srinagar valley suffers from an unfortunate geographical
disadvantage of being the recipient of water from an enormous watershed above the
valley.19

1. “750 unauthorised buildings violating CRZ under scanner- Chennai” -The

New Indian Express20

The buildings other than residences and industries also include hotels, beach resorts,
amusement parks, and other recreational facilities on the coastline. Due to sea

18 Saravanan K R, K. S. B. C. C., 2011. Status of Marine and coastal environments, Dehradhun:

Wildlife institure of India.
19 KT Ravindran, 2015. Chennai floods present a lesson in urban planning. [Online] Available at:

https://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/chennai-floods-present-a-lesson-in-urban-planning/story-
QOQlkG76xthZcNSqmQ5icL.html [Accessed 04 04 2020].
20 Shivakumar, C., 2020. 750 unauthorised buildings violating CRZ under scanner. [Online]

Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/centre-approves-tn-govts-crz-

plan/articleshow/67632580.cms [Accessed 3 05 2020].
Marine Ecology 14

erosion, many of these bungalows have developed cracks and collapsed.

Intervention in those areas by building affects the sea shore ecosystem that is related
to the marine ecosystem of the water body close to it. With so many intervention on
land by buildings, the natural sediments get altered, hence creating disasters.

Consequences and Impact of large scale encroachment around CRZ:

1. This would cause Coastal pollution and impact the coastal and estuarine
ecosystems.

2. Environmental issues include the enrichment of enclosed waters with organic

matter leading to eutrophication and pollution by industrial chemicals and oil.

3. About million people rely on coastal and marine ecosystems, habitats and
resources for food, building materials, building sites, and agricultural and
recreational areas, encroachment would endanger their livelihoods and
sustainability.

4. The encroachment would put pressure on the living and non-living resources of
the coastal zone, due to urbanization, industrialisation, and transportation.

5. It further impacts on the marine environment beyond traditional sewage and

waste, adding things like increased risk of disasters, excessive noise levels and
thermal pollution.

6. Construction engineering activities often cause permanent destruction of habitats

or decrease and fragmentation of habitats, due to land claim, coastal protection,
and extraction of bottom material, dumping and disposal.

7. The main impacts on marine ecosystems are disturbance and removal of benthic
organisms, damage to spawning areas for fish, alteration of the seabed,
destabilisation of shallow banks and increased erosion.

8. The present study reveals that there has been an increase in the instances of
conflicts in the area. Majority of the people who engage in the illegal
encroachment are with criminal backgrounds. They force the people in different
ways to sell of their lands and those who oppose them are attacked.

9. Severe beach erosion is a problem most common due to encroachment. Changes

to the shoreline have been extensive in recent decades and threats from rising
sea levels and sinking landmasses have required the development of new coastal
management strategies.
Marine Ecology 15

10. Flow of fresh water and materials to the coastal zone has been grossly altered by
Illegal encroachment. Issue is management of water, as the seasonal pattern of
discharge has been greatly modified.

11. The coastlines due to encroachment face high risks of damage from certain types
of natural disasters. A major concern is death and property loss by winds and
flooding by cyclones.21

2. Coastal Marine Pollution of Chennai City- A Case Study

The Chennai coastal zone covers a stretch of approximately 30 km length from Adyar
River in the south to Ennore creek in the north. Nearly 98.2% of the land area is used
for industrial, residential and commercial purposes. The majority of wastewater is
disposed of in Adyar River, Cuvum River, and Buckingham canal outlets.

Apart from these major

disposal sites, a number
of domestic and
industrial wastewater
sites are prevalent along
the coastal zone of the
north Chennai. A
number of refineries,
thermal power plants,
and chemical rubber
and fertilizer industries
are located along the
Chennai coastal zone.
The wastewaters from
all these industries and
residential zones are
finally directed to the

21 Forumias, n.d. There has been large-scale encroachment and illegal constructions going on around
Coastal Regulatory Zones. [Online] Available at: https://blog.forumias.com/answered-there-has-been-
large-scale-encroachment-and-illegal-constructions-going-on-around-coastal-regulatory-zones-
discuss-its-consequences-and-impact/ [Accessed 04 05 2020].
Marine Ecology 16

coastal waters of Chennai. 22

Therefore, Ennore, Chennai Harbour, Cuvum and Adyar estuaries have been
identified as most important areas (Gowri and Ramachandran, 2001) on the basis of
(1) location of industrial effluents discharge along the coast

(2) Location of municipal sewage dumping areas

(3) Location of dredging activated areas, for monitoring the levels of pollutants

(Which are prohibited according to CRZ rules)

For a case, considering the Ennore estuary, Chennai:

Threat:
Ennore coast receives untreated sewage from Royapuram sewage outfall,
untreated/treated industrial effluents from Manali Industrial Belt, which houses many
chemical industries like Springer Water Resource Manage fertilizer, oil refineries,
sugar, chemicals etc. Apart from this, it receives fly ash and thermal discharges from
the nearby Ennore Thermal Power Station and untreated sewage from the nearby
settlement. In addition to that, fishing and navigational activities take place in the
area. The dredging activities in Ennore area result in changes in the marine
ecosystems, landscape, sediment transport, and dust pollution to the coast by
quarrying process.

Suggestion by Experts:
Owing to shallow nature of these areas, disposed waste materials and pollutants are
highly persistence in the coastal waters, especially in the surf zone. The role of
physical mixing and transport by currents is less significant in these areas, therefore,
all of pollutants remain concentrated around the surf zone due to low dispersion.
Although several conventional treatment facilities are available to reduce the content
of suspended solids, oxygen-demanding substances, dissolved inorganic
compounds, and pathogens in these areas, the treated wastes still contain high
concentrations of several polluting substances.

New techniques and dispersion models are thus necessary to be introduced to

reduce the levels of pollution in the coastal areas. In the recent years more
importance is given for the construction of submarine diffusers to transport and
disperse such a huge quantity of waste materials to the deep open ocean areas.

22
Palanisamy Shanmugam, S. N., 2015. Assessment of the levels of coastal marine pollution of
Chennai city, s.l.: Springer Science+Business Medi
Marine Ecology 17

Because of the great depth and distance from land, the open ocean areas are found
to be ideal for waste dumping than coastal region. Open oceans have also
considerable capacity to dilute, transport, and disperse wastes and associated
pollutants because of their large volume and free exchange of water. Hence, oceans
are less vulnerable to the impact of waste disposal than coastal waters.23

CONCLUSION

In coastal areas, growing populations are advancing their urban footprint into the
ocean through the construction of seawalls and other built infrastructure. While we
have some understanding of how urbanisation might drive functional change in
terrestrial ecosystems, coastal systems have been largely overlooked.

The ongoing expansion of urban developments into marine environments means

there is increasing urgency to improve our understanding of the full ecological
implications of these demographic and developing trends.

Controlling and rethinking the developing strategies with respect to the context and
surrounding ecosystem, sustainability and balance (co-existence) of the micro
ecosystem around would help from further depletion. Also the human intervention by
non-point source pollutants (solid waste like plastic, etc.) should be avoided by
protective measures and maintenance as it could affect the marine ecosystem.

23
Palanisamy Shanmugam, S. N., 2015. Assessment of the levels of coastal marine pollution of
Chennai city, s.l.: Springer Science+Business Medi
Marine Ecology 18

REFERENCES

Forumias, n.d. There has been large-scale encroachment and illegal constructions
going on around Coastal Regulatory Zones. [Online]
Available at: https://blog.forumias.com/answered-there-has-been-large-scale-
encroachment-and-illegal-constructions-going-on-around-coastal-regulatory-zones-
discuss-its-consequences-and-impact/
[Accessed 04 05 2020].

K. K. Joshi, V. M. a. S. V., 2015. Marine Biodiversity of India –Status and Challenges,

Kochi: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

KT Ravindran, 2015. Chennai floods present a lesson in urban planning. [Online]

Available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/chennai-floods-present-a-
lesson-in-urban-planning/story-QOQlkG76xthZcNSqmQ5icL.html
[Accessed 04 04 2020].

Kusky, T., 2005. Lagoon. In: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences. New York: s.n., p. 245.

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, 2019. FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE-

NOTIFICATION, Delhi: THE GAZETTE OF INDIA.

National Geographic, 2018. Marine Ecosystems. [Online]

Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/marine-ecosystem-
illustrations-grades-3-5/
[Accessed 29 04 2020].

NOAA, 2019. Coral Reef Ecosystems. [Online]

Available at: https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-
education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems
[Accessed 2020 29 2020].

NOS, n.d. What is a "mangrove" forest?. [Online]

Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/
[Accessed 28 04 2020].

NOS, n.d. What is an estuary?. [Online]

Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/estuary.html
[Accessed 29 04 2020].
Marine Ecology 19

P Laxmilatha, T. S. S. a. M. S. V., 2015. Marine Protected Areas, Kochi: Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

Palanisamy Shanmugam, S. N., 2015. Assessment of the levels of coastal marine

pollution of Chennai city, s.l.: Springer Science+Business Media.

Saravanan K R, K. S. B. C. C., 2011. Status of Marine and coastal environments,

Dehradhun: Wildlife institure of India.

Shivakumar, C., 2020. 750 unauthorised buildings violating CRZ under scanner.
[Online]
Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/centre-approves-tn-
govts-crz-plan/articleshow/67632580.cms
[Accessed 3 05 2020].

WWF, 2015. THE CASE FOR MPAS. [Online]

Available at:
https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/solutions/protection/protected_areas/
[Accessed 28 04 2020].