Oscilloscope

What is an oscilloscope?
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze
the waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the
instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time.
A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct
current (DC) waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately 1 hertz (Hz) or as
high as several megahertz (MHz). High-end oscilloscopes can display signals having
frequencies up to several hundred gigahertz (GHz). The display is broken up into so-
called horizontal divisions (hor div) and vertical divisions (vert div). Time is displayed
from left to right on the horizontal scale. Instantaneous voltage appears on the vertical
scale, with positive values going upward and negative values going downward.
The oldest form of oscilloscope, still used in some labs today, is known as
the cathode-ray oscilloscope. It produces an image by causing a focused electron beam
to travel, or sweep, in patterns across the face of a cathode ray tube (CRT). More
modern oscilloscopes electronically replicate the action of the CRT using a liquid crystal
display (liquid crystal display) similar to those found on notebook computers. The most
sophisticated oscilloscopes employ computers to process and display waveforms.
These computers can use any type of display, including CRT, LCD, and gas plasma.
In any oscilloscope, the horizontal sweep is measured in seconds per division
(s/div), milliseconds per division (ms/div), microseconds per division (s/div), or
nanoseconds per division (ns/div). The vertical deflection is measured in volts per
division (V/div), millivolts per division (mV/div), or microvolts per division (?V/div).
Virtually all oscilloscopes have adjustable horizontal sweep and vertical deflection
settings.
The illustration shows two common waveforms as they
might appear when displayed on an oscilloscope screen. The
signal on the top is a sine wave; the signal on the bottom is a
ramp wave. It is apparent from this display that both signals
have the same, or nearly the same, frequency. They also have
approximately the same peak-to-peak amplitude. Suppose the
horizontal sweep rate in this instance is 1 µs/div. Then these
waves both complete a full cycle every 2 µs, so their
frequencies are both approximately 0.5 MHz or 500 kilohertz (kHz). If the vertical
deflection is set for, say, 0.5 mV/div, then these waves both have peak-to-peak
amplitudes of approximately 2 mV.
These days, typical high-end oscilloscopes are digital devices. They connect to
personal computers and use their displays. Although these machines no longer employ
scanning electron beams to generate images of waveforms in the manner of the old
cathode-ray "scope," the basic principle is the same.
Software controls the sweep rate, vertical deflection, and a host of other features which
can include:

 Storage of waveforms for future reference and comparison

 Display of several waveforms simultaneously
 Spectral analysis
 Portability
 Battery power option
 Usability with all popular operating platforms
 Zoom-in and zoom-out
 Multi-color displays

Basics of O-Scopes
The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies
over time. Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-
axis and voltage on the y-axis.

An example of an oscilloscope
display. A signal (the yellow sine
wave in this case) is graphed
on a horizontal time axis and a vertical voltage axis.
 Controls surrounding the scope’s screen allow you to adjust the scale of the
graph, both vertically and horizontally – allowing you to zoom in and out on a signal.
There are also controls to set the trigger on the scope, which helps focus and stabilize
the display.

What Can Scopes Measure

In addition to those fundamental features, many scopes have measurement
tools, which help to quickly quantify frequency, amplitude, and other waveform
characteristics. In general, a scope can measure both time-based and voltage-based
characteristics:

Timing characteristics:

 Frequency and period – Frequency is defined as the number of times per second
a waveform repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of seconds
each repeating waveform takes). The maximum frequency a scope can measure
varies, but it’s often in the 100’s of MHz (1E6 Hz) range.
 Duty cycle – The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or negative
(there are both positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a ratio that
tells you how long a signal is “on” versus how long it’s “off” each period.
 Rise and fall time – Signals can’t instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have to
smoothly rise. The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point is
called the rise time, and fall time measures the opposite. These characteristics
are important when considering how fast a circuit can respond to signals.

Voltage characteristics:

 Amplitude – Amplitude is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a

variety of amplitude measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which
measures the absolute difference between a high and low voltage point of a
signal. Peak amplitude, on the other hand, only measures how high or low a
signal is past 0V.
 Maximum and minimum voltages – The scope can tell you exactly how high and
low the voltage of your signal gets.
  Mean and average voltages – Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean
of your signal, and it can also tell you the average of your signal’s minimum and
maximum voltage.

When to Use an O-Scope

The o-scope is useful in a variety of troubleshooting and research situations,
including:
Determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal, which can be critical in
debugging a circuit’s input, output, or internal systems. From this, you can tell if a
component in your circuit has malfunctioned.
Identifying how much noise is in your circuit.
Identifying the shape of a wave – sine, square, triangle, sawtooth, complex, etc.
Quantifying phase differences between two different signals.

Basic Oscilloscope Controls

In view of the flexibility and level of control required to use an oscilloscope, there are a
large number of controls that are present. These need to be set correctly if the required
view of the signal is to be obtained.

Fortunately, it is quite easy to get used to operating an oscilloscope and using the
controls to be able to view the waveform correctly.

A summary of the main controls on an oscilloscope is given below:

Nevertheless, a short overview of some of the controls is given below:

 Vertical gain:   This control on the oscilloscope alters the gain of the amplifier
that controls the size of the signal in the vertical axis. It is generally calibrated in
terms of a certain number of volts per centimeter. Therefore, by setting the vertical
gain switch so that a lower number of volts per centimeter is selected, then the
vertical gain is increased and the amplitude of the visible waveform on the screen is
increased.

When using the oscilloscope, the vertical gain is normally set so that the waveform
fills the vertical plane as best as possible, i.e. as large as possible without going
outside the visible or calibrated area.
 Vertical position:   This control on the oscilloscope governs the position of trace
when no signal is present. It is normally set to a convenient line on the graticule so
that measurements above and below the "zero" position can be measured easily. It
also has an equivalent horizontal position control that sets the horizontal position.
Again, this one should be set to a convenient position for making any timing
measurements.

 Timebase:   The timebase control sets the speed at which the screen is
scanned. It is calibrated in terms of a certain a certain time for each centimeter
calibration on the screen. From this the period of a waveform can be calculated. This
if a full cycle of a waveform to 10 microseconds to complete, this means that its
period is 10 microseconds, and the frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, i.e.
1 / 10 microseconds = 100 kHz.

Normally the timebase is adjusted so that the waveform or a particular point on the
waveform under investigation can be seen at its best.

 Trigger:   The trigger control on the oscilloscope sets the point at which the scan
on the waveform starts. On analogue oscilloscopes, only when a certain voltage level
had been reached by the waveform would the scan start. This would enable the scan
on the waveform to start at the same time on each cycle, enabling a steady
waveform to be displayed. By altering the trigger voltage, the scan can be made to
start at a different point on the waveform. It is also possible to choose whether to
trigger the oscilloscope on a positive, or a negative going part of the waveform. This
may be provided by a separate switch marked with + and - signs.

 Trigger hold-off:   This is another important control associated with the trigger
function. Known as the "hold-off" function it adds a delay to the trigger to prevent it
triggering too soon after the completion of the previous scan. This function is
sometimes required because there are several points on a waveform on which the
oscilloscope can trigger. By adjusting the hold-off function a stable display can be
achieved.

 Beam finder:   Some oscilloscopes possess a beam finder function. This can be
particularly useful as it is possible that sometimes the trace may not be visible.
Pressing the beam finder button enables the beam to be found and adjusted so that
it is in the center of the screen.
Although there are many other controls, these are the main ones to understand when
learning how to use an oscilloscope. Nevertheless, it is very useful to understand the
other controls on an oscilloscope, but some will vary from one type to another.

First steps in using an oscilloscope

Using an oscilloscope is quite easy once one has been used and it is possible to
become familiar with the use of the controls. The first stage comes when turning on an
oscilloscope and this is where knowing a few steps about how to use an oscilloscope
can be very useful.

1. Turn power on:   This may appear obvious but is the first step. Usually the
switch will be labelled "Power" or "Line". Once the power is on, it is normal for a
power indicator or line indicator light to come on. This shows that power has been
applied.

2. Wait for oscilloscope display to appear:  Although many oscilloscopes these

days have semiconductor-based displays, many of the older ones still use cathode
ray tubes (CRTs), and these take a short while to warm up before the display
appears. Even modern semiconductor ones often need time for their electronics to
"boot-up". It is therefore often necessary to wait a minute or so before the
oscilloscope can be used.

3. Find the trace:  Once the oscilloscope is ready it is necessary to find the trace.
Often it will be visible, but before any other waveforms can be seen, this is the first
stage. Typically, the trigger can be set to the center and the hold-off turned fully
counter-clockwise. Also set the horizontal and vertical position controls to the center,
if they are not already there. Usually the trace will become visible. If not the "beam
finder" button can be pressed and this will locate the trace.

4. Set the gain control:  The next stage is to set the horizontal gain control. This
should be set so that the expected trace will nearly fill the vertical screen. If the
waveform is expected to be 8 volts peak to peak, and the calibrated section of the
screen is 10 centimeters high, then set the gain so that it is 1 volt / centimeter. This
way the waveform will occupy 8 centimeters, almost filling the screen.

5. Set the timebase speed:  It is also necessary to set the timebase speed on the
oscilloscope. The actual setting will depend on what needs to be seen. Typically, if a
waveform has a period of 10ms and the screen has a width of 12 centimeters, then a
timebase speed of 1ms per centimeter or division would be chosen.
6. Apply the signal:  With the controls set approximately correctly the signal can
be applied and an image should be seen.

7. Adjust the trigger:  At this stage it is necessary to adjust the trigger level and
whether it triggers on the positive or negative going edge. The trigger level control
will be able to control where on the waveform the timebase is triggered and hence
the trace starts on the waveform. The choice of whether it triggers on the positive or
negative going edge may also be important. These should be adjusted to give the
required image.

8. Adjust the controls for the best image:  With a stable waveform in place, the
vertical gain and timebase controls can be re-adjusted to give the required image.

References:
 https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/oscilloscope/how-to-use-
oscilloscope.php
 https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/oscilloscope
 https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/how-to-use-an-oscilloscope