Tribolugy Inrernafional Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 3’2-331.

1997
0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
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PII: SO301-679X(96)00062-X

Fifty years of research on the

ar of metals
Peter J, Blau

Research on the wear of metals which took place over the past
half century has brought new understanding and advanced major
concepts of tribology. Such key work comprises a subset of a
much larger body of published studies which simply report wear
test results. The availability of new testing methods and
instruments have made possible the detailed study of the
microstructure, nanostructure, and compositions of contact
surfaces. The classical work of the earlier decades concentrated
on the mechanics of solid contact, understanding the true area of
contact, asperity plasticity, and transfer during sliding. Wear
science also witnessed the establishment of the conceptual
groundwork for such things as the critical angle for maximum
erosion rate by particles, the proportionality between hardness
and abrasive wear rate, and the nature of slip and stick in fretting
contact. Later decades brought forth instruments, like the
scanning electron microscope and the atomic force microscope,
whit!? have provided fascinating insights and detailed information
on surface structure. There have also been developments in
computational modelling of wear by finite element methods,
molecular dynamics, and fracture mechanics. Past trends in the
study of various forms of metal wear and future trends and
needs in wear research are discussed. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Keywords: wear, metals, alloys, wear research, surface roughness,

metallic wear, erosion, abrasion, fretting, impact wear, hardness,
delamination wear, sliding wear, wear modelling

Introduction more wear-resistant metals dates back far longer than

Wear is defined by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM)’ as ‘damage to a solid surface,
generally involving the progressive loss of material,
due to relative motion between that surface and a
contacting substance or substances.’ Thus, any retro-
spective look at research on the wear of metals must
concern not only sliding wear and abrasion, but more
broadly, a wide range of wear processes. Use of the
broad term substu~zcein the ASTM definition allows
wear to be produced not only by rubbing contact with
a solid surface, but also by particles, liquids, electric
arcs, or gas streams. Wear has been of concern to
users of metals for thousands of years. One need only
consider the importance of maintaining sharp hunting
knives, axes, and swords to realize that the search for
Tribonwterials hformution Services, PO Box 4427,
TN 3783 I-442 7, USA
the 50 years addressed in this article. That longer-term
perspective is amply described in the comprehensive
book by Dowson’. The present paper focuses instead
on the progress of metal wear studies during the last
half of the 20th century, evolving understanding and
modelling metal wear, the role of wear testing, and
the important influence of new surface imaging and
analysis techniques on progress in metal wear research.
To better appreciate the directions which wear research
took over the last few decades, it is necessary to
understand the motivations for conducting such work.
Wear studies are generally conducted for one or more
of the following reasons:
(a) To understand the wear behaviour of a particular
family of materials.
Oak Ridge, (b) To optimize or select materials for a particular
application (i.e., simulation and screening)
Tribology International Volume 30 Number 5 1997 321
Fifty years of research on the wear of metals:
(c) To understand the effects of certain variables on
a particular type of wear mode or process
(d) To support the development of predictive or
descriptive models for wear in specific tribosys-
terns.
Testing is a vital component of wear research; however,
the generation of test data alone does not constitute
wear research. Publications containing wear data for
metals and alloys abound. Handbooks bulge with wear
rates, wear coefficients, wear factors, and wear maps.
Journals and conference proceedings contribute still
more. Yet, the number of significant contributions to
wear research, those which have led to significant
advances in basic understanding of wear, is much
smaller. Unlike the approach taken in brute-force rank-
ing or screening studies, the goals of wear research
are to develop better, more accurate wear models, to
reveal the fundamental relationships between the struc-
ture and properties of a surface and its wear response,
and to use that understanding to develop improved
wear-resistant materials and surface treatments for spe-
cific applications.
As Kragelskii” pointed out that more than 50 years
ago, Russian researchers, Zaitsev, Konvisarov, Khru-
shov and Shchapov established that the wear resistance
qf a material depends to a large extent on its con-
ditions of use. Despite this early recognition, many
still regard wear as an intrinsic materials property. In
fact, it cannot be said that the wear resistance of any
particular metal is either ‘good’ or ‘bad’ without also
providing the context under which that assessment
was made. Furthermore, wear is most meaningfully
represented in relative terms when used to make
material selections for a particular application. For
metals, as for other engineering materials, relative wear
resistance of a set of candidate materials can differ
when different wear processes are involved. Czichos4,
for example, showed that the wear resistance of four
surface-treated metals ranked in opposite order when
subjected to abrasive and sliding wear. Therefore, when
considering historical progress in wear research on
metals, one must differentiate between the types of
wear processes, and consider research progress along
those lines. There are a number of classification
schemes for wear types, but in general, sliding wear”,
abrasive wear, erosive wear, fretting wear, impact wear,
and their variants which involve tribochemical effects
are commonly delineated.
Trends in metal wear research
Peterson5 reviewed the development and use of tribo-
materials and concluded that metals and their alloys
are the most common engineering materials used in
wear applications. Grey cast iron, for example, has
been in use as early as 1388. Thus, despite the growing
interest in ceramics and polymeric composites as engin-
eering tribomaterials, much of the wear research con-
*The term adhesive wear is covmonl~~ used to characterize sliding
wear in which material is removed by the process qf monwntary
adhesilvz ,junction formation and ,fracture. This term limits the mech-
anism of material remove to a particular ow, md the more general
term sliding wear will be used in this paper.
322 Tribology International Volume 30 Number
P. J. Blau
ducted over the past 50 years has continued to be
metals-oriented. For the last 20 of those years, a
continuing series of bi-annual International Conferences
on the Wear of Materials has been held in North
America. Figure 1 indicates that over the last decade,
the proportion of Wear of Materials Conference papers
devoted to the wear of (bulk) metals and alloys
decreased by about a factor of two. This trend reflects
a growing interest in ceramics, polymers, composite
materials, and coatings.
The different types of metal wear have not been equally
researched. If one assumesthat the Wear of Materials
conferences are indicative of the trends in wear
research over the last 20 years, then the subjects of
the papers published in those conference proceedings
become an indicator of the emphasis placed on studies
of the various wear types. Wear of Materials Confer-
ence papers which addressed the wear of bulk metals
or alloys (including surface-modified metals but not
metals used as substrates for non-metal coatings) were
sorted by type of wear. If a certain paper discussed
two types of wear, it was listed in both categories.
Figure 2 indicates that the majority of the metal wear-
related papers were concerned with sliding and abrasive
wear. The category ‘all other’ contains rolling wear,
impact wear, galling, and spark erosion. Work on
abrasive wear seemsto have peaked between 1983 and
1987 when it about equalled the volume of work on
sliding wear, but trends in the other types of wear are
less clear.
To some extent, the trends shown in Fig. 2 are subject
to the influences of competing conferences held in the
same year and to the relative successof the conference
paper solicitors whose interests may have lain in certain
areas of tribology. Nevertheless, the trends are interest-
ing; especially in light of the estimate of Eyre” regard-
ing the relative percentages of wear problems in indus-
try. Published in 1976, the year before the first Wear
of Materials conference was held, Eyre’s paper esti-
mated the followin g percentages of wear types in
industry: abrasive wear 50%, adhesive wear 15%, ero-
sion 8%, fretting 8%, and chemical wear 5%. If Eyre’s
estimates are correct, then the amount of effort devoted
to the study of adhesive (sliding) wear and to abrasive
wear, as mirrored in the Wear of Materials Conference
papers, seem to be disproportionately high and low,
respectively.
One might speculate why there was relatively high
interest in sliding wear compared with other forms.
Firstly, sliding wear is arguably more mechanistically
complex than certain other forms of wear because it
involves not only the cutting and plowing included in
abrasive wear, but also the adhesion of asperities, third-
bodies (debris), subsurface crack initiation and growth
(i.e., contact fatigue processes), the transfer of material
to and from the mating surfaces, subtle changes in
surface roughness during running-in, tribochemical film
formation, and other processes. Secondly, sliding wear
testing machines are relatively easy to build, compared
with, for example, impingement erosion, rolling con-
tact, impact or fretting testers. Therefore, materials
researchers interested in beginning to study wear could
obtain their first set of data more quickly and with
5 1997
 Fifty years of research on the wear of metals: P. J. Blau

65

60

77 ‘79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95

CONFERENCIE YEAR (19-m)

Fig. 1 The proportion qf International Wear of Materials Conference papers devoted to the wear of metals seems
to hal,e peaked in the mid 1980s and declined in recent years

77 79 01 03 05 87 89 91 93 95

CONFERENCE YEAR (19J

Fig. 2 Based OH the International Wear of Materials Conference proceedings, sliding wear, erosive wear, and
abrasil.le M’ear research have dominated over the past 20 years

less design effort expended on the testing machines
themselves. In fact, some investigators began their
sliding wear studies by adapting phonograph record
players, drill presses, and lathes with a minimal invest-
ment 3f funds. Thirdly, the availability of funding
influences the type of wear research being done and
there may have been more funding available for sliding
wear research than for other forms.
Alloy and coating development efforts have also stimu-
lated ‘#ear testing and wear research. In such work,
Tribology
the study of wear was not the primary objective; rather,
wear testing was done in support of efforts in new
materials development. It is safe to say that there is
much more research effort expended in developing the
processing of new materials, surface treatments, and
coatings than there is in wear. It must be recognized,
therefore, that factors other than a desire to study wear
for its own sake have motivated a number of research
efforts which included the wear of metals.
International Volume 30 Number 5 1997 323
Fifty years of research on the wear of metals:
The changing focus in wear research on
metals
As Dowson’s book suggests, the history of tribology
is strongly linked to the history of transportation tech-
nology. The need to control friction and wear in
ground, sea, and aerospace propulsion systems was
clearly a historical impetus for wear research. Much
of the wear research in the 1940s and 1950s was
conducted by mechanical engineers and metallurgists
to obtain design data for the construction of motors,
drive trains, brakes, bearings, bushings, and other types
of moving mechanical assemblies.The interest in space
exploration which grew in the late 1950s and expanded
in the 1960s generated extensive studies of adhesion
and wear in VCICUO.The early 1960s also witnessed
the establishment of a Gordon Research Conference
on Friction, Lubrication, and Wear in the USA. It
joined a series of scientific conferences which orig-
inated in 1931 to foster the exchange of forefront
research findings. The Gordon Conference in Tribology
continues to be held on even-numbered years.
During the 1970s spurred on in part by developments
in instrumentation and computing, interest in studying
the fundamental aspects of wear grew among materials
researchers and surface physicists, and most of that
work focused on metals. In 1974, another important
conference series, the Leeds-Lyon Conferences in Tri-
bology, was established. These conferences have served
as a forum for discussion of new developments in
wear research. By the mid-to-late 1970s Czichos’s
systems approach7 proposed an organized system of
wear analysis based on energy partition during sliding.
A German standard on the subject followed shortly
thereafter’. In the 1980s and 1990s new surface-imag-
ing instruments and computer-based techniques became
available to study wear. In the following sections key
developments and concepts in metal wear of different
types will be highlighted.
Abrasive wear
Research work on abrasive wear had reached an
important milestone by the early 1940s. The work of
Krushev and Babichev” established a linear pro-
portionality between the ratio of the hardness of pure
metals to their relative abrasion resistance. Later,
Larsen-Basse’Oshowed that similar data for steels could
be subdivided into two lines of different slopes
depending on their Vickers hardness number. Other
investigators have refined the relative hardness
approach still further (e.g., Mutton and Watson”).
Further, as Moore” pointed out, different relationships
appeared when that approach was extended to other
types of materials. The tendency of hard particles to
either cut chips or plow through and displace surface
material affects the manner and magnitude of abrasive
wear processes. In general, formulations for two-body
abrasive wear models contain the hardness of the
abraded surface and a characteristic angle of the sharp
asperity(ies) producing the material removal.
During the late 1950s and early 1960s Alison et al. l3
began to integrate the consideration of metallurgical
structure below the contact surface into analyses of
324 Tribology International Volume 30 Number
P. J. Blau
abrasive wear behaviour. They addressed such issues
as dislocation density, crystalline structure, and defor-
mational energy stored in the material during abrasion.
They established important similarities between crystal-
lographic texture development during abrasion and
those obtained during rolling of metal sheet. Friction
and wear data they obtained, along with calorimetric
data, helped them to estimate the energy stored in the
material during abrasive processes. About the same
time, fundamental investigations of crystallographic
effects on sliding friction and wear of single crystals
was also going on14. Later, a number of electron
microscopy studies of abraded surfaces were published
(e.g., Moore and Southwaitei5).
In addition to witnessing the beginnings of microstruc-
tural studies on abraded surfaces, other experimental
work in the mid-1960s was further exploring the issue
of the relative hardness of the abrasive to the work
material. Nathan and Joneslh, for example, conducted
extensive belt abrasion studies on metals and alloys.
Five bonded abrasives ranging from glass to silicon
carbide were used. Unlike the linear proportionality
put forth by earlier workers, they represented the abras-
ive wear volume as being proportional to the logarithm
of the ratio of the abrasive hardness to that of the
metal. Except for soft metals, like tin and aluminium,
this relationship appeared to hold.
Much of the early modelling work in abrasive wear
was concerned with two-body abrasive wear, that is,
where the hard particles which are doing the cutting
and plowing are fixed on the opposing surface. Three-
body abrasive wear presents additional problems which
can complicate the modelling process. When abrasive
grains are free to tumble (perhaps entrained in a fluid
or slurry) and to change their angles of approach and
penetration into the surface, the modelling situation
becomes more complicated. Comprehensive studies by
Mulheam and Samuels” in Australia integrated abras-
ive removal mechanisms with metallurgical structure
during the machining and polishing processes. Much
of this work, which took place in the 20-year period
between 1960 and 1980, is summarized in Samuel’s
important book on polishing’*. In that book, he uses
transparent geometric shapes and plasticine modelling
clay to illustrate how three modes of interaction can
be produced by third bodies on a soft surface: rolling,
grooving to displace material, and chip cutting.
Forty years after Krushev and Babishev published their
work, Challen and Oxley’s work on slip-line field
analysis19 provided new methodology to analyse metal
deformation during abrasive contact. Abrasion models
for metals, developed in Japan and published in 1983”,
used slip-line field theory and incorporated such con-
siderations as the hardness ratio of the indenter to the
substrate, the abrasive tip angle, and a dimensionless
interfacial shear strength (ratio of the interfacial shear
strength to that of the substrate). Also in 1983, Sasada
et al.” studied the effects of abrasive grain size on the
transition between adhesive wear and abrasive wear. By
the mid-1980s techniques like the ‘Uppsala pendu-
lum”2.23 were being developed to study the energy of
grooving. In 1987, Zum-Gahr’” published an extensive
review of grooving wear in materials which addressed
many of the metallurgical aspects of abrasion.
5 1997
 Fifty years
One important problem with some of the single-grain-
based abrasive wear models is that they do not
explicitly account for the presence of adjacent grains,
embedment, and loading (infilling of the abrading sur-
face with debris). Many types of two-body abrasion
testing apparatus are designed specifically to avoid
loading by moving the slider sequentially across a
drum or disk to supply fresh abrasiveZ5, yet loading
often happens in practice. The most obvious example
of this phenomenon is in the grinding the metals by
abrasive wheels which must be dressed periodically to
keep the grains ‘free-cutting’. Grinding is essentially
displa’cement-controlled two-body abrasive wear of the
work piece. Future opportunities for work in two- and
three-body abrasive wear of metals might therefore
include studies of loading (two-body), multiple interac-
tions (two- and three-body), and grain fracture during
abrasion (two- and three-body). The role of tribochemi-
stry in wet abrasion situations (two- and three-body
wear-corrosion synergism) is also a prime subject for
continuing study, as is the integration of what is known
about grinding with the field of abrasive wear research.
Sliding wear
The history of sliding wear research in metals cannot
be divorced from classical studies of friction because
both involve the mechanics of solid contact. Fifty years
ago, Ragnar Holm was in the midst of conducting
fundamental studies on the nature of solid contact in
Sweden. He published a signal work on electrical
contact problem?, a book which was expanded and
reprinted in 195827. Holm pondered the role of atomic-
level itransfer and proposed a relationship between wear
volume loss per unit distance slid and the true area
of contact.
Comprehensive fundamental studies of the sliding wear
and friction of metals were performed at the Cavendish
Laboratory in Cambridge, England for more than 50
years. That work began a few years before World
War I& in Cambridge, continued between 1939 and
1944 in Melbourne, Australia, and returned to Cam-
bridge thereafter. P. F. Bowden and D. Tabor were
highl:i-recognized leaders of that work, and their 1950
book on friction and lubricationZ8 was influential in
the historical development of wear research on metals.
In Barwell’s bookz9, published in 1950, Bowden and
Tabo?’ wrote the following:
‘Metal surfaces normally employed both in practice
and in laboratory experiments on friction will gener-
ally be very complex and will consist of (a) surface
irregularities which are very large compared with
molecular dimensions, (b) an oxide film, and (c) an
altered or disturbed layer within the metal itself.’
Holm’s contribution3’ in the same book reviewed the
relationship of hardness to sliding wear in the context
of work hardening.
Lancaster3” points out that much of wear research
conducted in the 1950s and 1960s was aimed at the
sliding of soft metals on harder counterfaces. In fact,
the decade of the 1950s represented a most influential
one in wear research in metals. In 1951, Tabor
Tribology
of research on the wear of metals: P. J. Blau
published his important book on The Hardfless of
Metals. This short but influential work established an
experimental and conceptual framework of understand-
ing for deformation during indentation, work hardening,
elastic recovery, the influence of indenter shape, the
types and differences between hardness measurement
methods, and importantly for sliding wear science,
Tabor revisited the issue of true versus apparent contact
area between solids.
The following year, 1952, produced another important
work in wear research of metals. Burwell and Strang34
are credited for formulating among the first widely-
accepted laws of adhesive (sliding) wear of metals.
They proposed that the following are usually involved
in the wear of metals: (1) adhesion or galling, (2)
corrosion, (3) the presence of loose abrasive material
(third-bodies), (4) cutting or plowing, and (5) a number
of other factors such as fatigue and erosion. These
basic concepts have largely stood the test of time, and
many of the wear theories and models which followed
that work have merely addressed the implications of
tlhose processes in one form or another.
In 1953, the same year that Sir Edmund Hillary first
climbed Mount Everest, arguably the world’s largest
asperity, J. F. Archard published his wear model
which stated a proportionality (k) between the volume
of wear produced during sliding (V) and the applied
load (L), hardness (H), and sliding distance (s):
(V/s) = k L/H. This model is sometimes referred to as
‘Archard’s adhesive wear model’ despite the fact that
its derivation was not dependent upon the assumption
of adhesion. In a later paper, Archard and Hirst36
presented the results of an extensive series of experi-
ments on sliding wear of metals and concluded:
‘ . . when equilibrium surface conditions are attained
the wear rates of materials are independent of the
apparent area of contact and suggeststhat wear rate
is proportional to the applied load unless a change
in load causes the surface conditions to change.
These rules apply to both the mild and severe forms
of wear and have been observed for combinations
of materials for which the wear mechanisms are
known to be of different kinds.’
Thus, it was recognized that transitions in wear, such
as running-in and other transitions, were possible and
that a better understanding of the causes for such
phenomena was needed. Nearly 30 years later, Arch-
ard37 discussedthe implications of his and other simple
wear models, pointing out their limitations; especially
as regards the influences of sliding velocity, frictional
heating, and sudden transitions in wear processes, a
subject discussed later in this paper.
The transfer of metal or films from one surface to
another during sliding has been the subject of numerous
studies. By the late 1940s radioactive isotopes were
becoming more readily available to researchers and
new means of studying the processesof transfer in the
wear of metals were made possible. These techniques
are discussed by Rabinowicz3”. The transfer and build-
up of deposits of material ahead of the sliding contact
was the subject of the much-cited 1952 paper by
Cocks39. The following year, a conference on the
International Volume 30 Number 5 1997 325
Fifty years of research on the wear of metals:
Mechanisms of Solid Frictiorz”, which contained a
number of papers on wear as well, was sponsored by
the US Air Force Materials Laboratory. A year later
Antler’l’ published a review of the transfer of metals
during sliding. He found transfer to be extremely
important in the performance of switches, relays, edge-
board connectors, and other electro-mechanical compo-
nents. His work for more than three decades reflected
an emphasis in that area of metallic wear behaviour.
In the decade of the 196Os, interest was growing in
applying new techniques of surface physics to the
study of adhesion and transfer, as it related to friction
and wear of metals. Significant among that work was
the research of D. Buckley and his colleagues at the
US National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Lewis Research Center. Much of that work is summar-
ized in Buckley’s 1981 book4*.
During the 1970s and 1980s there was quite a bit of
research on the subject of selective transfer performed
in the former Soviet Union. The definition for selective
transfer (ST), as stated by GarkunovJ”, is as follows:
‘a friction mode due to the spontaneous formation
in the contact zone of a nonoxidizing thin metallic
film that has low resistance to shearing and does
not work harden. On the film there forms a polymer
film which creates a second antifriction layer.’
So intense was the interest in ST that various com-
missions and councils were organized in the mid-to-
late 1970s to address the mechanisms and applications
of ST. At the same time, there was an interest in the
Soviet Union in ‘hydrogen wear’44. Hydrogen wear
was said to be produced due to the destruction of
hydrogen-containing materials at the sliding interface.
The excess hydrogen was surmised to diffuse into the
surface of steels to accelerate subsurface cracking and
to lead to higher wear rates.
While Russian researchers were studying selective
transfer in the 1970s a team of workers at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, led by Nam P. Suh,
was developing what was to become known as the
‘delamination theory of wear’. Published in 1973J5,
this fatigue-based sliding wear model involved the
nucleation and propagation of subsurface cracks to
form platelets which eventually detached from the wear
surface as flat debris particles. Suh later stated that the
three mechanisms for the removal of elastoplastic solid
material from a surface were: (1) asperity deformation
and fracture, (2) plowing, and (3) delamination. These
are described in his 1986 book46.
Two publications appeared in the late 1970s which
summarize much of the work in sliding wear. The
Proceedings of the International Wear of Materials
Conference, held in Dearborn, Michigan, in 1979, con-
tained a number of papers on the subject of metallic
transfer and sliding wear. For example, T. Sasada et
aZ.47examined transfer, back-transfer, and the mechan-
ical working of particles in sliding interfaces. Two
other teams of Japanese investigators revealed the
power of in situ experiments in the scanning electron
microscope by studying the formation of wear par-
ticles58,“9. Vingsbo’s review paper50 considered the
classification of wear modes and describes, using
326 Tribology International Volume 30 Number
P. J. Blau
numerous photomicrographs as examples, various
forms of wear features whose causesrange from plastic
deformation to brittle fracture and fatigue. The second
publication resulted from a joint, American Society for
Metals/The Metallurgical Society of AIME, symposium
held on October 4-5, 1980, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
The publication was edited by D. A. Rigney and titled
Fundamentals of Friction and Wear of Materialsil. A
series of invited review articles addressedsliding wear,
the delamination theory of wear, abrasive wear, dislo-
cation concepts in friction and wear, fatigue, wear
and fracture mechanics, coatings, and other topics. In
particular, L. E. Samuels et al.‘* reviewed sliding wear
mechanisms in light of extensive experimental evidence
from studies which included years of research on mach-
ining and polishing. It was during this rich period of
sliding wear research that Trenie i Iwos, the Soviet
Journal of Friction and Wear, made its appearance
in English translation53. Volume 1, Number 1 of that
publication contained articles by Ishlinskii, Belyi,
Kraghelski, and other key Soviet researchers. The sub-
jects of these papers addressed the wear not only of
metals, but also of polymers, lubricating films, and
friction materials.
Sliding wear continues to be a focus of tribology
research, and there are still a number of areas of which
offer opportunities in the research on the sliding wear
of metals. For example, models which incorporate sim-
ultaneously-operating wear processes, the effects of
strain rates (sliding speed) on near-surface shear
strength, and third bodies must be developed and inte-
grated. In addition, better models for boundary-lubri-
cated metal wear, containing not only the properties
of the solid but tribochemical effects as well, are
needed. The area of wear transitions, discussed later in
this article, is another fruitful area for future research.
Erosive wear
In 1958 and 1960, Finnie published definitive papers
which established the cornerstone for understanding the
erosion of ductile metals by impingement of hard
particles 54s5 The important factors governing this form
of erosion were identified as the particle velocity, angle
of incidence, and flux. Ductile metals were generally
observed to experience a maximum in erosion rate at
angles of incidence between about 15-30”, and it was
established that the erosion rate (mass loss per mass
of impinging particles) could be expressed as a constant
times the impinging particle velocity \I raised to the
power n (iz = 2-2.5 for metals). During the 1960s
interest grew in the mechanisms of erosive wear in
such applications as electrical power plants, mining
equipment, and jet engines. Much of this work is
chronicled in a series of special technical publications
published by ASTM56. In fact, it was largely the
interest in erosive wear and the successful symposium
on ‘Erosion and Cavitation’ in June of 1961 that led
to the development of the ASTM Committee (G-2) on
Erosion and Wear. Establishment of the new committee
was approved by the ASTM Board of Directors in
196357. In 1985, the committee name was changed to
‘Wear and Erosion’ to reflect a change in committee
emphasis from erosive wear to other forms.
5 1997
 Fifty years
Similarly as for sliding and abrasive wear, the 1960s
witnessed an increasing use of electron microscopy
and metallurgical analyses in research on the various
types of metal wear. For example, Kosel et aL5* evalu-
ated the earlier work on erosion mechanisms by Finnie
(mentroned above) and Tilly59 in light of SEM and
TEM observations of eroded surfaces of copper, nickel,
and aluminium. They observed evidence for the
embedment of hard erodant particles (alumina) in the
surface, a gradient of subsurface damage, and the
presence of fatigue-like dislocation structures in the
mater; al.
In 1977, Sheldon6” published a study of the erosive
wear of six pure metals (using silicon carbide particles
at fixed velocity and angle of impingement) which
demonstrated a logarithmic relationship between their
erosion rates and Vickers hardness numbers. Further-
more, the lower erosion rates corresponded to greater
differences between the Vickers hardness numbers of
indivildual metals in their annealed and post-eroded
states The same year that Sheldon published that work,
Preece and McMillanh’ prepared a concise review of
erosicn. More recent reviews of the mechanisms of
erosive wear may be found in the article by Kose16’
and in the 1992 book by Hutchings63.
Some of the most challenging research areas in erosive
wear involve high temperatures, high velocities, and
corrosive environments, such as the conditions in
chemical plants, jet engines, and power generating
plantss4. For several years, the US Department of
Energy, Fossil Energy Program, funded research on
high-temperature erosive wear for such applications as
fluidized beds and the coal-fired diesel engine.
Erosive wear control is important to the function and
appearance of many machines and consumer products.
Current research work on materials for high-tempera-
ture erosion is focusing more on refractory coatings
and weld overlays than on bulk metals and alloys.
Despite the importance of erosive wear in industry,
basic research on the fundamentals of metal erosive
wear, like that of other forms, seems to be declining
in favour of applied work in recent years.
Fretting wear
Fretting wear, which typically occurs in clamped or
bolted mechanical joints, stacks of objects in transport,
and electrical connectors in vibrating machinery,
invol-ves small-amplitude oscillations. It differs from
reciprocating sliding wear in the manner of debris
trapping within the contact and also because the outside
area gf a fretting contact may sometimes be slipping
while the central portion may be ‘sticking’. Fretting
wear may also involve corrosion and the evolution of
oxidized debris, hence the term fretting corrosion.
There is a continuing debate as to what amplitude
of oscillation distinguishes fretting and reciprocating
sliding. The magnitude of this critical amplitude tends
to range between about 50 and 150 km.
R. B. Waterhouse has been a major contributor to
fretting wear of metals in the past 50 years. According
to his classic 1972 book on fretting erosion65, he first
Tribology
of research on the wear of metals: P. J. Blau
became interested in the subject during his PhD studies
at Cambridge University in 1953-1955. A more recent
review of his and others’ work on the subject may be
found in the ASM Handbook, published 20 years
later66. Just a few years before Waterhouse’s first
exposure to the subject, Mindlin”’ and Mindlin et ~1.~’
published oft-cited papers which offered an elastic
contact analysis of the fretting problem. In 1954, God-
frey and Bailey69 studied the fretting behaviour of
several metals and oxide compacts, recognizing the
important role of third bodies in fretting. In 1956,
Halliday and Hirst7’ published an important paper on
the role of particles in the mild steel fretting process.
Using an apparatus consisting of a short cylinder oscil-
lating in a V-groove, they concluded that fretting pro-
ceeded by a series of stages involving plastic flow, the
formation and breaking of junctions, the production of
loose particles, and finally, the scoring and tearing of
the surfaces. Their second major finding was that the
magnitude of the wear volume, the electrical contact
resistance, and the friction coefficient during fretting
were all greatly dependent on the amplitude of
vibration. Unlike sliding wear in which debris removal
usually reduces the friction, fretting wear produced the
opposite effect when debris was removed. The decade
of the 1950s was an important one for research in the
fretting wear of metals.
A recurrent theme in metal wear research involves the
relationships between hardness and wear. Sometimes
hardness is not as important in wear as other factors.
For example, Japanese work7’ published in 1979 on
the fretting of steels, whose hardness varied by about
a factor of three, revealed that hardness had much less
effect on fretting behaviour than did the presence of
third-bodies (wear debris). The importance of wear
debris was studied by Godet and his colleagues for
many years and led to the development of a third-
body approach to wear modelling7’. These studies were
supplemented by later experiments in the late 1980s
using transparent substrates which permitted the gener-
ation and motions of debris particles within fretting
contacts to be captured on video tape and analysed.‘
‘Fretting maps’ have recently been used by Vingsbo
and Soderberg73 for displaying relationships between
such parameters as frequency and amplitude of slip in
fretting wear. These maps help display the synergistic
interactions of fretting variables.
Other forms of metal wear
Controlling and understanding the mechanistic pro-
cesses in other forms of wear, such as impact wear
and rolling contact wear, are important in specific
applications. The fundamental aspects of these forms
have been much less studied and modelled than those
of abrasive, erosive, fretting, and sliding wear. In many
cases, research on these forms have been more of an
engineering nature which stressed the development of
component design equations or empirical models from
a mechanical engineering approach. Still rarer are stud-
ies of combined forms of metal wear. One example is
the work of Wayne et n1.74who studied the combined
action of impact and sliding on iron and nickel-base
superalloys.
International Volume 30 Number 5 1997 327
Fifty years of research on the wear of metals:
Research on wear transitions in metals
Nearly 50 years ago, Burwel17” edited a collection of
papers on the subject of mechanical wear. Most of
them dealt with the wear of metals. Almen’s paper76
in that collection described the concept of running-in
wear. He pointed out that it consisted in the levelling
of asperities by plastic deformation and compression. In
fact, that roughness-basedconcept was well-established
before the 194Os, owing in large measure to the work
of Abbott and Firestone77 who helped to advance the
ideas of bearing area curves and asperity truncation.
In 1956 Kerridge and Lancaster7* discussed the stages
in the progression of severe metallic wear. Ten years
later, Kragelskii79 devoted an entire chapter of his book
on friction and wear to the subject of friction and wear
transitions, and in a later book with Dobychin and
Kombalov*O addressed the manner in which sliding
surfaces can attain an equilibrium roughness.
The idea that friction and wear can experience a series
of evolutionary stages has been the present author’s
interest for a number of years, and in 1989, a book
focused on running-in and other transitions in friction
and wear was published8’. Much of that work was
based on the concept that surfaces undergo a series of
changes in which the relative balance of wear processes
(i.e., energy dissipation regimes) changes, as reflected
by changes in the frictional histories of the sliding
contact. It was hoped that by learning to interpret
frictional records, the changing balance of interfacial
mechanisms could be determined and used to advantage
in controlling and understanding wear. Admittedly, a
problem with this approach is that one particular fric-
tion-time curve shape cannot be uniquely attributed to
a unique combination of wear processesfor the general
case, but rather depends on the specific tribosystem
under analysis. Most recently, the concept of friction
process diagrams, a means to portray mixtures of
interfacial sliding contributions was introduced. The
construction and use of friction process diagrams are
discussed elsewhere8’,83.
Wear transitions are not limited to sliding wear. In fact,
many forms of wear experience transitions, particularly
during the early stages of contact. For example, in
solid particle impingement and cavitation erosion, sev-
eral damage stages are distinguished: an incubation
period in which there is zero or negligible erosion rate,
the acceleration period during which the erosion rate
increases to a maximum, the deceleration (attenuation)
period, and the terminal period in which the final
steady-state is reacheds4. These periods are caused
by such phenomena as initial surface conditioning,
coldworking and hardening, and the embedment of
impinging particles.
Research specifically focused on wear transitions in
metals has in general lagged wear research on metals
and other materials under steady-state conditions, and
this area represents a fertile ground for work in the
next 50 years because it addressesthe core issues of
damage accumulation in surfaces and how wear modes
compete for domination. Such applications as auto-
motive brakes, which see widely varying conditions of
contact during use, will benefit from transitions
328 Tribology international Volume 30 Number
P. J . Blau
research. Accurate prediction of the time to the onset
of scuffing or galling in operating metal components
is a challenging area for future study as well.
Development of new instruments and wear
research techniques
Wear models are usually based on assumptions about
the microgeometry of contacts, how forces are distrib-
uted on contact surfaces, and how the materials react
to those systems of forces. Aside from the optical
microscope, one of the most influential instruments in
the field of wear modelling was the mechanical stylus
surface profiler. Basic development work on the con-
cept for this type of instrument began in the 1920s by
the German investigators G. Berndt and G. Schmaltz
and foreshadowed the famous 1933 paper on ‘Specify-
ing Surface Quality’ by Abbott and Firestone, cited
previously. The ability to produce surface profiles per-
mitted wear modellers to better quantify surface rough-
ness, and a number of roughness-basedcontact models
emerged (see, for example, a pair of recent review
papers by Greenwooda5).
The growing availability of computers in the 1980s
and 1990s has had a major influence on all fields
of science and technology, including wear research.
Applications include wear sensing and monitoring, data
acquisition during wear testing, information storage and
retrieval, and the modelling and simulation of surface
micro-contacts. In the last 20 years, finite element
methods have become a work-horse in tribo-engineer-
ing, predicting stress distributions and thermal profiles
in bearings, seals, engine parts, and other components.
During the late 1970s and early 198Os, there was a
burst of interest in analytical and computer modelling
of frictional heating for application to bearings and
seals. Some of this work is summarized in the book
edited by Burtons6. Among other things, that work
advanced the concepts of thermoelastic instability and
the localization of surface thermal expansion to produce
thermal patches. Nearly a decade later, in 1987, Lim
and Ashbys7 introduced the concept of wear mechanism
maps in which dimensionless quantities plotted on
orthogonal axes were used to represent contact pressure
and sliding velocity-related parameters, respectively.
Regions dominated by various thermally-driven pro-
cesseswere delineated and compared with data for the
wear rates of steels in pin-on-disk machines collected
from the tribology literature. Eventually, a software
package called ‘T-MAPS’ was produced by Ashby’s
Cambridge University research group. While quite use-
ful for predicting flash and bulk temperatures under
simple geometric conditions of contact, the Lim-Ashby
representation involves assumptions about the number
of asperity contacts and fell short in accounting for
such effects as surface fatigue, third-bodies, and time-
dependent transitions in wear processes.
Computer modelling of contacts on the atomic or
molecular scale is still in its infancy, being mainly
confined to single-phase, single-crystal situations and
atomically-flat surfaces. The integration of continuum
materials properties with atomic interactions is a chal-
lenge in this area of research. Computer models must
5 1997
 Fifty years
evolve to include the provisions to accommodate oxides
and other surface films, third-bodies, and irregularities
in the microstructures of engineering materials, among
others For example, the author is aware of no molecu-
lar dynamics computer model which predicts the thick-
ness of the highly-deformed layer commonly observed
in etc?ed cross-sections of metal wear surfaces. Neither
does one predict the sliding-induced brick-like arrange-
ment of dislocation cells or deformation twins produced
in simple binary alloys of different stacking fault ener-
gieP. There remains much to do in this area of
computer-aided metal wear research.
The principle of the scanning electron microscope
(SEM) was known since the late 1940s but the instrt-
ment was not available as a commercial product until
about 1963. Materials researchers in wear mechanisms
have grown to rely on the SEM as an indispensable
tool because its high depth-of-field and wide range of
usefu’. magnifications were highly effective for
invesigating micro-scale wear surface features. Most
present-day wear research facilities own or have access
to a SEM. For at least 20 years, researchers have been
installing small sliding or scratch-testing stages inside
their SEMs (e.g., Tsuya’“). In addition, SEMs have
been teamed with energy-dispersive X-ray detectors
and other surface chemical analysis techniques to aid
in urderstanding the role of tribochemistry in metal
wea??.
Tens of thousands of SEM images of wear surfaces
have been recorded over the last three decades, and
the complexity of the observed features has cast doubt
on the realism of wear models based on simple cones
or spheres. The conceptual question then arises: how
simply can one depict a wear surface and still develop
a useful, physically-correct wear model? This question
is still subject to debate.
Atonic force microscopes which were commercialized
in the 1990s have enjoyed growing use in tribology
research, and they may eventually have nearly as great
an impact on wear research as did the SEM in the
late 1960s and beyond. Unlike the SEM and light
optics, that ultra-fine probe-tip technique is currently
limited to relatively small areas of moderately smooth
surfaces with asperity heights of a few micrometres or
less. Other imaging techniques such as thermal wave
microscopy”‘, confocal microscopy”, and scanning
acoustic microscopy93 are also making in-roads in
metai wear research, but except for a few specific
cases they have yet to demonstrate major advantages
over other, older, well-established techniques of surface
and subsurface imaging. In 1967, Tabor wrote the
following which equally applies nearly 30 years later:
‘In all this work, the physicist needs the tools and
the techniques of his profession. But above all he
needs physical insight and a sense of reality. With-
out these attributes he will amass expensive equip-
ment and meaningless data.’
In situ studies of wear processes have been aided by
the development of optical and infrared methods to
observe contact spots during sliding95,96. As new non-
destructive techniques for imaging surfaces are
developed, it may eventually be possible to view wear
Tribology
of research on the wear of metals: P. J. Blau
processes in real-time within the contact zone, but the
ability to do this for all but a few special cases (e.g.,
transparent specimens in special apparatus which does
not necessarily simulate an application) is still the
‘holy grail’ of experimental wear researchers.
Summary and conclusions
Major advances have been made in three general areas
of metal research within the past 50 years: conceptual
advances, advances in instrumental techniques, and
advances in computation and dissemination of infor-
mation. Research in the 1950s and 1960s produced
significant new concepts and formed the building
blocks of understanding in the areas of sliding, fretting,
abrasive, and erosive wear. The research of Holm,
Archard, Mindlin, Waterhouse, Finnie, Buckley,
Burwell, Strang, Kragelskii, Johnson, Greenwood, Wil-
liamson, Soda, Bowden, and Tabor produced major
advances in understanding and treating wear problems.
Concepts of adhesion, the true area of contact, inter-
facial transfer, critical angles for maximum abrasion
and erosion, and the mechanics of contact of rough
surfaces were all advanced during that period as well.
Growing interest in tribosystem dynamics and third-
body effects grew in the 1960s and 1970s. The 1970s
witnessed increased use of electron optical instruments,
surface analysis instruments, thermal contact imaging
devices, and computer analysis of contact surface
stresses and temperatures. The 1980s and 1990s saw
the emergence of atomic probe instruments, wear maps
of various types, and molecular dynamics computer
simulations of surface interactions.
Despite the development and gradual substitution of
non-metallic tribomaterials and coatings in the transpor-
tation, manufacturing, mining, and other industries,
metals and alloys will continue to be used in wear
applications, and consequently will continue to present
new wear research challenges. In the 1990s the amount
of basic research being conducted on the wear of
metals seems to be decreasing in favour of applied
research on coatings and surface treatments (i.e., the
field of surface engineering). One notable exception is
the interest in metal matrix composites and self-
lubricating alloys which are still prime candidates for
many light-weight engine and chassis components
(pistons, connecting rods, brake rotors, etc.).
With the present declining trend in support for basic
tribology research from national governments, it will
largely be up to the industrial sector to drive wear
research in the late 1990s. Thus one might expect that
tribology research in the latter portion of the 1990s
will be aimed toward product development, near-term
problem-solving, hardware maintenance, and wear
sensing. We will see less effort directed toward the
elucidation of the fundamental mechanisms of metal
wear, but a greater emphasis on integrating interdisci-
plinary approaches to solving wear problems. One
exception to the trend away from basic research on
metals is the emerging field of micro- and nano-
tribology which appears to have a growing following.
But, like many of the endeavours of our dynamic
technological age, its future also remains unclear.
International Volume 30 Number 5 1997 329
 Fifty years of research on the wear of metals: P. J. Blau

Acknowledgements 21 Sasada T., Emori N. and Oike M. The effect of abrasive grain
size on the transition between abrasive and adhesive wear. Proc.
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