A Laboratory Manual Of: Antenna & Wave Propagation

A
Laboratory Manual
of
ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATION

(COURSE CODE: 3331101)
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, AHMEDABAD

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, AHMEDABAD
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. /Miss Enrolment

number of Diploma Engineering (E.C.) Semester 3 has
satisfactorily completed the term work of the subject: Antenna & Wave
Propagation (Code: 3331101) prescribed by Gujarat Technological University
during the academic term .
Date:
Faculty in- Charge:
Head of Department:
SUBJECT: ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATION
(COURSE CODE: 3331101)
Course Outcomes
3331101. CO1 Investigate elementary antenna for the EM wave radiation.
3331101. CO2 Interpret antenna parameters.

3331101. CO3 Select the different antenna arrays for the specific application.
3331101. CO4 Select the antennas for indoor/outdoor and special applications.
3331101. CO5 Select the antenna positioning for specific mode of wave
propagation
INDEX
Sr. Course Page Sign

Name of Date Grade
No Outcome Number
Experiments
Listing different Antennas 3331101.CO2
1 and its parameters.
2 To arrange the setup and 3331101.CO1
perform the functional
checks of Antenna System.
3 To plot the radiation pattern 3331101.CO1
of half wave dipole and find
HPBW.
of Folded Dipole half wave
antenna
of Broad Side Array antenna
of loop antenna.
of helical antenna.
8 To test the performance of 3331101.CO3
the Yagi –Uda antenna.

of rhombic antenna.
of parabolic reflector
antenna.
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Experiment: 1
AIM: Listing different Antennas and its parameters.

Radiation Mechanism and Evolution of Dipole:
Consider the open-circuited transmission line of figure. It is seen that the waves traveling forward
and reverse combine to form a standing-wave pattern on the line, with a voltage anti- node at the
open-circuited point, but not all the forward energy is reflected by the open circuit.
Radiation from transmission line
As shown, a small portion of the electromagnetic energy escapes from the system and is thus
radiated. This occurs because the lines of force, traveling towards the open circuit, are required to
undergo a complete phase reversal when they reach it. Not all of them are able to do this, because
they possess the equivalent of mechanical inertia, and thus some do escape, it must be added that
the proportion, of waves escaping the system to those remaining is very small, for two reasons.
First, if we consider the surrounding space as the load for the transmission line, we see that a
mismatch exists, and thus very little power is dissipated in this "load". Second, since the two wires
are close together, it is apparent that the radiation from one tip will just about cancel that from the
other. This is because they are of opposite polarities and at a distance apart that is tiny compared
to a wavelength. Conversely, this is also the reason why low-frequency parallel-wire transmission
lines do not radiate.
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Types of Antennas:
Antennas can be broadly classified by the directions in which they radiate or receive
electromagnetic radiation. They can be isotropic, omni directional or directional.
An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions so that the
electric field at any point on a sphere (with the antenna at its center) has the same magnitude. Such
radiation cannot be realized in practice since in order to radiate uniformly in all directions an
isotropic antenna would have to be a point source. The nearest equivalent to an isotropic antenna
is a Hertzian dipole.
The Hertzian dipole is the name given to a dipole, which is very small, compared to its wavelength
that is about one-hundredths of the wavelength at its operating frequency; even in this case its
pattern is not truly isotropic.
An omni directional antenna radiates uniformly in one plane. Examples of omni directional
antennas are Monopoles, Dipoles etc. The radiation of a vertical dipole is uniform in the horizontal
plane.
A directional antenna radiates most of its power in one particular direction. Examples of directional
antennas are Yagi UDA, Log-Periodic, and Helical.
Important Characteristics of Antenna:
An antenna is chosen for a particular application according to its main physical and electrical
characteristics. Further, an antenna must perform in a desired manner for the particular application.
An antenna can be characterized by the following factors, not all are applicable to all types of
antenna. Most of the characteristics mentioned below can be studied using this trainer.
• Radiation resistance.
• Radiation pattern.
• Beam width
• Bandwidth.
• Gain of main lobe.
• Position and magnitude of side lobes Front to back ratio.
• Aperture.
• The polarization of the electric field.
There are two principal planes in which the antenna characteristics are measured. These are the
horizontal and vertical planes for land-based antennas. Some characteristics such as beam width
and side lobes are the same in both planes for symmetrical antennas such as helical and reflectors.
Other characteristics such as gain on bore-sight (i.e. where the azimuth and the elevation planes
intersect) can only have a single value. In general, for unsymmetrical antennas the characteristics
are different in the two principal planes.
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Radiation Resistance:
We can consider an antenna as a load that terminates the transmission line that feeds it. In the ideal
case this load will have impedance which is purely resistive, that is, the load will not have any
reactive component, such as an inductance or capacitance. In practice, the impedance of an antenna
is made up of a self-impedance and mutual impedance. The self-impedance is the impedance that
would be measured at the terminals of the antenna when it is in free space, given no other antennas
or reflecting objects in the vicinity. The mutual impedance accounts for the coupling between the
antenna and any other source. When the antenna is sufficiently isolated from other objects, this
mutual impedance tends to zero. On the other hand, in some antennas such as the Yagi array the
operation depends on the mutual coupling between the driven element and the other parasitic
passive elements.
When the antenna has the same impedance as the transmission line that feeds it, the antenna is said
to be matched on the line. When this occurs, maximum power is transferred from the transmission
line to the antenna. In general, the impedance of the antenna is not the same as that of the
transmission line. When the transmission line has purely resistive impedance and the antenna has
impedance that contains a different resistive value as well as a reactive part, the optimum transfer
of power can be achieved via the use of tuning circuits between the transmission line and the
antenna. In general, these circuits consist of an LC circuit in which the capacitance of the capacitor
is altered in order to provide the maximum transfer of power.
Radiation Pattern:
The antenna is a reciprocal device, means it radiates or receives electromagnetic energy in the
same way. Thus, although the radiation pattern is identified with an antenna that is transmitting
power, the same properties would apply to the antenna even, if it was receiving power. Any
difference between the received and radiated powers can be attributed to the difference between
the feed networks and the equipment associated with the receiver and transmitter. The antenna
radiates the greatest amount of power along its bore sight and also receives power most efficiently
in this direction.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is peculiar to the type of antenna and its electrical
characteristics as well as its physical dimensions. It is measured at a constant distance in the far
field. The radiation pattern of an antenna is usually plotted in terms of relative power. The power
at bore sight, that is at the position of maximum radiated power, is usually plotted at 0 degrees;
thus, the power in all other positions appears as a negative value. In other words, the radiated
power is normalized to the power at bore sight. The main reason for using dB instead of linear
power is that the power at the nulls is often of the order of 10,000 times less than the power on the
bore sight, which means that the scales would have to be very large in order to cover the whole
range of power values. For the convenience of the students to plot the polar graph the readings are
plotted after converting them in to dB A conversion chart is provided in this manual. Also, the
procedure for normalizing the readings is also given at the end of this manual. The student can
choose any procedure for drawing the polar plot.
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The radiation pattern is usually measured in the two principal planes, namely, the azimuth and the
elevation planes. The radiated / received dB is plotted against the angle that is made with the bore
sight direction. If the antenna is not physically symmetrical about each of its principal planes, then
one can also expect its radiation pattern in these planes to be unsymmetrical. The radiation pattern
can be plotted using the Polar or the Rectangular / Cartesian Co-ordinates.
Beam Width and Gain of Main Lobe:
The beam width of an antenna is commonly defined in two ways. The most well-known definition
is the -3dB or half-power beam width, but the 10dB beam width is also used, especially for
antennas with very narrow beams. The -3dB or half-power beam width of an antenna is taken as
the width in degrees at the points on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 3dB
lower than the maximum lobe value. The -10dB value is taken as the width in degrees on either
side of the main beam where the radiated level is 10dB lower than the maximum lobe value.
The radiation pattern of an antenna shows the power on the boresight as 0dB and the power in
other directions as negative values. The gain in all directions is plotted relative to the gain on
boresight. In order to find the absolute gain in any direction the gain on boresight must be known.
If this gain is expressed in decibels, (as is normally the case) then this value can simply be added
to the gain at any point to give the absolute gain. The absolute gain on boresight is measured by
comparison with a standard gain antenna, which functions as a reference antenna whose gain is
calculated or measured with a high degree of accuracy.
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Position and Magnitude of Side Lobes:
The side level is usually quoted as the level below the bore sight gain. Strictly all peaks on either
side of the main lobe are side lobes. However, in practice only the "near-in" lobes; those, which
are adjacent on either side of the boresight maxima, are referred to as side lobes. Their amplitude
and angle are easily measured using the Polar Plot. For an antenna that is symmetrical about its
main axis, the radiation pattern is in general also symmetrical. Thus, the level of the side lobes on
opposite sides of the main beam would be the same. The average value is taken where the two side
lobes are different. The absolute level of the side lobes can only calculate if the absolute bore sight
gain is known.
Bandwidth:
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure of its ability to radiate or receive different frequencies.
It refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory and is generally taken between
the half power points in the direction of maximum radiation. The bandwidth is the range of
frequencies that the antenna can receive (or radiate) with a power efficiency of 50% (0.5) or more
or a voltage efficiency of 70.7% (that is -3dB points). The operating frequency range is specified
by quoting the upper and lower frequencies, but the bandwidth is often quoted as a relative value.
Bandwidth is commonly expressed in one of the two ways;
1. As percentage or,
2. As a fraction or multiple of an octave (An octave is a band of frequencies between one

frequency and the frequency that is double or half the first frequency; for instance, we have
an octave between 400 MHz and 800 MHz). When it is expressed as a percentage bandwidth,
its center frequency should be quoted and the percentage expressed in octaves, its lower and
upper frequency should be also quoted.
FBR:
The front-to-back ratio is a measure of the ability of a directional antenna to concentrate the beam
in the required forward direction. In linear terms, it is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
in the main beam (bore sight) to that in the back lobe. It is usually expressed in decibels, as the
difference between the level on bore sight and at 180 degrees off bore sight. If this difference is
saying 35dB then the front-to-back ratio of the antenna is 35dB; in linear terms it would mean that
the level of the back lobe is 3,162 times less than the level of the bore sight.
Polarization of Electric Field:
Polarization is used almost exclusively to describe the shape and orientation of the locus of the
extremity of the electric field vector as it varies with time at a fixed point in space. This locus
could be a straight line, an ellipse or a circle.
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In the case of linear polarization, the electric field varies in sinusoidal manner in one plane. When
this plane is vertical it is called vertical polarization. When this plane is horizontal, it is called
horizontal polarization. The electric field can also be polarized in any other angle between 0 and
90 degree to the horizontal. In general, the only other commonly used angle is 45 degrees, which
is known as the slant polarization.
The polarization of a receiving antenna must match that of the incident radiation in order to detect
the maximum field. If the angles are not the same, only those components which are parallel to the
Plane of incident polarization will detect. If we have a vertically polarized antenna and the incident
radiation is slant Polarized the magnitude of its component in the vertical Plane will be reduced by
a factor cosine 45 degrees.
Lab Quiz: -
1. Define an antenna.
2. What is meant by radiation pattern?
3. Define Beam efficiency?
4. Define Directivity?
5. What is meant by front to back ratio?
6. Define Side Lobe Ratio.
7. What is a Short Dipole?
Further reading resources:

Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books:
Book Name Author
1. Antenna & Wave Propagation K.D. Prasad
2. Antenna & Wave Propagation J.D. Krauss
3. Antenna & Wave Propagation G.S.N. Raju
Web resources:
1.WWW.google.com/simple dipole
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/index.htm
3.www.scribd.com/simple dipole
4.www.scientech.com
10 | P a g e faculty Sign
Experiment 2
AIM: To Arrange the setup and perform the functional checks of Antenna
System.
Procedure:
Main unit:
· Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.
· RF Generator: Adjust Level Potentiometer to Maximum position.
· Modulation Generator: Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
maximum position.
· Directional Coupler: Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ Potentiometer to
middle position
.
1. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.
2. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance (around 1 meter) from the Transmitter
mast
3. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long (see figure 13).
4. Connect an Adapter +9V to the RF Detector unit, switch it on and keep the Level knob at
middle position.
5. Keep the base of Transmitting mast such that the ‘0’degree position of Goniometer should
be directed towards the RF Detector and also align the marker of the mast with ‘0’ degree
position.
6. Install Detector Antenna on the Receiving mast. Keep its direction towards the
Transmitting mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.
7. Install ‘Folded Dipole Antenna’ on the Transmitting mast. Keep its direction towards the
Receiving mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.
8. Switch on the main unit and check the display in DPM of Directional Coupler. It will show
some reading according to its level knob at starting
9. RF detector will also show some reading according to its level knob at starting. (In case
of over loading, reduce it by level Potentiometer of RF detector)
10. Now vary the FS Adjust Potentiometer of Directional Coupler to make the display reading
100 micro Amp and then adjust the Level of RF detector to show the ¾ reading of the
main unit’s display.
11. Rotate the transmitting Antenna between 0-360 degrees and observe the display at RF
Detector. The variation in reading indicates that the transmitter and receiver are working
and radiation pattern is formed.
12. Observe the demodulated signal at the output socket of RF detector on oscilloscope. Vary
the level of Modulation generator at transmitting unit and observe the variations in the
demodulate signal. If requires, reduce the power using RF Level potentiometer to improve
the shape of demodulated sine wave.
13. Now the setup is ready for further experiments.
Precautions to be maintained during every laboratory experiment: -

✓ Keep conducting material away from the trainer kit.
✓ Maintain suitable distance during the experiment.
✓ Keep silence during experiment
Experiment 3
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of half wave dipole and find HPBW.
Theory:
A simple Dipole is the simplest form of antenna having 2 poles each of length (l/2). The nominal
impedance of this antenna is 73 ohms. The actual value departs from this due to construction
constraints, such on non-zero diameter rods, presence of BNC connector body and the antenna
mast. The radiation pattern of simple Dipole (l/2) is uniform in forward & reverse direction.
Figure: Half Wave Dipole antenna

.
Procedure:
1. Get the setup ready as per the experiment 2.
2. Mount Simple dipole (l/2) on the top of the transmitting mast.
3. Ensure the following settings;
• Transmitting mast marker is at ‘0’ degree position.
• Both, transmitting and receiving antennas are facing each other in horizontal plane.
Keep the distance around 100cm between them.
• Transmitter is tuned for maximum forward power to transmit and receive optimum/
maximum radiations for the antenna under test,
• DPM for FS adjust at transmitting unit is set for 100uA reading and DPM at RF detector
unit is set for 70uA.
4. Now to plot the Polar Graph/Radiation pattern of the transmitting antenna under test, start taking
the readings at the interval 10 degrees and tabulate the degree v/s uA readings of RF detector unit
display.
5. Convert the noted micro Amp readings into dBuA with the help of the conversion chart given
below. Following formula is used to convert the uA reading in to dB;
6. Now plot the polar graph on the supplied polar graph paper as per the converted dBuA readings
against degrees of rotation.
7. Follow the procedure as explained in Experiment 2 to draw the polar graph using software
2261M.
8. A typical polar graph of Simple dipole (l/2) antenna is shown in next figure. dBuA = 20 log (uA
reading).
List the applications of Half wave dipole :
(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_half_wave_dipole.htm)
Experiment 4
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of Folded Dipole half wave antenna.
Theory:
Compared to a simple dipole this antenna has a substantially higher radiation resistance
(nominally, approximately 30 ohm) for the presence of the folded arm. The actual impedance is
derived from rod diameter and distance from center shape of the end bends, the presence of the
BNC connector & balun etc. The typical radiation pattern in horizontal plane for this antenna
appears like for the case of simple dipole as in previous experiment. The polarization is horizontal.
Procedure:
2. Mount Folded dipole (l/2) on the top of the transmitting mast.
• Both, transmitting and receiving antennas are facing each other in horizontal plane. Keep
the distance around 100cm between them.
display
7. A typical polar graph of Folded dipole (l/2) antenna is shown in next figure.
List the applications of Folded Half wave dipole:
(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_half_wave_folded_dipole.htm)
Experiment 5
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of Broad Side Array antenna.

Theory:
Driven Arrays:
Driven array is a family of half wave dipole antennas in which signal is applied to all the
elements in parallel. This family included popular type of antennas such as
• End fire array
• Co-linear array
• Broad side array
• Log periodic antenna
The trainer includes simple driven array antennas to let the students experiment and understand
their basic working principle. They all radiate in horizontal plane.
Broad Side Array:

Possibly the simplest array consists of a number of dipoles of equal size, equally spaced along a
straight line (i.e. collinear), with all dipoles fed in the same phase from the same source. Such an
arrangement is called a broadside array. The broadside array is strongly directional at right angles
to the plane of the array while radiating very little in the plane.
Figure: Broad side array with λ/4 spacing
Procedure:
2. Mount Broad Side Array antenna on the top of the transmitting mast. To keep the antenna
horizontally, attach a holding stand to it given in the tool box.
display
7. A typical polar graph of Broad Side Array antenna is shown in next figure.
Experiment 6
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of loop .
Theory:
This antenna consists of signal or multiple loop arrangements. The total loop perimeter is generally
1/2 wavelength long or multiple. In the basic configuration this antenna has very low impedance
so that it is used only for reception for the reasons of matching efficiency. In order to raise the
impedance our loop antenna model uses a radiating element a two-conductor strip line loop shaped.
The current in the opposite side of the arms of the loop add up and subtract the effects to the
radiated wave, so that the radiation diagrams appears to have a rather odd and unexpected pattern.
Normally loop is circular but, in our case, it is a square loop.
Procedure:
2. Mount Loop antenna on the top of the transmitting mast using ‘L’ shape BNC adaptor.
• Face the edge of the transmitting antenna towards receiving antenna. Keep the distance
around 40-70cm between them.
display.
6. Now plot the polar graph on the supplied polar graph paper as per the converted dBuA
readings against degrees of rotation.
7. A typical polar graph of loop antenna is shown in next figure.
List the applications of Loop Antenna:

(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_loop.htm)
Experiment: 7
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of helical antenna.
Theory:
A helix antenna is complex broadband VHF & UHF antenna used to provide circular polarization
characteristics. Normally, this antenna consists of loosely wound helix backed up by a ground
plane which is, a screen made of chicken wire (PCB in our case) See in next figure.
There are two modes of radiation:
1. In the direction at right angles to the axis of the helix. 2. Axial
The circumference of the helix and its length along with central wire decides the overall radiation
pattern. The Pitch angle is the angle between a line tangent to the helix wire and plane normal to
the helix axis. α = tan -1(S/ π. D) where,
• D is the diameter of helix.
• S is the turn spacing (center to center).
• α is the pitch angle.
Procedure:

2. Mount Helix antenna on the top of the transmitting mast.
display.
7. A typical polar graph of helix antenna is shown in next figure.
Lab Quiz:
(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_helical.htm)
1. List the Modes of Operations of helix antenna.
2. List the applications of helix antenna.
3. List the the frequency range of operation of helical antenna.
Figure : Normal Mode radiation pattern Figure : Axial mode radiation pattern
Experiment 8
AIM: To test the performance of the Yagi –Uda antenna.
Theory:
The theoretical impedance of this antenna is 75W. This is a very important antenna for
unidirectional transmission. Yagi-UDA Antenna with folded or non-folded dipoles are widely
used antennas. Behind the dipole they have reflectors and in front they have directors 1-3-5-7-9,
etc. The typical radiation pattern of this antenna is shown next Figure. The polarization is
horizontal.
Procedure:
2. Mount Yagi-UDA 5 Element Simple dipole on the top of the transmitting mast.
display.
7. A typical polar graph of Yagi-UDA 5 Element Simple dipole antenna is shown
in next figure.
Experiment 9
AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of rhombic antenna.

Theory:
Rhombus antenna is also a loop of antenna and made in the rhombus form. It is a non-resonant
antenna capable of operating over very wide range because the characteristics do not change with
frequency. This is used mostly for point to point working. The impedance varies from typically
650-700W.
Procedure:
2. Mount Rhombus antenna on the top of the transmitting mast using ‘L’ shape BNC adaptor.
display.
7. A typical polar graph of rhombus antenna is shown in next figure.
Experiment 10
AIM: Check the radiation pattern of parabolic reflector antenna.

Theory:
The most widely used antenna for microwaves is the parabolic reflector antenna, which consists
of a primary antenna such as a dipole situated at the focal point of a parabola reflector. The
directivity of the parabola reflector is a function of the primary antenna directivity and the ratio of
focal length to reflector diameter, f/D. This ratio is known as aperture number. We have provided
a cut parabola separately, and the student may connect it while conducting the experimenting by a
simple screw.
Procedure:
2. Mount Cut Paraboloid antenna without reflector on the top of the transmitting mast.
display.
7. A typical polar graph of parabolic antenna is shown in next figure.

A Laboratory Manual Of: Antenna & Wave Propagation

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ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATION

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, AHMEDABAD

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, AHMEDABAD

This is to certify that Mr. /Miss Enrolment

Faculty in- Charge:

(COURSE CODE: 3331101)

3331101. CO1 Investigate elementary antenna for the EM wave radiation.

3331101. CO2 Interpret antenna parameters.

Sr. Course Page Sign

9 To plot the radiation pattern 3331101.CO5

4|Page faculty Sign

AIM: Listing different Antennas and its parameters.

Radiation from transmission line

5|Page faculty Sign

Important Characteristics of Antenna:

6|Page faculty Sign

7|Page faculty Sign

Beam Width and Gain of Main Lobe:

8|Page faculty Sign

2. As a fraction or multiple of an octave (An octave is a band of frequencies between one

Polarization of Electric Field:

9|Page faculty Sign

Further reading resources:

13. Now the setup is ready for further experiments.

Precautions to be maintained during every laboratory experiment: -

Figure: Half Wave Dipole antenna

AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of Broad Side Array antenna.

Broad Side Array:

Figure: Broad side array with λ/4 spacing

List the applications of Loop Antenna:

AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of helical antenna.

1. Get the setup ready as per the experiment 1.

1. List the Modes of Operations of helix antenna.

2. List the applications of helix antenna.

3. List the the frequency range of operation of helical antenna.

AIM: To test the performance of the Yagi –Uda antenna.

AIM: To plot the radiation pattern of rhombic antenna.

AIM: Check the radiation pattern of parabolic reflector antenna.

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