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Gbenga-Ilori Ph.D. Thesis
Gbenga-Ilori Ph.D. Thesis
BY
A Thesis
Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Ilorin
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Award of
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree in Electrical Engineering
2010.
i
CERTIFICATION
Development of VHF and UHF Spectrum Optimization for Digital Services in
Selected States of Nigeria, (Gbenga-Ilori Abiodun Omowunmi, B.Sc. Electrical
and Electronics Engineering (U.I. 1997), M.Eng. Communications Engineering
(FUTA 2000)).
This is to certify that this thesis has been read and approved as meeting the
requirements of the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Ilorin for
the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Electrical Engineering.
------------------------------------------ ---------------------------
Internal Examiners Date
Dr. A.A. Ayeni
ii
DEDICATION
Dedicated to God Almighty for His guidance through life and for His Words that
made me know that achievement is not just aiming but hitting my target.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I give thanks and glory to the Almighty God for giving me the grace to start and complete this
work. I would like to also specially thank my supervisor, Professor T.S. Ibiyemi who besides
guiding me on the winding path to a Ph.D. thesis, also has provided encouragement and drive for
the completion of the work. Professor Ibiyemi’s broad knowledge of engineering is as rich and
varied as anyone I have ever known and working with him has proved to be consistently
challenging and exciting. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. S.A. Aliu and Dr. A.J. Falade for
Next, I would like to acknowledge friends and colleagues at the Institut fur Rundfunktechnik
(IRT), Germany for being a great source of help and inspiration during my six-month research
visit. I will like to specially thank Dr. Roland Brugger for his encouragement, advice and
friendship. I also thank Mrs. Philip for her help on all administrative matters during my stay
there.
I would like to appreciate friends and colleagues at the University of Lagos. First, I would like to
acknowledge the Dean of Engineering, Professor M.A. Salau, and the head of department,
Electrical and Electronics Engineering department, Professor F.N. Okafor, for their support to
my research work. I would especially like to mention Engr. M.A.K. Adelabu, Engr. (Mrs.) A.
Abdulsalam, Engr. Adeola Balogun, Engr. (Mrs.) F. Olobaniyi, Engr. Oluseyi and Engr.
Adetona. Other friends worth mentioning are Engr. Segun Afolabi and Engr. Obiseye Obiyemi. I
Writing a thesis is a demanding task and this thesis could not have been written without the
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for believing in me. I do not think I would have been able to complete this work without your
support. You are really the best. I also want to express my love and appreciation to my children:
Ibukunoluwa, Oreoluwa, and Boluwatife for being patient and understanding, especially when
the research work led to a temporary separation from them. My parents, Chief and Mrs. J. Ola
Idowu, have also been wonderful throughout the period of this research. I hope you all know
how much I value your support and I thank you for it.
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ABSTRACT
The key objective of this research is to address the problem of optimal use of the VHF and UHF
spectrum in order to accommodate new digital communication services in Nigeria. The use of
VHF and UHF frequency bands for communication services is highly attractive for digital
communication services. However, the challenge is the less than optimal use of these frequency
bands by analogue television. This inefficiency has led to the development of digital television
technology. With the aid of the compression technique employed in digital broadcasting, more
than one television programme can be transmitted using only one analogue television channel.
The objective was achieved by first determining the present usage of the VHF and UHF
spectrum by analogue television broadcasting services in Nigeria by using an appropriate
deterministic propagation model known as the IRT propagation model. This propagation model
has been tested suitable for the Nigerian environment by comparing field strength from three
different propagation models with those obtained from a field strength survey conducted at
different locations in some States in Nigeria. The results from the comparison showed that the
IRT propagation model produced field strength closest to measured values within the selected
states. The states selected are the Yoruba-speaking states comprising of the south-western states
as well as Kogi and Kwara states. The choice of the states is for network planning feasibility
since local content is important in broadcasting and all these Yoruba-speaking viewers can be put
on the same digital multiplex.
The IRT model was later used to determine the present analogue television coverage and future
digital television coverage in the selected states. The coverage result was used to assess the level
of co-existence of present analogue and future digital television during simulcast period and also
to determine the digital television coverage possible after switch-off of analogue television.
Results show that digital television coverage of 62% is possible for the selected states during the
simulcast period. After switch-off of analogue television, digital television was predicted to
achieve up to 95.3% coverage. The result of the digital television coverage was used to estimate
spectrum use by future digital television services by determining the number of programmes that
could be accommodated in a multiplex. This was used to estimate the spectrum utilization
efficiency. Results show that a total VHF and UHF spectrum saving of 74.8% could be achieved
in the selected states after transition to digital. This means that more spectrum can be made
available for new digital services. The analysis of the data used in this work was done at the
Institut fur Rundfunktechnik (IRT), Germany. The outcome of this research has produced four
articles published in International Journals and Conference Proceedings.
The research concludes that the spectrum released from the transition from analogue to digital
television, digital dividend, would meet the growing demand for the VHF and UHF spectrum in
Nigeria. Recommendations with regards to the use of digital dividend are made in a way that
allows the country bridge the present digital divide and help improve the social and economic
needs of the Nigerian citizens.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENT vii
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF TABLES xv
GLOSSARY OF TERMS xvi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to Study 1
1.2 Research Problem 4
1.3 Research Objectives 6
1.4 Justification for the Research 7
1.5 Outline of the Report 8
1.6 Research Scope and Justification 9
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms 10
1.8 Summary 11
CHAPTER 2: RADIO PROPAGATION PREDICTIONS 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Radio Wave Propagation in Free Space 12
2.3 Radio Wave Propagation in the VHF and UHF Bands 14
2.3.1 Reflection 14
2.3.2 Diffraction 15
2.3.2.1 Multiple Diffraction Losses 19
2.3.2.2 Rounded Obstacle Losses 21
2.3.3 Scattering 22
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2.3.4 Atmospheric Attenuation 24
2.4 Propagation Models for Irregular Terrain 24
2.4.1 Semi-Empirical Models 25
2.4.1.1 Okumura Model 26
2.4.1.2 Hata Model 27
2.4.1.3 ITU-R/P Recommendations 28
2.4.2 Deterministic Models 29
2.4.2.1 Longley-Rice Model 29
2.4.2.2 TIREM Model 30
2.5 GIS in Radio Propagation Studies 30
2.5.1 Data Format for GIS 31
2.5.2 Geographic Data Sources 32
2.6 Chapter Summary 32
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3.3.5.3 GIS Data 51
3.3.6 Field Strength Prediction Result 53
3.4 Comparison of Measured and Predicted Field Strength 53
3.5 Summary 77
CHAPTER 4: TELEVISION COVERAGE PLANNING 78
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Television Coverage Analysis 79
4.3 Analogue Television Coverage in Selected States 83
4.3.1 Analogue Television Coverage Results 84
4.4 Predicted Digital Television Coverage in Selected States 87
4.5 Summary 96
5.1 Introduction 97
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CHAPTER 6:USE OF DIGITAL DIVIDEND 113
6.5 Proposed VHF and UHF Digital Dividend Spectrum Use 125
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7.2 Project Outcome 129
References 202
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
Figure 3.17: Channels Television 59
Figure 5.1: Present number of analogue terrestrial television stations in Nigeria 100
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Comparison of Measured and Predicted Field Strength 54
Table 3.2: Result for Urban and Suburban Areas 73
Table 3.3: Result for Rural Areas 74
Table 4.3: Result of Spectrum Used by Each State with Analogue Television 86
Table 4.5: Result of Spectrum Used by Each State with Digital Television (Simulcast) 92
Table 4.6: Result of Spectrum Used by Each State with Digital Television (Switch-Off) 95
Table 5.3: Number of Programs with Fixed Reception in the Present 109
Table 5.4: Number of Programs with Fixed Reception in the future 110
Table 6.2: Compatibility Level of Services Competing for Digital Dividend 117
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GE 06 Geneva 2006
PR Protection Ratio
xvi
SDTV Standard Definition Television
3G Third Generations
xvii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The desire to have reliable means of communication anywhere and at anytime has led to new
include mobile television and enhanced mobile phone services, digital television, wireless
broadband, security and surveillance, environmental monitoring, and distance learning. All of
these require the use of part of the electromagnetic spectrum for communication purposes.
These new developments in digital communication technologies have increased the pressure
radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into sections based on wavelength and it
extends from frequencies used for electric power at the long wavelength to frequencies for
gamma radiation at the short wavelength, [1]. The frequency ranging from 3 Hz to 300 GHz
is generally referred to as the radio frequency spectrum, [2]. This part of the spectrum is
3 30 300 3 30 300 3 30
300
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Most communication technologies use the radio spectrum however, the Ultra High Frequency
(UHF) is particularly attractive to newer technologies because lower frequencies are very
prone to interference and higher frequencies have problems of limited signal range because of
the difficulty signals have in penetrating buildings. For these reasons, the UHF band is highly
competitive. The radio spectrum is a natural resource which can be reused and can only
congestion of the band and this can result in harmful interference that can degrade signals or
Before the existence of the new digital services, the Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra
High Frequency (UHF) bands were primarily used for terrestrial analogue television
the VHF and UHF frequency bands III, IV and V. There have been questions on how much
spectrum is actually needed by television broadcasting services and how much has been
allocated in the past when there was no competition for the UHF spectrum. Some spectrum
managers are of the opinion that analogue television services has been allocated more
spectrum than needed and that with careful optimization and re-planning of the frequency
Asides the issue of spectrum resource allocation, analogue television’s use of the spectrum is
the sending and receiving of moving images and sound by discrete (digital) signals, in
contrast to the analogue signals used by analogue television, [5]. Due to compression
more information to be aired using less spectrum space compared to analogue television. The
use of less spectrum means that some spectrum can be freed up and made available to new
digital services.
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The efficient use of the spectrum by digital television has led to the worldwide campaign on
In Nigeria, a set date of 17th June, 2012 has been given by the Federal Government for the
transition to digital television, [6]. The transition to digital in Nigeria, as in most countries,
would not be a sudden switch off of analogue television but there would likely be a period of
simulcast when analogue and new digital television services would co-exist. Many countries
that have commenced digital television broadcasting services started with a period of
simulcast transmission of both types of signals. The length of the simulcast period is
determinant of the length of the simulcast period. In order to receive terrestrial digital
television, viewers need either a digital television set or convert signals. The cost of digital
television set or the set-up box will not encourage entire and immediate switch over to digital
For the reasons above, there is the need to optimize the use of spectrum by present analogue
television services and estimate to the amount of spectrum that can be released for new
digital services during simulcast transmission of both signals and also after switchover to
digital. The freed-up spectrum is referred to as the ‘digital dividend’ and it is defined as the
spectrum over and above the frequencies which are required to support existing analogue
The size of digital dividend has been estimated in some developed countries, [7], and there is
also the need to assess or predict the size of this future digital dividend in Nigeria too. This
will help administrators and regulators to use and manage the released spectrum efficiently
since there are many competing services for its use. Also, there is need to estimating the size
of this future digital dividend ahead of time because if the VHF and UHF bands are not
available on time for these new digital services, other spectrum would have to be used and
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changing spectrum to these bands at a later date will introduce extra cost and reduce overall
cost benefit from the transition, [8]. For example, benefits from the release of digital dividend
in 2012 is estimated to add $325 million to New Zealand economy but if delayed till 2015
A major importance of the digital dividend for developing countries like Nigeria is that it will
help bridge the existing digital divide. This divide can be defined as the differences due to
geography, race, economic status, gender and physical ability in the access to information
through Internet, and other information technologies and services, as well as in the skills
knowledge and abilities to use them, [10]. Services lining up for the use of the freed-up
spectrum includes; mobile television, more digital television services, High Definition
Television (HDTV), broadband wireless applications, emergency and public safety services,
The problem addressed in this thesis is to determine how the VHF and UHF spectrum can be
Nigeria. The thesis focuses on the transition from analogue television to digital television as a
way of optimizing the use of the television spectrum in the VHF and UHF frequency bands.
It is believed that since digital television will use less spectrum space than analogue
television broadcasting services for equivalent programme content, some spectrum space can
be freed-up for new digital services after the transition. The work done in this thesis is
restricted to some selected states in Nigeria. The states selected are all the south-western
states as well as Kogi and Kwara states. Our objective here is network planning for these
selected states with the possibility of putting all these states on the same digital multiplex.
In order to solve this problem, the following research questions have to be answered;
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(i) What is the present usage of the VHF and UHF spectrum by current analogue
(ii) What propagation model is suitable for the determination of broadcast coverage in
Nigeria?
(iii) How can the present VHF and UHF spectrum use by analogue television in the
(v) What amount of VHF and UHF spectrum can be freed-up in the selected states due
(vi) What form of VHF and UHF re-planning is needed to accommodate new digital
In summary, at the end of this research work, the following contributions would be made.
Firstly, the present level of utilization of the VHF and UHF spectrum by the analogue
television services would be determined for the selected states of Nigeria. This would help to
assess any inefficiency in the usage of these spectrum bands by analogue television services.
Secondly, the level of co-existence between analogue television and future digital television
during the simulcast period would be determined for these states. This is because during the
simulcast period, analogue television services are susceptible to interference from digital
television services. Thirdly, the research work predicts the coverage and spectrum use of
future digital television services in the selected states using an appropriate propagation
model. The research work will also determines the amount of spectrum that can be freed-up
for new digital services in the VHF and UHF frequency bands in these states of Nigeria.
Finally, the research work will evaluate some of the digital services competing for the use of
this digital dividend and place priorities on some of them depending on factors bothering on
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technical issues, economic benefits to the nation and also social benefits to the citizens of the
country.
The purpose of this thesis is to optimise the use of the present analogue television spectrum
within the VHF and UHF frequency spectrum for the accommodation of new digital services
b) Determining the level of co-existence of present Analogue television and future Digital
c) Forecasting the coverage and spectrum use of future Digital television services using an
d) Determining the spectrum that can be freed up (digital dividend) for new applications in
e) Proposing a plan for the use of the freed-up spectrum in a way that allows the co-existence
The VHF and UHF frequency spectrum in Nigeria has been primarily used by analogue
broadcast services before the advent of digital technologies. The VHF band is between 30 –
300MHz and the analogue television broadcast services makes use of band III within the
VHF band which is between 174 – 230MHz. The UHF band is between 300MHz – 3GHz and
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the analogue television broadcast services makes use of band IV and V which is between 470
– 960MHz. [11].
The VHF and especially the UHF bands are highly attractive to new digital services because
lower frequencies are affected more by atmospheric noise and interference from electrical
equipment. Higher frequencies are also affected more by attenuation. However, in order to
encourage these new technological innovations and development, suitable spectrum must be
made available.
It is a known fact that the transition from analogue television to digital television would mean
the release of a substantial quantity of the present analogue television spectrum in the VHF
and UHF frequency bands. However, there is the need to assess the exact amount of spectrum
that can be released through this transition in Nigeria. This is needed to be able to investigate
the various kinds of areas of use for this spectrum. For technical reasons, certain systems are
able to co-exist a lot better than others with planned digital television networks, [12]. It is
therefore important to identify services that can co-exist with digital television services and
The freed-up spectrum can also be translated into monetary terms. Unfortunately, the cost
benefit is reduced with the delay in time. If these new digital services are temporarily
assigned to other frequency bands, there would be cost incurred in relocating to the freed-up
television spectrum later and so the overall cost benefit is reduced. With the transition date
from analogue to digital television in Nigeria set for 2012, there would be the need to predict
the amount of freed-up spectrum and plan for its use ahead of time in order to get the most
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The provision of appropriate spectrum to accommodate these new digital services is
especially of importance to Nigeria, and Africa as a whole. This is because it will help bridge
the digital divide and more people can have access to these new technologies.
This section gives a short introduction of each of the chapters in the thesis.
In chapter 2, a survey of the literature in the area of radio wave propagation models for
broadcast services, field strength and coverage prediction methods for broadcast services has
been done. Classification of propagation models into two main classes; semi-empirical and
deterministic models was also done. A brief overview of geographic data formats and sources
has also been given because of their usefulness in computations done in deterministic models.
In chapter 3, the methodologies used in this thesis for the television field strength survey
conducted are discussed. The method of data collection is also discussed. This chapter also
compares the measured television field strength with predicted television field strength using
three different propagation models based on both semi-empirical and deterministic models.
The propagation models are the ITU-R 1546(3), modified ITM method, and IRT method. The
purpose of the comparison is to determine the model that yields the acceptable closest to
measurements taken in Nigeria. This will ensure that an accurate model is used for the field
strength and coverage prediction for both analogue and television broadcast services within
the country. Results from the comparison shows that the IRT model is closest to field strength
Chapter 4 discusses method of television coverage prediction used. In this section, analogue
television coverage prediction results from our simulations are presented. The simulations
discussed in this chapter also predict future digital coverage in the selected states for both
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simulcast and switch-off stages. In chapter 5, the method used in assessing possible future
freed-up spectrum from the television spectrum in the VHF and UHF bands are discussed.
The chapter estimates the amount of spectrum that can possibly be released for new digital
Chapter 6 gives a proposal on the possible use of the television freed-up spectrum. It
highlights some digital services competing for the freed-up spectrum and suggests that four
of these services should be given higher considerations for the use of this digital dividend.
This decision is based on three considerations; technical, economic benefit and social benefit.
Lastly chapter 7 presents a summary of the work done. It also gives a conclusion as well as
The VHF and UHF spectrum optimization work done in this thesis is limited to seven states
within Nigeria. The states are Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Kogi, and Kwara. The
- Firstly, the seven states speak the same language; Yoruba. It is therefore easier to put
them on the same network because the local content can be same within the network.
are illiterate, [13], and therefore rely on information communicated in their local
languages.
done in most countries that have implemented digital television. The work assumes
that the south-west region of the country has a higher possibility of starting digital
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channels present in this region. Lagos state alone has 11.6% of the total television
- Thirdly, due to the density of the analogue television network in the selected states, it
is believed that the states will yield the most of television spectrum in the VHF and
- Fourthly, the first analogue television broadcasting in Nigeria started in 1957 in the
television program in both an analogue and a digital version using two different
channels or frequencies
2. Switch-off phase: At the end of the digital television transition period, analogue
transmission will cease and current analog channels will be used solely for digital
broadcasting.
1.8 SUMMARY
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This chapter laid foundations for the report. It introduced the research problem and issues.
Thereafter, the research was justified, the limitations were given, the report was outlined and
definitions were presented. On these foundations, the report can proceed with a detailed
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