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Numerical Modeling of Electrical Resisti
Numerical Modeling of Electrical Resisti
Numerical Modeling of Electrical Resisti
ABSTRACT
This research has examined the numerical modeling of electrical resistivity data using
Lagrangian interpolation. The Lagrangian generated a polynomial of minimum degree that
represents/mimic the original trend of the data. The reason behind the formulated lagrangian is to
reduces the stress of interpretation and improve the smoothness of the field curve.
The art of the modeling involves a range [a,b] R when R is the range covering the entire data.
The numerical concept is applied to reflect the real trend of the data collected.
The Lagrangian interpolation skill was carried out using the MATlab program, and the curves
generated showed a good fit that represent the entire trend in the range [a,b]. In respect of this,
three VES locations were used as test, to confirm the efficacy of the Lagrangian. All the
locations showed that the Lagrangian is efficient with the error values maintained at 2.5%,5.6%
and 6.6% compared with the conventional error maintained at 2.5%, 6.4% and 5.8%.
The research however concluded that the lagrangian of minimum degree are intelligent to guest
the trend of the whole data when considered as a whole at values [a,b] of the generated
polynomial.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
resistivity data. It enables to predict the behavior of the electrical resistivity system in response to
future stresses due to abstractions. The numerical modeling using lagrangian interpolation,
entails the use of a polynomial of minimum order, which represents the trend of the electrical
resistivity data. The research data used in testing the efficacy of the lagragian is collected at
Alagbaaka GRA, Akure city in Ondo state in Nigeria. Three different locations within the
location area is analised and compared with the already interpreted data.
The lagragian ensured that closer conceptual model to reality is used, which made the numerical
The numerical model was simulated based on the conceptual model and utilized code of Matlab7
software as code environments for data input and output management. Once the input data is
assessed, conceptual model is developed to represent the field electrical resistivity data system in
a simplified version for better understanding of the site conditions. The conceptual model is
schematized as a cross section or block diagram which reflects the system behaviors and it leads
INVERSION
The understanding of the electrical resistivity curves is always uncertain. The non-uniqueness of
electrical resistivity curves model solution is due to various combinations of data collection,
geophysical configuration and geometry factor. Therefore, the introduction of these additional
parameters with sufficient number of solute concentration observations in numerical model can
be used to constrain and validate model. Thereby the degree of freedom is reduced in the model,
The detailed objection to this study is to model a physical system using lagrangian interpolation
Apart from this broad objective, this study also intend to:
Compare the model curves on the field curves in other to obtain a more fitted Earth
Design a system that can be used to interpret other basement complex environment.
The research will be useful in analyzing different types of curves in an environment that is
CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION
The electrical resistivity method uses a low frequency power source to create an electric field by
injecting current into the subsurface via conductive electrodes. The voltage potential is measured
at other electrode locations on the ground surface. Modern, multi‐channel acquisition systems
allow for various voltage measurements to be made for one current injection and current can be
injected using any combination of the available electrodes. Common measurements require four
electrodes, two used as current source and sink (A and B), and two used to measure the potential
voltage drop (M and N, Figure 2.1). Solid lines in the subsurface display the current flow path as
Based on a combination of measurements, the electrical resistivity method senses the distribution
intrinsic material property defined as how strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric
current. It is a property that can cover several orders of magnitude. The electrical resistivity
method has been used in exploration of the subsurface for many years. The simplicity of the
equipment, the low cost of carrying out the survey and the abundance of interpretation methods
make it a popular alternative to drilling and testing. Although there are many variations of
grid, and are then interpreted on yield information about the electrical conductivity beneath the
study area.
2.1 APPLICATION
The resistivity techniques has been extensively in the detection and mapping of groundwater
contamination (American society of civil Engineers,1961). Considerable work has also been
done by apply the technique to the evaluation of groundwater resources and in the quantitative
evaluation of aquifer parameters that control groundwater flow. Resistivity measurements have
also been used in the geostatistical extrapolation of aquifer parameter away from well control.
The use of geoelectric methods in the monitoring of enhanced oil recovery (EOR).
The use of resistivity survey in mining exploration has been less widespread. This is primarily
due to small influence that disseminated mineralization often has on resistivity, as well as strong
competition from the induced polarization method. The techniques are also see some use in the
Numerous ways of arranging the current and potential electrodes in a resistivity survey are
possible. Both the geometric configuration of the electrodes (i.e. the array used) and the relative
spacing between electrodes can vary from survey to survey. Because both the depth penetration
and vertical resolution depend on the particular arrangement of electrodes used, a proper choice
of array is important to the success of the experiment. This choice depend on the target (such as
depth of burial and resistivity contrast), as well as on the complexity of the surrounding medium.
The most common way of acquiring resistivity data is to make use of one or more traverse lines.
To image lateral changes in the subsurface, the center of the array is moved along one of the
traverse lines while keeping the electrode separations fixed. Arrays that are frequently
encountered include the Schlumberger, pole-dipole, dipole-dipole array. Expanding the electrode
array about a fixed point to image successively deeper regions of the Earth is referred to as depth
surrounding. Combining two techniques into a depth sounding/profiling survey is also possible.
The close relationship between electrical current flow and porous media transport has stimulated
contamination problems. Much attention in recent years as focused on the relationships between
The starting point for most studies is to relate the bulk electrical resistivity b to the resistivity of
F= b/ f …………………………………………2.1
Assuming the formation factor is indeed constant, this allows one to determine the ionic content
of the pore fluid, and hence the water quality, once the bulk resistivity has been estimated. The
assumption of a constant formation factor, as pointed out by ( Spitzer,K. 1998), will be invalid
for problems where matrix conduction is significant. In these cases, more complicated formulae
must be considered. For problems where the porous medium is non-homogeneous, theoretical
Can be used to relate the formation factor porosity v. combining equation 1 and 2, obtain
V=logm(a f/ b) ……………………………..2..3
Equation 3,can be used to determine the porosity of the medium, given an estimate of its bulk
electrical resistivity.
2.4 INTERPRETATION
The first step in a typical interpretation of resistivity data is to convert the measure potentials into
apparent resistivity – the apparent resistivity, a, being the resistivity of a homogenous earth
corresponding to the particular potential measurement . For the pole – pole experiment
a =2π/I. √ . ………………………….2.4
Apparent resistivity data obtained from profiling surveys are usually displayed as pseudo-
sections or contoured plan maps and interpreted quantitatively. Analytic solutions for spheres,
vertical dikes and other simple earth structures are often used to aid in the interpretation. To
model more complicated structure, 2D and 3D forward modeling techniques are often used.
Recent work on the forward modeling DC resistivity has concentrated on the use of standard
numerical procedures, including the Langrange interpolation, finite difference method (Zhao,S.
A number of attempts have been made to solve the inverse problem of 2D and 3D conductivity
distributions. Examined the inversion of resistivity and IP data over 2D structures using a data
base of synthetic data generated for different models. Because of the need to restrict the size of
the data base, only 9 parameters were actually used to describe the model. These include the
thickness of the overburden layer, width and height of a buried prism, and resistivity and
polarizability of the overburden layer, prism and host. The 3D inversion scheme based on the use
of alpha centers. Zhang,j., T.R 1995 used a least-squares approach to solve the 2D inverse
problem for resistivity and IP data set. Although the finite difference algorithm they used in the
inversion permits a highly detail model, they chose to solve the conductivity of only a small
number of sub-regions. The algorithm for inverting the schlumberger data over a 2D earth.
Again, the conductivity of only a small number of sub-regions was solved for the inversion.
Ellis, R.G Oldenburg,D.W. (1994), using a similar strategy, examined the inversion of cross
borehole data for 2D conductivity structures. Because of the computation problems encountered
solving the 3D problem; the conductivities of only a small number of cells were solved for in the
inversion.
Although, the use of inversion techniques for the interpretation of 2D and 3D problem is highly
desirable, good results have limited by small number of parameters that can be solved for.
Forward modeling is calculating ERT data based on assumptions of resistivity structure (spatial)
and measurement locations. The inputs for forward modeling are defined in the model space. The
position and magnitude of the resistivity structure, the size of the grid cells, the approximation
method, and the locations of the sources and receivers are factors that influence the forward
modeling approximation of ERT data. Forward modeling can be used as a pre‐investigation tool
to determine whether a geologic target can be resolved using the ERT method. Forward
modeling aids in ERT survey design such as electrode spacing, measurement geometry, and
Inversion is the mathematical process that allows us to estimate a true resistivity distribution
based on measured data. This is in contrast to forward modeling that allows us to estimate data
assuming we know the subsurface resistivity distribution. Inverse problems are non‐unique
because there is a desire to find a larger number of model parameters from a limited number of
observed data points. Inversion is an iterative mathematical process whereby the subsurface
structure is adjusted until the forward modeled data (dcalc) matches the field observed data
(dobs). The resulting inverse model is a non‐unique solution that honors the observed data to
In practice we measure the voltage drop in a circuit as well as an injected current, which results
in an estimate of the resistance of the circuit. ERT data is referred to as apparent resistivity,
which accounts for the measurement geometry. The geometric factor (K) is based on the
assumption that the earth is a homogeneous, isotropic half‐space and that the resulting
equipotential surfaces around current source and sink form symmetric hemispheres
(Broyden,C.G 1972).
(R
app = 𝐾
The geometric factor does not account for topographic variability or heterogeneity in the
resistances.
The governing equation that relates the electric potential field from a unit input current dipole is
provided.
‐∇ ·σ(x,y,z)∇ (x,y,z)=I(δ(r‐r+)‐δ(r‐r‐))…………………………………………………2.6
∇ · ‐ divergence
∇ ‐ gradient
r+ and r− are the locations of the positive and negative current sources
δ (r‐r+) is the Dirac delta function, centered at the current source location
The equations are implemented in Matlab as described in FW2_5D: A MATLAB 2.5‐D
electrical resistivity forward modeling code (Zhang,J.,Mackie,R.L., and Madden, T.R. 1995).
The program goes through a series of operations as well as transforming to and from the Fourier
domain to estimate the electric potential field given a resistivity structure and the locations of
current sources and sinks. For 2.5D, the solution is three‐dimensional but the third dimension is
invariant.
In matrix form, D and G are divergence and gradient matrix operators, S( ) is the matrix
combined forward operator, and q is a vector containing the location of the current sources and
sinks.
The forward modeled data (dest) is calculated by multiplying the potential field vector (u) by a
projection matrix Q, which selects a subset of the potential field based on the positions where the
voltage potential is measured in the survey. For a 2D line profile we can only make voltage
The forward modeling algorithm explicitly models the ground surface/air boundary by assigning
bulk resistivity to the cells in the ground as well as air resistivity value (1x106 Ωm) for the cells
above the ground. The edges of the model space are no‐flux boundaries although the model
The boundaries of the model space extend from ‐370 m to 370 m centered around zero while the
top of the model is zero and the bottom edge is 55 m using a positive downward convention. The
72‐electrode array extends from ‐141 m to 141 m laterally and the deepest point of the line is
To reduce numerical error in the forward model, the grid is finely discretized near the electrode
locations. The size of the grid, including the pad is 1,294 cells wide by 197 cells deep. The cells
are variable in size but the smallest dimensions, located near the electrodes are 0.25 m wide by
0.05 m deep.
2.8 INVERSION
ERT inversion is the process of reconstructing a resistivity structure based on acquired data.
Solutions to inverse problems are non‐unique for multiple reasons including ill‐posedness, data
noise, and in particular the larger number of model parameters, m (100,000’s), from a limited
number of observation points, dobs (100’s ‐1000’s). All ERT inverse algorithms are based on a
measure of fit or comparison between the observed data (dobs) and calculated data (dcalc) as
well as perceived structure (mref) versus the inverted structure (m). The perceived structure is
based on “a priori” information you may have about the subsurface conditions. Mathematically,
The objective function is a combination of data fitting and “a priori” model fitting. The objective
(Zhang,J.,Mackie,R.L., and Madden, T.R. 1995). Solving the inverse problem is an iterative
process whereby the resistivity structure is updated until the objective function, , is
⎢ ⎢ Wd (dcalc‐dobs) 2 + Wm (m‐
The trade‐off parameter, is a user‐defined value, which balances the relative importance of data
misfit vs. realistic model structure. In this research we set the trade‐off parameter to a level
consistent with previous inversions completed on the HSRP ERT dataset. It may require several
iterations of the resistivity structure before the calculated data fits well enough to the observed
data. The data and model norms are the respective components of the objective function. The
model norm is measure that represents the difference between the inverted resistivity structure
(m) and the reference structure (mref). The forward and inversion algorithms are solved using a
finite volume method on a regular grid in Matlab. The inversion program is a 2.5D version of the
The data‐weighting matrix is commonly chosen to be a diagonal matrix of 1/𝜎, where 𝜎 is the
standard deviation of the measurements (dobs). This term represents the error model for our data.
Gaussian distribution and the standard deviation of a single measurement is 3% of its absolute
value (Archie, G.E,1942). With this assumption the data‐weighting matrix (Wd) normalizes the
magnitudes have a similar influence on the inversion result. Without weights the least‐squares
The model‐weighting matrix (Wm) is comprised of three terms that govern the smoothness and
stability the solution (Zhang,J.,Mackie,R.L., and Madden, T.R. 1995). Wm is often referred to as
identity matrix (I) for numeric stability. Wx and Wz represent the gradients (first‐order
1995). As the trade‐off parameter , the objective function is minimizing the data misfit regardless
of how physically unrealistic or blocky the resulting resistivity structure is (i.e. the first term in
Equation 3.3 becomes dominant). If it is very large, then the resistivity structure will be smoother
but may have a large misfit from the observed data (i.e. the second term in Equation 3.3 becomes
We have shown in Chapter 2 that the pond stage dominates the ERT signal when compared to
the same synthetic resistivity structure with no stage. In this section we examine the effect that a
slight variation in pond stage can have on ERT data. The question is, “What effect do errors in
the position and/or timing of pond stage data and surveyed topography have on the
approximation of the resistivity structure?” It is well known that electrode positional errors will
propagate through inaccurate forward modeling of the data (Oldenborger et al, 2005). The
purpose of this exercise is to quantify the forward modeling error in this scenario where a
number of our electrode locations are in close proximity to the pond stage interface.
We demonstrate the effect that stage and topography errors can have give three scenarios with
homogeneous, dry sand subsurface and a ponded stage layer. Model scenario A is the baseline
scenario (i.e.: no error in either topography or stage), while model scenarios B and C simulate
Resistivity
Resistivity
Resistivity
For the 2D ERT surface line we can expect positional errors on the order of +/‐ 10 to 20cm in the
surveyed topography or perhaps larger. Positional errors are not uncommon when using a total
station for surveying and there can be a bias in the error if the total station has not been leveled
accurately. The bias is such that the positional error increases as your survey target is further
away from the total station. Figure 2.1. illustrates how a biased error in electrode positions may
propagate compared to their true locations with the total station positioned on the left flank of the
pond.
Fig 2.1: Diagram showing a potential error scenario in electrode survey positions.
Random positional errors due to operator inexperience with the total station survey
technique may also be an issue. A comparison between the true topography and random estimate
2.11 MODELLING
This section presents a technique for the efficient numerical computation of the electrical
potential with the finite element method in three dimensions and arbitrary topography. The
crucial innovation is, firstly, the incorporation of unstructured tetrahedral meshes which allow
efficient local mesh refinement and most flexible description of arbitrary model geometry.
Secondly, considerably more accurate results are achieved by the implementation of quadratic
shape functions. Exploiting a secondary potential approach, meshes are downsized significantly
in comparison with highly refined meshes for total potential calculation. However, the latter is
necessary for the determination of the required primary potential in arbitrary model domains. To
start with, homogeneous models with different geometries at the surface and subsurface are
simulated to quantify their influence. This results in a so-called geometry effect, which is not
only a side effect but may be responsible for serious misinterpretations. Moreover, it represents
the basis for treating heterogeneous conductivity models with the secondary potential approach,
which is especially promising for the inverse problem. It is addressed how the resulting system
of equations is solved most efficiently using modern multi-frontal direct solvers in combination
with reordering strategies or rather traditional preconditioned conjugate gradient methods
depending on the size of the problem. Furthermore, a reciprocity approach to estimate modelling
errors is presented, and it is investigated to which degree the model discretization has to be
refined to yield sufficiently accurate results.calculation of the electric field started in the late
1960s using the techniques of integral equations and finite differences (Bing, Z. and Greenhalgh,
S.A. 2001). A special variant based on integral equations is the boundary element method
(Farqharson, C.G and Oldenburg,1998). Finite difference (FD) calculations in three dimensions.
They were the methods of choice throughout the 1980s and 1990s and were refined several
times. Zhang et al. (1995), e.g., presented improved boundary conditions for a more accurate
potential approximation and Spitzer (1995), e.g., introduced efficient preconditioned conjugate
The finite difference method is restricted to orthogonal grids which limit its ability to reproduce
non-orthogonal geometries. In recent years, more and more finite element (FE) approaches
appeared which are generally not subject to these drawbacks. FE formulations of the direct
current (DC) resistivity problem are described in Li and Spitzer (2002); Zhou and Greenhalgh
(2001). Simulations with surface topography were presented in two dimensions (2D)
(Zhang,J.,Mackie,R.L., and Madden, T.R. 1995) and three dimensions (3D), Yi et al. (2001).
However, the presented algorithms mainly work with block-oriented (structured) discretizations
using hexahedral or tetrahedral elements and, thus, do not exploit the full power of the FE
approach. Sasaki (1994) and Zhou and Greenhalgh (2001) use tetrahedral grids but since they are
derived from bricks the approach is still blockoriented. The grids in (a) and (b) are of type
regular (structured). The orthogonal hexahedral grid (a) is the one that is furthermost restricted
with respect to geometrical flexibility and local refinement. The local refinement of (b), a non
orthogonal regular hexahedral type, is still awkward and inefficient, but its geometrical
adjustability is already increased. In this work the C++ class library GIMLI has been developed,
which provide the solution of finite element problems and applies the non-commercial mesh
generator TetGen Si (2004) for the generation of unstructured tetrahedral meshes. Therefore two
subjects can be addressed. Firstly, any model topography and electrode layout can be described
flexibly, e.g., arbitrary electrode positions can be represented by prefixed nodes within the mesh.
Secondly, the node distribution can be controlled on demand by refining the mesh locally in the
vicinity of electrodes or at strong conductivity contrasts, i.e., where strong gradients of the
simulated potential require enhanced accuracy. In return, coarse grids toward the boundaries are
sufficient to approximate the rather smooth fields. As a result of any discretization technique, a
sparse system of equations has to be solved for each current location. Spitzer and Wurmstich
problems. They suggest conjugate gradient techniques with preconditioners. One very efficient,
applied to DC modelling by Zhang,J.,Mackie,R.L., and Madden, T.R. 1995 and Li and Spitzer
(2002). In contrast to these iterative methods direct equation solvers have made substantial
progress in recent years. Multi-frontal decomposition methods going back to suit best for
problems with many right-hand sides, since the decomposition is done only once. The use of
reordering techniques helps to limit the memory requirements for direct methods as well as for
Accuracy in DC resistivity modelling is enhanced not only by grid refinement strategies but also
by employing higher order base functions in the FE approach. It can be shown that a
combination of both, mesh refinement and quadratic shape functions, yields most efficient
solutions.
First an introduction to finite element modelling, unstructured mesh generation and refinement is
given. The homogeneous half-space is used to investigate how refinement strategies improve the
results for the calculation of the total potential. As a continuation, a conducting half-sphere is
used to demonstrate the geometric flexibility of the presented approach and to apply the
secondary potential modelling.With the help of two examples it will be shown how complicated
subsurface and surface geometry can be involved. A geometry effect is defined to appraise the
The boundary value problem for the direct current (DC) resistivity forward problem is given by
∇ 𝜎∇ ∇ ………………………………………2.14
………………………………… 2.15
where 𝜎(x;y; z) represents a given conductivity distribution in the ground, j the source current
density and u is the sought electrical potential. The electrical resistivity , which is the most
widely used material parameter in DC geophysics, equals the reciprocal of 𝜎. The classical
∇ ……………………………………… 2.16
and assumes a current I being injected through a point-like electrode situated at rs = (xs,ys, zs).
The Dirac’s delta d forces a singular current density at the source position. The formulation
(2.15) allows point sources at arbitrary positions inside the domain as well as sources on the
boundary of the modelling domain. However, the expression does not take into account the
The type of boundary condition for the geoelectrical problem in equation (2.16) is specialized by
( = 0) are applied to avoid current flow through the boundary along the outward normal n.
impose a = (n. r)/r2 for a current source at the earth’s surface, whereas
r =|r| is the radial distance between the current source and the corresponding boundary. A more
generally form for a buried current source inside the domain is given by (Zhou and
Greenhalgh,2001)
( (r+r’))
with =| where denotes the image position of r regarding the earth’s surface. This type of
boundary condition is sometimes referred to as Robin type (Herwanger et al., 2004). Note that on
pure Neumann domains, e.g. = 0 on the whole boundary as in modelling tanks, there are two
(total current flow on the whole boundary δΩ is zero), which can simply be achieved by using a
reference electrode or dipole current pattern. Secondly, since only derivatives of u are present on
the boundary, the solution of equation (3.1) becomes ambiguous and hence the system of
equations becomes singular. This can be avoided by choosing an arbitrary reference point on the
boundary with the additional condition u = 0. The Dirac delta function d in the source term of the
DC equation leads to infinite potential gradients at the source position rs. Typically, this
singularity is responsible for very poor numerical approximations, particularly close to the
electrode positions. The total potential (TP) u is split up into a primary and a secondary part,
u = up +us. The primary potential up is a known electrical field for a given background
conductivity structure sp and satisfies the source term: ∇ 𝜎 ∇ = -∇ Usually the analytical
solution for the homogeneous half-space is used but also more complex background structures
(vertical dike or layered models) can be applied (Li and Spitzer, 2002).
The boundary value problem for the secondary potential (SP) reads:
∇ 𝜎∇ ∇( 𝜎 𝜎 ∇ ) ………………2.18a
+ = + I, ………………2.18b
where the singular current density j is vanished. However, the integral of equation contains the
gradient of the primary potential up. The precondition for it being regular is that
the conductivity in the direct vicinity of the electrode equals 𝜎p, as already mentioned by Zhao
and Yedlin (1996). To determine sp, the local conductivity at the electrodes has to be chosen and
not the mean conductivity . Secondary sources appear where the conductivity deviates from 𝜎p.
Both left-hand side and right-hand side differential operators are identical to that of the total
potential. By approximating the operators by matrices the system of equations can be written as:
us = up. ………………………………2.19
In order to avoid the assembling of for each source conductivity , the linearity of A is
exploited by
Thus only one matrix for a homogeneous conductivity of 1 has to be created additionally
to for the whole forward calculation with many sources and heterogeneous conductivity
distribution.
2.13 MESH GENERATION AND REFINEMENT
An initial partitioning of the modelling domain often incorporates the given electrode layout as
fixed nodes. However, an additional refinement has to be applied to obtain accurate forward
calculations due to the singular potential at the electrodes. The existing approaches use block
oriented grids for both FD and FE calculations. To minimize the error of the forward calculation,
grid lines between the electrodes are introduced. Using between two and four additional grid
lines all calculations end up in around 4% relative error for a pole-pole configuration.
schlumberger) a further refinement is required since the relative error is amplified by the
geometric factor. However, since refining block-oriented grids always works in a global way, the
number of nodes increases rapidly. One main advantage of unstructured meshes is the facilitation
of refining grids within distinct regions. Thus in regions of varying potential gradients (close to
electrodes) the mesh can be chosen very fine whereas the cell sizes grow toward the boundaries
of the modelling domain. It can be distinguished between a-posteriori and a-priori refinement.
For the former, the discretization depends on an error estimation procedure in the solution
process, whereas for the latter, the information is introduced in advance. Since the critical
regions are known, the a priori type is chosen to enforce a locally fine mesh by introducing
In addition to the local node density, the approximation quality depends on the cell size growth
(or prolongation) factor. This can mainly be controlled by the ratio of the tetrahedral edge
lengths and the radius of the circumscribing sphere. Since sliver-shaped elements yield poor
approximation properties, so-called mesh generators try to minimize the radius-edge ratio. The
maximum ratio throughout the mesh can be used as a global mesh quality control.
The applied mesh-generator tries to force all radius-to-edge ratios below a certain quality
constraint. For all subsequent meshes a radius-to-edge ratio of 1.2 is chosen, which, due to
experience, provides sufficiently accurate results. To create an unstructured mesh the domain
has to be defined by points, polygons or faces, the so-called piecewise linear complex (PLC). It
includes the geometry of the domain and the electrode locations as well as the boundary. By
introducing nodes and creating tetrahedral elements, the mesh generator creates the mesh of the
desired quality.In the following study, local and global refinement techniques are investigated to
find a best trade-off between accuracy and computational effort. In addition to the spatial mesh
refinement (h-method), the use of higher order shape functions (p-method) was taken into
account.
A uniform earth with a flat surface boundary offers the most simple analytical solution for a
at radial distance r(x;y; z) from source location rs(xs;ys; zs). A straight line is defined containing
21 electrode nodes with 1m spacing. The model boundaries are placed at 5 km around the origin
in order to minimize the effects of the boundary conditions. The first mesh created by the mesh
In order to show the flexibility of unstructured meshes a spherical anomaly was chosen, which
can hardly be discretized by block-oriented grids. The analytical solution for a conducting sphere
is known ((Li and Spitzer, 2002)). However, instead of a sphere in full-space, a half-sphere at the
upper boundary of a half-space is considered, on which electrodes are placed along a profile line.
Since the half-space boundary is an axis of symmetry, the solution can easily be obtained by
The secondary potential is expected to be rather smooth so that the first calculation may start
with a quite coarse mesh.A halfsphere with a radius of 2.25m is placed at the origin. A line of 21
electrodes from x = �5m to x = 5m with a spacing of 0.5m is defined using fixed nodes. Note
that the electrodes can be placed independently of the nodes in general, however, defining fixed
nodes in this example avoids possible interpolation issues while collecting the resulting
potentials.
The model boundary is also chosen away from the origin in each direction (1000 m). Using a
radius-to-edge ratio of 1.2 a mesh of 1769 nodes has been generated on which the secondary
potential is simulated. Defining the resistivity of half-sphere to 1Wm, whereas the half-space has
= 10Ωm. The source electrode is set at rs = (-4; 0;0) and the primary potential is calculated
Consequently, sources for the secondary potential occur only within the half-sphere. The
calculated potentials at the remaining electrodes are transformed into apparent resistivities using
In general, the measured electrical impedance is transformed into the apparent resistivity
by means of the geometric factor k. The latter is chosen such that the apparent resistivity
equals the true resistivity in case of a homogeneous distribution. The geometric factor clearly
depends on both, the electrode layout and the surface geometry. If the topography is non-trivial,
k is unknown and can only be assessed numerically. Usually an approximation ka is based on the
half-space potentials for surface measurements. For buried current sources the analytical
expression can easily be adapted by introducing an image source position r0s using the earth’s
surface as a mirror:
= = ( + ). ……………………….2.22
conductivity distribution and artefacts caused by using wrong geometric factors. Therefore, a
geometry effect t is defined as the ratio of the voltage differences for the given geometry u and
the approximation ua. From the equality of the apparent resistivities the expression for the
t= = …………………………2.23
model and the potential u is calculated numerically. Since a has to equal the numerical
geometric factor can be obtained by k = I / u. To appraise geometry effects, t can be plotted for
each datum. With a value of t = 1 the measurement is not affected by topography. Values of t > 1
The meshes of the previous sections are now being reviewed with respect to the effort of solving
the system of equations. For iterative methods, a stopping criterion has to be defined depending
on the accuracy of the solution. Experience shows a relative residual value of is sufficient
Proceeding in the order of the mesh size and starting with the smallest example, the conducting
sphere with 1 769 nodes and 21 right-hand side vectors. The stiffness matrix contains 24 427
non-zero entries which is about 14 per row. Due to the small size, a direct equation solver is
appropriate. Once the factorization is done the back-substitutions for the individual sources are
obtained almost instantly. The Cholesky factor is computed in 1.85 s and contains 750 238 non-
zero elements which need about 11.5MB memory if 12 bytes/entry are considered. All methods
of reordering can reduce the nnz drastically, also the computing time is decreased by several
The locally refined homogeneous half-space with quadratic shape functions (38 533 nodes) still
represents a moderate mesh with a stiffness matrix A of 542 459 non-zero elements. Without
reordering, the Cholesky factor obtains 6.84 elements corresponding to 780MB RAM
which almost exceeds the memory limits of a current standard PC (1 GB). However, with AMD
reordering the allocation can be reduced to nnz = 1.07 or 120 MB. The AMD reordering
technique was used for all examples because of its great benefit.
The mining gallery (128 169 nodes, 1.8 Mio nnz’s in A, 50 electrodes) represents the next larger
problem. The (reordered) Cholesky factor obtains 6:38. nnz’s or 730 MB. On the present PC
with 1GB memory, 200 000 nodes represent the upper limit for direct equation solvers. The
algorithm implemented in the CHOLMOD package needs about 3 s for the symbolic analysis
and 52 s for the multi-frontal factorization. The following back substitutions are carried out in
111 s which is about 2 s for each electrode. Hence, conjugate gradient (library TAUCS) is
chosen for solving the system of equations. Nevertheless, it is worth to carefully choose the
preconditioner since the system is solved for each of the 16 electrodes. The incomplete Cholesky
preconditioning, as used by Li and Spitzer (2002), was selected and both variants were examined
with different thresholds. As for the complete factorization, the nnz can be drastically reduced by
AMD reordering.
To summarize, the numerical computations must always find a trade-off between the two
resources calculation speed and memory. Mesh size and available computer memory determine
the runtime of the solver. Direct methods should be used whenever it possible. Conjugate
gradient methods with incomplete Cholesky preconditioners are the alternative in most cases.
The threshold value of the incomplete factorization must be chosen carefully to meet memory
limits and to minimize calculation time. For very large meshes, the SSOR preconditioner is of
advantage since it allows preconditioning without additional storage memory (Spitzer, 1995).
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter discusses the review of different researchers on numerical modeling, this
current chapter intends to look at model conception and methodology adopted in arriving at the
signatures of the field curves and tries to compare it with curves generated by lagragian
interpolation, this will enable us to know if it is a good representation of the of the field curve
The aim is to generate a polynomial of minimum order that represents a curve that approximates
other curves and reduce the error to the nearest minimum. To do this we need to:
= …………………………….…………………………….. 3.1
Re-arrange: y= ( )+ ( ) ……………………………………………....3.2
By using the langrange and interpolation basis and interpolation formula, In the same way these
finding the polynomial is to use linear interpolation between two straight line functions similar to
Y= + + …………………………...3.3
Where ( ) =
= + + ………………………+ + ………………………..3.7
[ ][ ] = [ ] ……………………………………………………..…3.8
theorem to an appropriate function, that the error in the Lagrange interpolation formula is given
by
And x and the mean value point lie in the interval [ ] spanned by the nodes. Equation 3.10
remains valid for extrapolation with in the interval by x and the nodes.
Since in equation 3.15 depends on x, it follows that we cannot usually find the error exactly, if
we could, then we could also evaluate f(x) exactly. The merit of this langrange remainder is
therefore that we can use it to obtain error bounds, if we can find a bound on the appropriate
| | | | ……………………………………………………………3.11
In order to obtain the best uniform bound for this error over the whole interval, it is therefore
desirable to choice the nodes, so that the maximum (absolute) value of (x)
Formula: = – ………………………………………………3.12
Equation 3.15 is clearly symmetric in the nodes. This property carries over to divided differences
of arbitrary order comparison of the langrangse and divided difference formulas yield:
[ ]∑ ∑
[ ] [ ] …………………………………………………..3.14
[ ] [ ] [ ] ………..…… 3.15
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
By considering the error term in the langrange and Newton divided difference formula, we can
. for the special case k=1, this is just a restatement of the mean value
theorem. Using the limit in equation 3.26 as leads to the interpolation of divided
[ ] …………………………………………………...3.18
over [a,b] is minimized. For the interval [-1,1], this is achieved by choosing the chebyshev nodes
which are at
( ), (k=0,1,………..,N) ………………………………3.19
For any of the nodes , the zeroth-order difference is defined by f[ ]=f .The first divided
[ ] [ ] ( )
f[ ]= = …………..……………………………3.20
and the recursive nature of the definition extends to the general k-th divided difference at nodes
[ ] [ ]
f[ ]= =
………………….……………………3.21
Note that the first order difference is the quotient used to approximate the first derivate in the
Do this up to 5th order, the idea behind it, is to found a polynomial which agrees with special
data. This polynomial can then be used to generate the number value at other pounds. We seek
P(
Step 2: use the polynomial to fixed the number values of the nodes
Step 3: compare the found curves on the same graph and calculate the error bound used.
Step 5: Transfer the graph to curve matching and see whether it is different/reasonable to use for
interpretation.
=E - ……………………………………………………………………3.24
We shall use the 1st order difference: equation 3.22 and 3.24
= - = -2 …...3.27
Generally; = - =∑ ( ) …………………..….3.28
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The study utilizes the efficiency of lagrangian interpolation and polyfit from MATLAB software.
The curves obtained from the field and the generated one from Lagrange were compared to
obtained good fitted curves for interpolation. The level of accuracy was determined using the
numerical difference and central difference tables. The estimates were compared.
The Lagrange in equation 3.1 was developed from 5th degree polynomial consisting of two
variables in the form ( ) = ( ). This was used to estimate other points outside 1m,6m apart.
The curve generated when ran through a polyfit section of MATlabs programme,and also
plotted by Techcal programme the curves showed an appreciable HK type from VES 38, in both
cases when compared, the two Software showed an HK trend of two layer model. The error
estimated is approximately at 3.3% and 2.5% respectively for MATlab and Techcal respectively.
Fig 4.0 VES 38 conventional curve for Electrical resistivity data.
Fig 4.1 VES 38 model curve for Electrical resistivity data generated by Matlab programme
Fig 4.2 VES 38 model curve for Electrical resistivity data generated by TechCal programme
, which represents the trend of the whole data when compared with the whole values
outside the range a, b , used for the evaluation, the efficacy of the lagragian is that it reduces
the task of plotting the whole data, the lagragian mimic the trend of the whole data obtained from
the field, when this polynomial was interpreted on the master curves it gave about the same error
values or even better in some of the VES points, which means that the lagragian has been able to
filter out some of the noise signals obtained from the field due to certain factors. When the
interpretation was carried out using the conventional methods in the three VES points, we
recorded the error level of 2.5%, which is the same as one of the error obtained when lagragian is
used.
Another curve was generated through section of MATlab, these points were plotted by the
software and curve showed an appreciate KHK type for VES17 and also when plotted using
Techcal programme. It also showed a HK three model curve. The error estimated at 6.9%.
Fig 4.5 VES 17 model curve for Electrical resistivity data generated by TechCal programme
The above curves of fig4.12 and fig4.13 were transferred to the standard curves for segment by
segment curve matching and resistivity interpreted by a log-linear graph. It gives the same
number of layers with error level stated at 6.9% and 6.6% respectively.The error obtained from
error estimated is at 5.6% for Techcal and 12.9% from the MATlab respectively.
The polynomial obtained is -0.45 +6.5 -42.25 +156 -20.8 with HK type curves. When the
the conventional method was used, the error obtained was 5.8%, which is close to the polynomial
These two curves were transferred to a log-linear graph for interpretation it gives the same
number of layers at two model layer with errors level stated at error 5.6% and respectively.
is Hk type and has three layers with a bedrock extending to a value of about 245.5 With
maximum error of about 2.5% which is not far from what was obtained from the Lagrange
equation 3.1, when the conventional method was used, but when the lagragian was used, it
resulted in the same type of curve HK, with three layers an extending bedrock of 207.3
Also in VES 17 when the conventional method was used we have 4 layers, with a weathered
basement of 12.6 When compared with the lagragian, using MATlab software we have 3
layers, with fresh basement of 98182.2 The result obtained when the Techcal was used gave
In the VES point 19, using conventional method, three layers was obtained with a fresh basement
of 1117.1 The result obtained from Techcal in very close to that of the conventional method
in the error values of 5.8% for conventional method and 5.6% for Techcal. The coventionalhas
three layers, with high fresh bedrock value, but the Techcal has four layers with a wheared
basement of 8.8 this last was not shown in the conventional method, however the MATlab
result showed an appreciable high level of error of about 12.9% with two layers an weathered
bedrock of 82.9%.
The lagrange showed that for a series of data obtain from any location, the lagrangian of a
minimum order can be used to generate the curve which is a good representation of the whole
5.0 CONCLUSION
This research has examined the efficacy of Lagragian in the interpretation of electrical resistivity
data. The results obtained are appreciate and close to the conventional system of interpretation,
the generated curves from the Lagrangian interpolation showed a good trend which are
representative of the intended patterns, even when the polynomial was generated with range [a,b]
of the entire data. It shows that the Lagrangian when used to generated field curve at minimum
degree, are intelligent to guest the trend of the whole data when considered as a whole at [a,b]
generated polynomial. It’s also reduce the cost of time saving and curve matching stresses.
5.1 RECOMMENDATION
In view of the above analysis, it is recommended that the project should be examined under
different types of configurations such as: wenner, pole-dipole and double dipole arrays. Also, it
is also recommended that the programmable aspect, which include the embedded system that can
process and interpret the resistivity data as stated in the chapter one of this research.
REFERENCES
American society of civil engineers, (1961), Ground-water basin management: Manual Eng.
Practice.
Archie, G.E, (1942), the electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir
Bing, Z. and Greenhalgh, S.A., (2001), finite element three-dimensional direct current resistivity
Brewitt-Taylor, C.R. and Weavear, J.T. (1976). On the finite difference solution of two
Broyden, C.G. (1972). Quasi-newton methods. In W.Murray, editor, Numerical methods for
Ellis, R.G. and Oldenburg,D.W. (1994). The pole-pole 3-dc resistivity inverse problem. A
Farquharson, C.G. and Oldenburg, D.W.(1998). Non-linear inversion using general measures of
Li, Y. and Oldenburg, D.W. (1992). Approximate inverse mappings in dc resistivity problems.
Geophys. J. Int.
Spitzer, K. (1998). Thre three-dimensional dc sensitivity for surface and subsurface sources.
Geophys. J.Int
IP forward modeling techniques and their application to surface and borehole surveys.
Zhao, S. and Yedlin, M.J. (1996). Some refinements on the finite difference method for 3-dc
Project Name: NUMERICAL MODELING FOR ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY DATA USING LAGRANGIAN INTERPOLATION
Project Name: NUMERICAL MODELING FOR ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY DATA USING LAGRANGIAN INTERPOLATION
Project Name: NUMERICAL MODELING FOR ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY DATA USING LAGRANGIAN INTERPOLATION
MATlab
VES 38
h1=12.7
h2=13.5
h3=21.4 Error = 3.3%
h4=54.3 HK CURVES
VES 17
h1=9.3
h2=11.9
h3=26.6 HKH CURVES Error = 6.9%
VES19
h1=0.4
h2=246.7
K CURVES Error = 12.9%
Techcal Software
VES 38
h1=0.4
h2=14.7
h3=27.2 Error = 2.5%
HK CURVES
VES 17
h1=0.6
h2=3.8
h3=5.3 KHK CURVES Error = 5.6%
h4=120.
VES19
h1=0.4
h2=246.7
K CURVES Error = 12.9%
Conventional
VES 38
h1=0.9
h2=3.8
h3=9.4 Error = 2.5%
HK CURVES
VES 17
h1=0.9
h2=1.6
h3=6.6 KHK CURVES Error = 6.4%
VES19
h1=0.6
h2=2.
KH CURVES Error = 5.8%
MATLAB SCRIPT