SOCIETY AND CULTURE

WITH FAMILY PLANNING

LESSON 1

This unit looks at sociology as the study of society and human social action. Sociology concerns
itself with the social rules and processes that connect and separate people not only as
individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions, and includes the analysis
of the organisation and development of human social life.

Origin of Sociology

The origin of Sociology can be traced from Europe especially France and Germany around the
19th century. It then extended and grew faster in the United States of America. Sociology
became a subject of keen interest during the 19th century when western civilization was
undergoing vast social upheavals that accompanied the industrial revolution. Let us look at the
three factors that led to the development of sociology: Industrial Revolution; Travel; and
Success of Natural Sciences.

Industrial Revolution

 Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production.

Huge numbers of people moved to the cities in search of work.

In cities people met the challenges of poverty, filth and crowding.

The traditional order was challenged by the industrial revolution and this gave way to
democratic changes.

Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human existence.

Travel

The Europeans had been successful in getting colonies around the world.

The colonies they obtained exposed Europeans to totally different cultures; they began asking
questions why cultures differ.

Success in natural sciences

 It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social phenomena.

Meaning of Sociology

Sociology, as a field of discipline is umbrella in nature because it deals with the totality of
human interaction. It is a systematic study of human groups and social behavior. It tries to find
out the influence of social relationships on people’s behavior and attitudes and also how
societies are established and changed. In simple terms sociology is the study of man’s
interaction within the society. But this definition is not adequate as sociology deals with the
organization and control of people’s behavior and attitudes in the society.
Sociology is concerned with the social facts in the economy, family, region, politics and so on.
The assessment of the social facts within society acts as a way to solve problems amongst the
people. Therefore sociology as a field helps the members of any society to solve social or
behavioral problem in order to create a better society. Sociologist thus are people serving the
society in different capacities, such as teachers, lecturers, social workers, researchers,
administrators, town planners, and so forth. It is on this basis that basic knowledge of sociology
for teachers is important for a better understanding of society we live in.

Scope/nature of Sociology

Sociology, as discussed above mainly involves the study of human behavior, not as an
individual but as the member of a society. It is therefore important that members are initiated
into the lifestyle of the society where they live. On the other hand when you look at the nature of
sociology, you will notice that the subject is a scientific discipline. It is a science because it
involves objective and systematic ways of investigating and evaluating our social reality.

Meaning of Sociology of Education

Sociology of education is an applied form of sociology. It will allow you to study the process of
education as a tool for introducing learners into the way of life of a society. The following are
important areas of study of sociology of education:

The processes of education that has social relevance on the social life of a learner.

The concepts of education that are of social relevance, these are social groups and
associations within the school.

Social systems and institutions which are relevant to education.

 A comparison of the systems of education in different parts of the world.

Functions of Sociology

Sociology performs a number of roles within the society. Some of the roles are as follows:

Sociology helps in the analysis of different types of relationships within the society. It is the
concern of sociology to identify why certain undesirable behaviors are present in human beings.
Such behaviors must be checked and changed. For instance, within the society, there are
young boys and girls who get initiated into unacceptable behaviors due to ignorance or reason
beyond the victims‟ explanation. It is within the interest of sociology to investigate into the
causes of unacceptable behaviors. This can be done through critical analysis of the problem
and try to offer a solution.

 Sociology exposes members of the society to how authority and power are got within the
society and why some customs, beliefs and practices cannot be done away with. All human
beings are the same when it comes to taste of power or privileged positions. Every person will
give reasons to cling to power and authority due to benefits found in those positions. Authority
and power are as sweet as honey.
Sociology attempts to explain the relationship between different sub-systems in society. This
can be between the educational system and the political system or the relationship between the
political system and the economic system. There is an inter relationship among all the system in
society. That is why there should be a health relationship among sub systems in order to foster
growth and development.

Sociology reveals to individuals that society is dynamic and transitory in nature. Individual
become aware that the society is not static and therefore calls for dynamic thought and actions.
For instance in this technological world of computers, individuals are expected to be computer
literate in order to function effectively and be integrated within the society.

 Sociology examines different human backgrounds. This helps in tolerating and

accommodating individuals with differences in cultural background and orientation.

 Sociology has a role of identifying various human needs in the society and explaining how
these needs are met and satisfied. Sociology teaches people to aspire to meet and satisfy those
needs that will assist you in living a meaningful life. For instance an individual who is involved in
stealing is regarded as an unacceptable member of the society.

Meaning of Education

Education can be defined depending on the purpose it is meant to serve and the discipline it is
looking at. In sociology, education can be explained as an activity which goes on in the society
where its methods and aims relay on the nature of the society in which it takes place. In specific
terms, education is a means of making people understand their society and its structure.
Education provides well behaved individuals who have the ability to analyze ideas and
contribute meaningfully towards the development of the society. Education in any society is
there to transmit to the young the culture of that society. The parents, teachers and other
member of the society contribute greatly towards transmitting of cultural ideas to the young. It
therefore means that every member of the society has a duty to transmit knowledge for the
survival of individuals. That is why education is an important tool for human growth and survival.

CONCLUSION

Sociology as a scientific field of study looks at man in the society. There are different functions
which sociology performs in the society. It act as a link between different sub-systems in the
society, it also analyses different relationships within the society. Education is the molding of an
individual in line with his culture, in order for the person to become an acceptable member of the
society.

ACTIVITY 1

1. Sociology of Education can best be defined as the:

A. Study of relationships between education and society
B. Study of education from a sociological perspective
C. Study of classroom dynamics
D. Study of different education systems

2. One of the views of Sociology of Education in the 1920‟s was that it was:
A. A study of understanding schooling
B. A study of solving the problems in society
C. A study of explaining the processes involved in social development
D. A study of understanding processes of social organization

3. Sociology of Education grew fast in the USA because of:

A. The freedom of expression
B. The expansion of the education system
C. The industrial growth
D. The end of slave trade

4. Which one of the following is not an aim of Sociology of Education?

A. Explanation of behavior in a school setting
B. Explanation of processes involved in pupil‟s memory
C. Improvement of teaching in the school
D. Identification of educational problems for analysis

5. One of the earliest views about Sociology of Education was that:

A. It was a study of the relationship between administration and education

B. It was a study of social statics

C. It was a study of the goals of education
D. It was the study of social dynamics
LESSON 2: Theories in Sociology of Education

INTRODUCTION

This Unit is packaged to bring you closer to the theories in sociology of education. Theory is a
set of interrelated statements that gives an explanation for an event. It lets us put together a
multitude of facts so that we may understand them as a whole. Theory will let you see the
relationship among events that are not evident in isolated parts.

OBJECTIVES By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

a. Discuss Labeling theory

b. Discuss Functionalist perspective

c. Discuss conflict theory

d. Discuss symbolic interaction theory

NOTE: There are three paradigms in sociology: Functionalism, conflict theory and interactionist
theory. For our study in this unit we have also included labeling theory because of it great
importance to education.

Labeling theory

The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the emergence of the labeling theory in sociology as a
theoretical perspective of understanding social delinquency or deviance. Edwin Lemert is widely
considered the producer and founder of the original version of labeling theory. The major
concern of the labeling theory is with the process by which individuals in the society are labeled
as deviants, not the individuals themselves. In other words, the labeling theory is concerned
with the way one is treated rather than with one’s character. For example in the case of a
diploma holder teacher and a certificate holder teacher, the difference between them is not in
their titles, but in the way they are treated.

A number of important questions are raised in connection with this theoretical perspective,
among which are: Who labels whom? Will the label be permanent or not? What kind of
behaviour do people think is abnormal behaviour, and what are the consequences of their
interpretation of such behaviour?

The central argument of the labelling theory is that, society creates deviants. It is society which
gives labels to certain individuals, and which makes these labels permanent, making these
individuals deviants. One is not a thief until someone blows the whistle.

It is important to note that there is no clear consensus among those who label others about the
kind of behaviour or act which is deviant. One individual or one kind of behaviour may be
considered deviant by one person, but not so by another. It may depend on the kind of
relationship between the one who labels and the one who is labeled.
By placing emphasis on the process, the labeling theory sees a deviant as a product of a
process being caught, segregated against and given a label. The reaction of society to one who
has committed a crime reinforces criminal behaviour, or makes a person a die-hard deviant.
Lemert (1951) describes the sequence of actions from primary to secondary deviation as
follows:

First act of deviance (primary deviation).

Society punishes the person for the first act.

The punished reacts to the punishment by committing another act, (further primary deviation).

Society applies stronger punishment and shows rejection.

The punished commits another act – further deviation which may be accompanied with hatred
to those who are punishing him/her.

The society shows no tolerance of such an individual now.

 Such individual now show stronger deviant behavior of the penalties or punishments.

Finally the person accepts the status, agrees that he/she is a deviant (criminal). This is now
secondary deviation.

Labeling theory: Its application to the classroom

Two major questions or concerns will be dealt with here – who labels whom and the outcome of
the labeling theory.

Who labels whom?

It is generally accepted that it is the teachers who label their pupils. It is teachers who call their
pupils dull, clever, or troublemaker. It is teachers who, to a certain extent, determine whether a
pupil will pass or fail or is a bad pupil or a good pupil. Teachers sometimes act as judges; they
judge the pupils and try by all means to convict them during the process of interaction.

During this process of interaction, the pupil usually comes to know what the teacher expects of
him or her, or knows the label, and he/she performs and behaves according to the label the
teacher has placed on him or her. Therefore it is the teacher who decides the fate or who holds
the future of the pupil in his/her hand.

Teachers always have some form of ideas of the kind of pupils they are dealing with in terms of
their behaviour and performance. It does not take long for a teacher to form the ideas or
opinions about his or her pupils in the classroom. It may take only a few days or weeks for
teachers to label their pupils. Sometimes teachers form certain views about pupils even before
they meet them in the classroom. These ideas are taken to class or school and this is how they
perceive the pupils.
However, I have many times heard students in the sociology of education course saying it is not
only teachers who label their students but students label their teachers also.

Sometimes pupils give labels to their teachers in form of names for a number of reasons. A
teacher may be brilliant, dull or boring, or may have certain mannerisms or because of the
nature of the subject or topic he/she is teaching. Some teachers react badly to these names,
and create problems for themselves. Teachers should remember that some of these names are
given to them as a way of remembering the material taught by the teacher.

Structural – Functionalist Theory

The structural – functionalist or functionalist perspective relies heavily on the ideas of the
following:

Emile Durkheim

 Herbert Spencer

 Auguste Comte

The structure – functional approach is sometimes referred to as the consensus model. The
theory looks at society from a macro sociological point of view.

Society as a social system

The starting point for functionalists is the idea that society is a system, a combination of parts
that make a larger whole. Functionalists attempt to do two things: first relate the parts of society
to the whole and second, relate one part to another.

Among the important parts of any society are institutions such as the family, education, religion,
the economy and the state. Functionalists identify the social functions performed by each
institution. For instance the family is said to focus mainly on reproduction, socialization and
maintenance of children. When change occurs in one institution it has implications for other
institutions and the society as a whole. For example if fewer children are born, enrolment in
schools will also be low.

The structural – functionalist theory on the other hand recognises that there are inequalities in
society. These inequalities are regarded as necessary to have order in society. Structural –
functionalists see inequality and stratification in education as coming from the needs of a whole
society and not just from the needs of individuals or special groups.

Functionalist view of Schooling

According to structural functionalism schooling is important for the following reasons:

Schooling identifies above average students from the average and below average students.

Schooling makes sure that the talented students occupy high positions in society.
Reasons are that functionalists believe that those who have excelled in society are those who
have worked hard for the positions. Such people deserve the highest rewards. It is true to say
society needs the best and the brightest to function at the highest levels.

Functionalists also look at the following specific purposes or functions of schooling.

The Intellectual purposes of schooling

Teaching basic skills like reading, writing and mathematics.

Transmitting specific knowledge in subjects like history, literature and sciences.

Helping students acquire thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation and synthesis.

The political purposes of schooling

Inculcating allegiance to the existing political order.

Helping assimilate different cultural groups into a common political order.

Teaching children the basic laws of the society.

The social purpose of schooling

Socialization children into various roles, behaviours and values of the society.

The economic purposes of education

Preparing students for their occupational roles.

Selecting, training and allocating individuals into the division of labour.

ACTIVITY 2

1. According to the functionalist perspective, why has poverty in society not been
eliminated?
2. Discuss how structural functionalists see the role of education in society today and the
contributions that it makes to social life.
3. What is meritocracy?

ACTIVITY 3
Conflict Theory

Conflict theory draws much of its inspiration from the works of Karl Marx (1818 – 1883). This
theory stresses that change in society is brought about by interaction with the environment. It
states that:

Society has classes, and there is a continuous struggle between the rich and the poor.

The struggle between the contending classes leads to inevitable conflict.

Change comes about as a result of the conflict.

The three types of classes are as follows:

Ruling or upper class

This class comprises of people with a lot of wealth. They own factories, companies, land and so
forth. In other words they have control on wealth, power, prestige, resources and authority in the
society.

Middle class

This class comprises of professional workers such as doctors, engineers, lawyers and
accountants. Majority of these people do not own the businesses or institutions they work for.
They achieve their positions through school and getting an educational qualification.

Working or lower class

This class comprises of people who do not own any businesses. They have less or no
educational qualifications at all. This group mainly consists of manual or casual workers.

From the conflict perspective, people are encouraged through the process of socialization to be
competitive. This is because every individual, group or class is trying hard to get the best that
they can out of life or they are trying to prevent others from taking the things they have.
Although there are shared values in society, conflict theorists argue that this is only because the
powerful people impose their values on the rest of society through the media, schools, religion
and so forth.

The main characteristic of a society from a conflict perspective is inequality. It is therefore

argued that economic inequality is at the centre of any society. This means that some people
will have more money than they need while others will have less money than they need.
Therefore it is in the interest of the rich people who have wealth to keep and extend what they
own. As for the people who have little or no wealth, it is up to them to try and improve their lives.

Functional theorists do recognise social inequality, but they say that inequality is functional for
society. For example the most qualified people, get the most important job. Conflict theorists on
the other hand, begin with the idea that a society is economically unequal. From this point,
those who are most powerful in the society will try to socialize the least powerful into accepting
inequality in any way they can. The way this is done is through socialization. The wealthy and
powerful occupy the most important and influential positions in the society. They use their power
to advance their own interests through the following processes:

Convincing people that their lack of wealth, influence, power or status is due to their own fault.
When people compete against each other, some will win and others will lose. The losers need
to be convinced that the competition is free and fair. Their inability to achieve the good things in
life is said to be their own individual problem. This is where institutions such as religion,
education and the mass media are important. They play their role in encouraging the people to
see the world in this way

However, if for any reason people fail to be socialized fully in these values, then force is
available to make them see the errors in their actions.

Conflict Theory on inequality

Marx’s basic point was that Inequality leads to oppression of the have-nots by the haves, and
this is morally wrong. The solution is to bring about equality – through a revolution if necessary
– in order to achieve a just and fair society. Inequality is due to the following reasons:

Different groups in society struggle over limited resources and compete for social advantages.
Classes exist in conflict with each other as they vie for power, economic, social, and political
resources.

Inequality results from a system of domination and subordination where those with the most
resources exploit and control others.

The powerful and rich people use their resources to reproduce their position and advantages.
The Elites shape the beliefs and laws of society to make their unequal privileges seem
legitimate and fair.

There is blocked mobility in the system because the working class and the poor are denied the
same opportunities as others.

The most important jobs that sustain the quality of life of a society are often the least
rewarding. These jobs involve people like teachers, nurses, cashers, restaurant hostesses,
bartenders and shop counter attendants.

Conflict view of education

Education perpetuates class, gender and race inequalities. From the Marxist perspective,
schools can be said to repressive institutions. This is because teachers and other ordinary
persons have little control of what goes on in the education sector. The education system tends
to transmit the values and ideas of the ruling class.

Tracking which is also called streaming is separating pupils by academic ability into groups for
all subjects within a school.

Standardized tests – cultural bias.

The hidden curriculum: Teaching attitudes of obedience to authority and keeping the rules.

Credentials: Class advantage and social status are linked to academic qualifications.

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Symbolic interaction theory looks at society from a micro sociological point of view. In other
words they study society on a small scale in order for them to understand the large scale. They
are concerned with the relationship between individuals and the society.

Interactionists focus on people’s everyday behaviour and how these people react to their
surroundings. The surrounding may include material things, other people, actions or symbols.
To give an example we can say that interactionists would not look at what education does for
the whole society, but they would look at one class in a college and how lecturers and students
interact with each other. They would then look at how this affects individual student
performance.

George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) is known as the father of symbolic interactionism (he liked
to call it social behaviourism) even though he did not coin the term. After Mead‟s death in 1934,
his students put together his class notes and published mind, self and society. It was then that
the term symbolic interactionism was coined by his student Herbert Blumer. Mead focused on
the one to one analysis of situations and small groups. He paid much attention to body
language such as a nod and how another person would respond to such a gesture.

The interactionist view of the society is that people influence each other‟s everyday social
interactions. They believe that an individual will create his/her own social world through
interaction. It is therefore thought that social order is maintained when individuals share their
understanding of everyday behaviour.

It is true to say that human beings construct such actions on the basis of the meanings of the
objects they encounter. They define situations as real as they are real in their consequences.
Therefore Mead says, through a process of role taking a person imagines how they themselves
appear to others, thus becoming a symbolic object to themselves. People then respond to
themselves on the basis of the meaning they give to their actions through the process of role
taking. What is role taking? This is when people not only come to see themselves as others see
them, but also take on or pretend to take on the role of others through imitation, play and game.
This process allows people to anticipate what other expects of them.

CONCLUSION

Sociology has developed approaches to the systematic study of society. Each of them provides
an important view of examining society, social phenomenon and human interactions.

Labelling theory tells us that it is society that creates deviants.

Functionalist perspective takes the notion that the study of sociology of education helps us to
explain issues that we do not understand. It emphasizes the fact that institutions within society,
such as education, are made up of inter-dependent parts all working together.
Conflict perspective shares the view that social forces within a society make conflict inevitable.
Such conflict can be experienced at school that includes teachers and children from different
cultural groups. `Symbolic interaction theory stresses that individuals interact with each other. If
they share the same culture, their interpretation of social situations will be similar. They will
share common norms that will guide their behavior.

ACTIVITY 3

LESSON 5: Contributions of Early Thinkers to Sociology

INTRODUCTION
This Unit looks at the renounced founding fathers of sociology. You are asked to study these
early sociologists because of their great contributions to the origin and development of
sociology.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a. List the founding fathers of sociology

b. Identify specific contributions of the founding fathers of sociology

Auguste Comte

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) was born and educated in France. He coined the term sociology,
which is derived from the Latin word socius meaning companion or associate and the Greek
word logos meaning study or science. Comte is therefore regarded as a father of sociology
because of the great influence he had upon the subject.

Aim of sociology according to Comte The main aim of sociology according to Comte is to
discover the universal laws that govern the organization of the world and evolution of humanity.

Auguste Comte and Positivism

The term positivism was coined by Comte. It originated in the late 18th century and referred
mainly to the natural sciences such as physics, chemistry and mathematics. We will discuss
positivism in detail when we will look at approaches to the study of sociology in unit 4.

The social statics

This involves ways in which the parts of a social system interact with one another. Social statics
deals with institutions of society such as the family, religion, economy, education and so on.

Sociology is seen as the study of inter-relations between these institutions. In the words of
Comte, “the statical study of sociology consist the investigations of laws of action and reaction
of different parts of the social system”. Comte argued that the parts of a society cannot be
studied separately “as if they had independent existence.
The social dynamics

Social dynamics focuses on the whole of society as the unit of analysis. It looks at how societies
develop and change. It is therefore important to remember that, the laws of social dynamics are
most recognizable when they apply to the largest societies.

Comte believed that all societies move through stages of development and increase in
perfection as they progress.

The Law of the 3 stages

Theological stage

Searches for the essential nature of things.

People come to believe that all phenomena are created and influenced by supernatural forces
and gods.

Monotheism (the belief that there is only one God) is the main belief system of the Theological
stage. The basic social unit is the family.

Metaphysical stage

Mysterious and abstract forces replace the supernatural forces as the power that explains the
activities of the world.

The basic social unit is the state.

Positivist stage

The last and highest stage

People search for invariant laws that govern all of the phenomena of the world.

The basic social unit is humanity as a whole.

Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) an English sociologist is sometimes called the “second
founder” of sociology. Spencer looked at society to be similar to the human body. He viewed
society as a system made up of institutions such as the family, education, religion, economy and
the government. Similarly Spencer related society to the human body which is made up of
organs like the lungs, kidneys, heart and intestines. This image of society is in line with what
sociologists today call structural functional theory.

Spencer shared Comte‟s concern on social statics and social dynamics. But Spencer was more
concerned with social dynamics. He convinced himself that societies do evolve from lower to
higher forms of civilization. As generations pass, the most capable and intelligent, we can call
them the “fittest” members of the society will survive. While on the other hand the less capable
will die out. In this way societies will gradually improve over time. To help those in the lower
classes is interfering with the natural processes of society. Spencer emphasized that those who
are “fit” survive and reproduce while those who are “unfit” die out. He called this principle the
“survival of the fittest.

Karl Marx
The life and works of Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) was born in Trier, Germany. His father Hirschel Marx was a lawyer.

After schooling in Trier, Marx went to study law at Bonn University. He then moved to Berlin
where he met Bruno Bauer. Bauer introduced Marx to the writings of Hegel G, who had been a
professor of philosophy in Berlin.

After completing his doctoral thesis at the University of Jena, Marx hoped that Bauer would find
him a teaching job. Unfortunately Bauer lost his job in 1842 because of his outspoken atheism
and could not help Karl Marx.

Marx made an attempt at journalism. He then moved to Cologne where The Rhenish Gazette
newspaper published an article he wrote in which he defended the freedom of the press.

While in Cologne, Marx started attending socialist meetings organized by Moses Hess. Based
on what he heard at these meetings, Marx wrote an article on the poverty of the Mosel wine –
farmers. The article was published in The Rhenish Gazette in January 1843, because it was
critical of the government the newspaper was banned by the Prussian authorities.

Marx moved to France where he was offered the post of editor of a new political journal, called
Franco – German Annals. After writing an article for the Franco – German Annals in February
1844, the journal was banned in Germany.

In 1844 Marx wrote Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts. In this work he developed his ideas
on the concept of alienation. Marx identified three kinds of alienation in capitalist society. First,
the worker is alienated from what he/she produces. Second, the worker is alienated from
him/herself; only when he/she is not working does he/she truly feel him/herself. Finally, in a
capitalist society people are set against other people. Marx believed the solution to this problem
was communism.

While in Paris, Marx became a close friend of Friedrich Engels, and the two men decide to work
together. In January 1845, Marx received orders deporting him from France. Marx and Engels
decided to move to Belgium a country with greater freedom of expression. In Brussels Marx
concentrated on writing The Communist Manifesto, a 12,000 word pamphlet which he finished
in six weeks. Written for a mass audience, the book summarised the forthcoming revolution and
the nature of the communist society that would be established by the proletariat. The communist
Manifesto was published in February, 1848. The following month, the government expelled
Marx from Belgium.

In May 1849, Marx went to France where he believed a socialist revolution was likely to take
place at any time. However, within a month of arriving, the French police ordered him out of the
capital. In September, Marx sailed for England. In 1852, Charles Dana, the socialist editor of the
New York Daily Tribune, offered Marx the opportunity to write for his newspaper. Over the next
ten years the newspaper published hundreds of articles by Marx. In 1867 the first volume of Das
Kapital was published. The book was a detailed analysis of capitalism. Marx began work on the
second volume of Das Kapital but progress was slow. He died on March 14, 1883.
Marx’s theory of society and social change

According to Marx, society is separated into two classes, which are in conflict. These are the
exploiting and the exploited. Marx saw society as progressing from an original primitive
community stage, through slavery, feudal, capitalist, socialist and finally to a communist society.
These changes from stage to stage were due to conflict within society and changes in modes of
production. By mode of production we mean the activities and tools a society uses to satisfy its
material needs.

For Marx the major agent of social change is the economic structure of society. The capitalist
class societies are those where private ownership of the means of production exists. The
socialist and communist class societies are those where the means of production are publicly or
collectively owned. In society there are two major classes, those who own the means of
economic production and those who do not. These are the bourgeoisie and proletariat
respectively. The bourgeoisie own the means of production such as factories, businesses and
equipment used to produce wealth. The proletariats are the workers. According to Marx the
bourgeoisie in a capitalist society exploit the workers. They pay them just enough wages for
food and a place to live in. The workers do not realize that they are being exploited meaning
they have a false consciousness or a mistaken sense, that they are well off. They think that they
can depend on their bosses to do what is best for them.

The capitalist system is dependent upon the extraction of profit by the owner from the labour of
the proletariat (surplus value). In order to accomplish this, the bourgeoisie class must legitimate
their claim to the surplus value either by social norms or by force. For Marx the social
institutions (the superstructure) exist to reinforce and reproduce the social norms relating to the
economic structure.

Marx did foresee a worker‟s revolution. As the rich become richer, Marx had a vision that
workers will develop a true class consciousness or a sense of common identity based on the
common experience of exploitation by the bourgeoisie. After the revolution the workers will then
own the means of production and the world will become communist. No one will control the
access to wealth. Everything will be owned equally by everyone.

ACTIVITY 4

Distinguish between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Which of the two is the exploiting
class? Why? How is exploitation justified?
LESSON 5

Emile Durkheim
The main aim of Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) was to get sociology recognized as a separate
academic discipline. Up to this time sociology was seen as part of economics and history.
Durkheim achieved this goal in 1887 when he received the first academic appointment in
sociology at university of Bordeaux.

The study of social facts

Durkheim was strongly influenced by the ideas of Auguste Comte. Comte believed in positivism.
Everything in science is observable and provable. To Durkheim a social fact is a fact that has a
basis in scientific observation.

By a social fact, what is Durkheim referring to? He is simply referring to facts, concepts or
expectations that are not coming from an individual responses or choices, but from the
community in which the individual socialises and is a member. Social facts are ideas, feelings
and ways of behaving that possess the characteristic of existing outside the consciousness of
an individual. Social facts do not originate with the people experiencing them. From the time you
are born, the people around you seek to impose upon you ways of thinking, feeling and acting
that you have no hand in creating. For example, the words and gestures people use to express
their thoughts, the rules and regulations governing your school, the beliefs and rituals of
tradition you fellow, all were created before you came on the scene. Therefore social facts have
a life that goes beyond the individual.

Mechanical solidarity

Mechanical solidarity is used to refer to a state of community bonding. This bonding is evident in
the beliefs, values and cooperation that people share. In such a society people feel connected
through similar works, lifestyle and educational training. An example of such a society is a small
scale or traditional farming community. In here social order and cohesion is based on uniform
thinking and behavior.

Organic solidarity

Organic solidarity refers to a society with a complex division of labour. In such a society social
order is based on interdependence and cooperation among people performing various
specialized tasks. For example if you are a head teacher, you depend on the secretary,
teachers and general workers to get your job done, but you also depend on the health workers
for your medical care and local transporters for your transportation.

Durkheim’s view on education Durkheim believed that education has many functions.

To reinforce social solidarity Durkheim was concerned with what holds individuals together in a
social institution. For example what makes you as teacher feel part of the school community and
not just break the rules in the school. The same applies to the pupils about social solidarity.
They have a way of pledging allegiance to the school and the community.
To Maintain social roles In schools children learn to interact and cooperate with other members
of the school and community by following the set out rules. The experience of interacting with
other people prepares them for future roles.

 To maintain division of labour Schools play a role of sorting pupils into social groups and
encouraging them to find jobs in fields that suit their ability.

Max Weber
Power and authority

Power

Power according to Max Weber is "the probability that one actor in a social relationship will be in
a position to carry out his will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this
probability rests".

Power may be exercised in the following ways:

Force: The police trying to control a riotous crowd.

Religion: Convincing members that they must obey.

Control of economic resources: People with an economic advantage will have more access to
sharing of the available resources.

Power is exercised in different institutions. Though it is prominent in government, it is also

exercised in the family, school, church, prison, bank, and so on. When you think of power you
will notice that it is exercised whenever it is possible to manipulate conditions that people must
obey.

Power on its own is usually resented and is an unstable base for administrators in a school or
college. For a head teacher to continue to be obeyed, his/her power must be legitimated and
become authority.

Authority

Authority according to Weber is the “probability that a certain command will be obeyed.” The
main point of authority is voluntary obedience because a person believes that the source of the
command is legitimate and the person commanding has the right to do so.

When you as a teacher accept authority, you suspend your own judgment about the order
because you agree that the person in authority has a right to give it. The question we need to
ask is why authority? Authority exists because groups of teachers and pupils share certain
beliefs. These beliefs lead to the development of group norms for accepting commands from
certain sources.

Obedience to commands is enforced by the group, be it teachers or pupils. Anyone who wants
to remain a member of the group must accept this authority. An administrator with authority in a
school has certain rights and responsibilities as do those under it.

Max Weber distinguished three types of authority. These are traditional, charismatic and
bureaucratic.

Traditional authority

Obedience is based on the acceptance of custom

It is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition

Members hold the belief that the social order was created by god and that it is man‟s duty to
conform.

This is the basis of the divine right and authority of chiefs.

Traditional power does grow and decline. Today the authority of chiefs in Zambia has
continued to diminish because the government does want challenges in trying to unite its
people.

Traditional authority is not limited to chieftaincy but there are those who are able to command
because subordinates customarily accept their authority.

Charismatic authority

Authority is given to a person because of his/her personal magnetism.

It is based on a leader who embodies a movement and is obeyed for ideological reasons.

 It rests heavily on the leader‟s personal qualities and characteristics.

In a school situation, pupils obey a teacher because of his/her person mystique.

In schools charismatic leaders are rarely found.

Charismatic leaders tend to arise when social order breaks down and people feel insecure
and are looking for someone to solve their problems for example in time of economic
depression and political change.

Bureaucratic authority (Rational – legal authority)

Bureaucratic can be said to be the type of organization designed to accomplish large scale
administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals.

It involves the rationalization of administration to achieve the organizational goals. What is
rationalization? This is a process whereby thought and action motivated by superstitions,
emotions, tradition and respect for mysterious forces become replaced by thought and action
grounded in the logical assessment of the most efficient ways to achieve a valued goal.

Large numbers of workers are organized so that all the necessary tasks are done well on time.
Rationalization means “the calculated use of resources for the achievement of a particular set of
goals in the most economic way possible.”
Bureaucratic authority is legitimate by law and obedience is owned not to the individual but to
the set of impersonal principles. For example the head teacher holds the legal authority in the
school. He/she is appointed by the appointing authority that is legally constituted.

Bureaucratic organizations have a number of characteristics. According to Weber some of these

characteristics are as follows:

Each office or position (head teacher, deputy head, section head, and class teacher) has
clearly defined duties and responsibilities. This way all activities of the organization are
arranged within a clear cut division of labor.

All offices are organized in a hierarchy authority that takes the shape of a pyramid. Officials like
the head teacher, deputy head teacher, section heads are held accountable to their superiors
for their subordinates‟ actions and decisions.

All activities are governed by a consistent system of rules and regulations. These rules and
regulations define the responsibilities of the various offices and the relationships among them.

All offices carry with them qualifications that are filled on the basis of technical competence, not
personal consideration. Competence is established by certification. For example college
diploma or teaching service examinations.

Workers do not own their offices. Positions remain the property of the organization. Office
holders are supplied with the items they require to perform their work.

Employment by the organization is defined as a career. Promotion is based on seniority or

merit or both. After the probation period, workers gain the security of tenure and are protected
against dismissal.

Administrative decisions, rules, procedures and activities are recorded on written documents,
which are preserved in permanent files.

ACTIVITY 6

1. How is a school a bureaucracy and give some characteristics into how it makes it a
bureaucracy.
2. What is Rationalization?

1. One of the major contributors to the development of Sociology of Education was:

A. Herbert Spencer

B. Howard Becker
C. Max Weber

D. Auguste Comte

2. One of the major concerns of the conflict theory is:

A. The use of education in instilling status group values

B. The discipline in the classroom

C. The concepts teachers use to describe their learners

D. The self – fulfilling prophecy of the teacher

3. Which of the following concept refers to the development of social institutions from a simple
stage to a complex stage?

A. Social statics

B. Social dynamics

C. Social differentiation

D. Social change

4. Who among these is known as the “second” founder of Sociology?

A. Herbert Spencer

B. Max Weber

C. Auguste Comte

D. Emile Durkheim

5. Aspects of social life external to individuals that constrain or control behavior of individuals in
society are known as:

A. Macro forces

B. Social indicators

C. Social facts

D. customs

CONCLUSION

The classical founders of sociology that you have just studied contributed immensely to the
subject of sociology and sociology of education.
LESSON 6 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF
EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Approaches to the study of sociology and sociology of education are broad assumptions about
human social behaviour and the society. These approaches provide us with the viewpoint of the
study of human problems. There are two main approaches in sociology. These are positivism,
the traditional scientific perspective and phenomenology a less scientific approach because
some researchers reject the idea of applying theories.

Positivism
 Positivism is the traditional method of sociology which is associated with Auguste Comte.
Comte has contributed to knowledge which is based on scientific research.

To understand positivism let us look at what it does

Uses the scientific method to seek laws of social behaviour, interaction and organization.

Assumes that reality is external to people and objectives. For example, mangoes falling off a
tree. Even if you do not believe in gravity, the mangoes will still fall.

Pursues an objective world with precise instruments.

We can therefore narrow the understanding of positivism to the following points:

Positivism is the application of the methods of science to the understanding of society.

Positivism is the search for invariant laws governing the natural world as well as the social
world.

Positivism is based on the assumption of empiricism. Empiricism is the view that the five
senses are the only true source of knowledge. Empiricism says the right methods are those
which lessen the sources of error and can be verified scientifically.

The main idea of positivism is that there is an objective world which is capable of being
understood in the scientific and objective ways. The scientific method is therefore a process for
forming and testing solutions to problems. It is also a way of theorizing about how and why
things work the way they do. Scientific method tries to reduce bias of the experiment so that the
process is valid anywhere in the world.

Let us say you observe that your cell phone suddenly switches off. You research and find the
following possible reasons for this occurrence. Click on the reason you think is the best option –
this is your hypothesis.

You pressed on the switch off button of the cell phone.

You did not recharge the cell – phone battery.

Your cell phone has developed a fault after it dropped on the floor.

From the example if option second option is correct, you can repeat and demonstrate that the
cell phone battery is the answer. You can repeat this condition and predict the outcome (testing
your theory)

Positivism tries to emulate the methods in the example by:

Identification of a problem Collection of data

Explanation of hypothesis
Methods of testing hypothesis

Analysis of results

Re – testing if necessary

Interpreting result – report

Phenomenology

This perspective originates from Max Weber. The phenomenologist is concerned with
understanding human behaviour from the actor‟s point of view. For example you spot a mound
in a distance it looks like a small hill. You ask yourself what shape it is. How do you know it is a
mound and not an elephant? Would anything convince you that it was not an elephant? Your
friend warns you that it is not a mound but an elephant. You get closer to the mound and see it
move. We take such experiences for granted. The phenomenological aim is to stop taking
experiences for granted, even the simplest experiences of everyday life.

Therefore the phenomenologist examines how the world is experienced. For the
phenomenologist the important reality is what people imagine to be. In this perspective less
emphasis is placed on the need to develop objective methods of study and more on the value of
seeing the world through the eyes of those being studied. Phenomenology stresses the need to
understand the subjective interpretation of actors.

CONCLUSION

The two approaches we looked at each focuses on different aspects of social reality. Both of
them have a significant role in helping you understand the nature of our society.

ACTIVITY 7