Wireless Channel Large Scale Losses

Wireless Channel
Mobile Radio Propagation
Dr. Bharati Singh
1/6/2021 Dr Bharati Singh 1

Wireless Communication
• What is wireless communication?
• Basically the study of how signals travel in the wireless medium
• To understand wireless networking, we first need to understand

the basic characteristics of wireless communications
• How further the signal can travel
• How strong the signal is
• How much reliable would it be (how frequently the signal strength vary)
• Indoor propagation
• Outdoor propagation and
• Many more…
• Wireless communication is significantly different from wired

communication

Wireless Propagation Characteristics
• Most wireless radio systems operate in urban
area
• No direct line-of-sight (los) between transmitter
and receiver
• Radio wave propagation attributed to

• Reflection
• Diffraction and
• Scattering Reflection (R), diffraction (D) and scattering (S).
• Waves travel along different paths of varying

lengths
• Multipath propagation
• Interaction of these waves can be constructive
or destructive

The Radio Path
A path travelled by the radio signal in the wireless medium from Tx to

Rx
Types of Paths
• Direct Wave Path
• Line of Sight Path
• Obstructive path

Propagation Attenuation
• Propagation path loss increases with frequency of transmission, fc, as
well as the distance between the BS and MS.
• The radio frequency of operation affects the radio propagation
characteristics and system design.
• In a real mobile radio environment, received signal power S α R-n
• Where R is the distance between the BS and MS and n, the path loss
exponent

• Let the received carrier signal power at distance R1 be S1 and at
distance R2 be S2.
• The ratio in received carrier signal powers at 2 different
distances is
• S2/S1 = (R1/R2)n
• ΔS (in dB) =S2 (in dB) – S1(in dB) = 10log(S2/S1) = 10n log(R1/R2)

Problem on signal attenuation in mobile radio propagation
Calculate the change in received signal strength in mobile radio
propagation (n = 4) at 2 different distance points
a) When the 2nd distance is twice the 1st distance point
b) When the 2nd distance is ten times the 1st distance point
Repeat the same conditions for free space and comments (Unmute and
answer)

Wireless Propagation Models
• Can be categorized into two types:
• Large-scale propagation models
• Small-scale propagation models
• Large-scale propagation models

• Propagation models that characterize signal strengths
over Tx-Rx separation distance
• Small-scale propagation models

• Characterize received signal strengths varying over short
scale
• Short travel distance of the receiver
• Short time duration

Wireless Propagation Models (contd.)
• Large-scale propagation
• Small-scale propagation
Pr/Pt Fast
Pt
Pr v Very slow
d=vt
d=vt

Large-scale propagation model
• Also known as Path loss model
• There are numerous path loss models
• Free space path loss model
• Simple and good for analysis
• Mostly used for direct line-of-sight
• Not so perfect for non-LOS but can be approximated
• Ray-tracing model
• 2-ray propagation model
• Site/terrain specific and can not be generalized easily
• Empirical models
• Modeled over data gathered from experiments
• Extremely specific
• But more accurate in the specific environment

Free space Path Loss Model
• What is the general principle?
• The received power decays as a function of Tx-Rx separation distance raised
to some power
• i.e., power-law function
• Path loss for unobstructed LOS path

• Power falls off :
• Proportional to d2
Pt
Pr (d )  2
d
Free space Path Loss Model (contd.)
Pt Gt Gr  2
Pr (d ) 
(4 ) d L
2 2
4 Ae
where, G 

2
c
and,  
f

Free space Path Loss (contd.)
• What is the path loss?
• Represents signal attenuation
Tx power Pt

Rx power Pr
• What will be the order of path loss for a FM radio system

that transmits with 100 kW with 50 km range?
• Also calculate: what will be the order of path loss for a Wi-
Fi radio system that transmits with 0.1 W with 100 m
range?

Path Loss in dB
• It is difficult to express Path loss using
transmit/receive power
• Can be very large or
• Very small
• Expressed as a positive quantity measured in dB
• dB is a unit expressed using logarithmic scale
• Widely used in wireless
Pt  Gt Gr 2 
PL( dB)  10 log   10 log  2 
Pr  ( 4 ) 2
d 
• With unity antenna gain,
Pt  2 
PL( dB)  10 log   10 log  2 
Pr  ( 4 ) 2
d 

dBm and dBW
• dBm and dBW are other two variations of dB

• dB references two powers (Tx and Rx)
• dBm expresses measured power referenced to one mW
• Particularly applicable for very low received signal strength
• dBW expresses measured power referenced to one watt
• dBm Widely used in wireless
 P 
x dBm  10 log  
 1mW 
• P in mW

Relationship between dB and dBm
• What is the relationship between dB and dBm?
• In reality, no such relationship exists
• dB is dimensionless
• dB is 10 log(value/value) and dBm is 10 log (value/1miliwatt)
• However, we can make a quick relationship between dBm and dBW and
use the concept wisely!
x dBm
x
x
10 3
10 in mW 10 10
in W
x
/ 10 3 in W x
 3) in dBW
10
10 10(
x
3
10
10 10
in W x  30 in dBW

Back to Path Loss model
• We saw Path loss expressed in dB
Pt  2 
PL( dB)  10 log   10 log  2 
Pr  ( 4 ) 2
d 
• Note, the above eqn does not hold for d=0
• For this purpose, a close-in distance d0 is used as a reference point

• It is assumed that the received signal strength at d0 is known
• Received signal strength is then calculated relative to d0
d  d0
• For a typical Wi-Fi analysis, d0 can be 1 m.

Back to Path Loss model (contd.)
• The received power at a distance d is then
2
d 
Pr ( d )  Pr (d 0 )  0 
 d 
• In dBm,
  d0  
2
 Pr (d 0 )   
Pr (d ) (dBm)  10 log   d  
 1mW 
 
 
 P (d )  d 
Pr ( d ) ( dBm)  10 log  r 0   20 log  0 
 1mW  d 
d 
Pr (d ) ( dBm)  Pr ( d 0 )( dBm)  20 log  0 
d 

Path Loss Model Generalized
• In reality, direct LOS may not exist in urban areas
• Free space Path Loss model is therefore generalized
n
d 
Pr ( d )  Pr (d 0 )  0 
 d 
• n is called the Path Loss exponent

• Indicates the rate at which the Path Loss increases with
distance d, obstructions in the path, surrounding
environment
• The worse the environment is the greater the value of n

Path Loss Exponents for different environments
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n

Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 – 3.5
Urban area cellular (obstructed) 3–5
In-building line-of-sight 1.6 – 1.8
Obstructed in-building 4–6
Obstructed in-factories 2–3

Path Loss Model Generalized (contd.)
• Generalized Path Loss referenced in dB scale
n
d 
Pr ( d )  Pr (d 0 )  0 
 d 
 Pt   Pt  d 
10 log    10 log    10 n log  
 Pr ( d )   Pr ( d 0 )   d0 
d 
PL( d )  PL( d 0 )  10 n log  
 0
d
• Received signal strength referenced in dBm scale

 P (d )   Pr (d 0 )   d0 
10 log  r  10 log  1mW   10 n log d 
 1mW      

Example Question
A transmitter produces 50W of power.

• A) Express the transmit power in dBm
• B) Express the transmit power in dBW
• C) If d0 is 100m and the received power at that distance is 0.0035mW, then
find the received power level at a distance of 10km.
• Assume that the transmit and receive antennas have unity gains.

Solution
• A)
• Pt(W) is 50W.
• Pt(dBm) = 10log[Pt(mW)/1mW)]
Pt(dBm) = 10log(50x1000)
Pt(dBm) = 47 dBm
• B)
• Pt(dBW) = 10log[Pt(W)/1W)]
Pt(dBW) = 10log(50)
Pt(dBW) = 17 dBW

Solution
• Pr(d) = Pr(d0)(d0/d)2
• Substitute the values into the equation:
• Pr(10km) = Pr(100m)(100m/10km)2
Pr(10km) = 0.0035mW(10-4)
Pr(10km) = 3.5x10-10W
• Pr(10km) [dBm] = 10log(3.5x10-10W/1mW)
= 10log(3.5x10-7)
= -64.5dBm

Power flux density and model for voltage applied at the receiver
• Relating power to Electric field
• If V is the rms voltage at the input of the receiver
( measured by high impedance voltmeter), and Rant is
the resistance of the matched receiver , the rx power
is :-
• Pr(d) =V2/ Rant =[Vant/2]2/ Rant =Vant2/4 Rant

Assume that the Tx power is 1W at 60 GHz into the Tx Antenna with
gain 29dB . Same antenna at Rx side also.
• Calculate the free space loss at 1m, 100m and1000m
• Calculate the rx signal power at these distances
• What is rms voltage rx at the antenna if Rant is 50 Ω

• Given Gt = Gr = 29dB
• Pt = 30dBm, d0 = 1m, d1 = 100m, d2 = 1000m
• PL (d0 ) = 20log10 (4πd0/λ) = 68 dB
• PL (d1 ) = PL (d0 ) + 20 log10 (d1/d0) = 108dB
• PL (d2 ) = PL (d0 ) + 20 log10 (d2/d0) = 128dB
• Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - PL = 88 – PL
• Pr(d0) = 88 -68 = 20dBm
• Pr(d0) = 88 -108 = -20dBm
• Pr(d0) = 88 -128 = -40dBm
Pr(d) =Vant2/4 Rant , Get V(d1) = 0.0447V, V(d2) =0.0045V

Path Loss Examples (Home work)
• Consider Wi-Fi signal in this building. Assume power at a reference point d0 is 100mW. The
reference point d0=1m. Calculate your received signal strength at a distance, d=100m. Also
calculate the power received in mW. Assume n=4. This is a typical Wi-Fi received signal strength.
• If a transmitter transmits with 50 W with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the received power in
dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the transmitter. What is the received power in dBm at
a free space distance of 10 km?
• In a wireless card specification, it is written that typical range for IEEE 802.11 received signal
strength is -60 to -80 dBm. What is the received signal strength range in terms of watt or mW?

Radio Propagation Mechanisms
• The physical mechanisms that govern radio propagation are complex and
diverse, but generally attributed to the following three factors
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
• Reflection
• Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is much larger in size compared to
the wavelength of the signal
• Example: reflections from earth and buildings
• These reflections may interfere with the original signal constructively or destructively

• Diffraction
• Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable body
and by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges)
• Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments without a line-of-sight path
• Scattering
• Occurs when the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are on the order of the wavelength or
less of the propagating wave and also when the number of obstacles are quite large.
• They are produced by small objects, rough surfaces and other irregularities on the channel
• Follows same principles with diffraction
• Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
• Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D
R: Reflection receiver
D: Diffraction Building Blocks
S: Scattering

• As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these 3 mechanisms
have an impact on the instantaneous received signal strength.
• If a mobile does have a clear line of sight path to the base-
station, than diffraction and scattering will not dominate the
propagation.
• If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction and
scattering will probably dominate the propagation.

Radio Propagation Models
• As the mobile moves over small distances, the instantaneous received
signal will fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale fading
• The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors
coming from different directions and since the phases of
these signals are random, the sum behave like a noise
(Rayleigh fading).
• In small scale fading, the received signal power may change
as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB),
when the receiver is only moved a fraction of the
wavelength.

Radio Propagation Models
• As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger distances, the
local average received signal will gradually decrease. This is called large-
scale path loss.
• Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging signal
measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40. (For PCS, this means 1m-10m
track)
• The models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary-receiver
transmitter (T-R) separation distance are called large-scale propagation
models
• Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters

Small-Scale and Large-Scale Fading
Received Power (dBm)
-30
-40
-50
-60
This figure is just an illustration
to show the concept. It is not based on read
data.
-70
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
T-R Separation (meters)

Two-Ray Model for Mobile Radio Environment
Where;
d1= line of sight path
d2= ground reflected paths
ht= Height of the transmitter
hr= Height of the receiver

Classical 2-ray ground bounce model
One line of sight and one ground bound

Method of image
Eg = ГEi
Et = ( 1 + Г) Ei
Where Г is the reflection
coefficient . For small values of θi,
the reflected wave is equal in
magnitude and 1800 out of phase
with the incident wave.
Assuming perfect horizontal E
field polarization and ground
reflection (Гi = - 1 and Ei = 0)
ETOT = ELOS + Eg
Using the method of images the line-of-sight path and the ground reflected path can be
calculated

Vector addition of 2 rays

Received Power for Two-Ray Model
• From the image diagram we have;
• The relationship between the transmit power and the received power is;
• Notice that factor of 10 increase in distance => 40 dB increase in path loss (40 dB/decade)
• The Received Power can be increased by raising the heights of the transmit and receive antenna

PROBLEM

A BS Tx transmitter transmits at 900 MHz. A MS Rx at 1Km away
receives 2 signals, one LOS and one reflected signal as shown in fig.
(Building height > 10m) Calculate the amount of delay in the reflected
signal w.r.t the LOS signal

• Calculate wavelength = 0.33m
• Why there is delay due to reflection? As building height (10 m >> than
wavelength)
• tdirect= distance /speed of light = 3.33 µs
• For treflected , assume that the reflected path is approximately 1000m
• Angle between incident and reflected path = 1200 (given)
• Thus incident angle (method of images) = 600
• Therefore treflected = 1000m /[(3 * 108 m/s)* sin60]
• Treflected = 3.85µs
• Hence, delay = 3.85 – 3.33 = 0.52 µs

A mobile is located 5 Km away from a base station and uses a vertical
λ/4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55dB to receive cellular radio
signals. The E-field at 1 Km. from the tx is measured to be 10-3 V/m. Fc
= 900 MHz.
• (a) Find the length and the effective aperture of the receiving antenna
• (b) Find the received power at the mobile using the 2 ray reflection
model assuming ht = 50 m and hr = 1.5m above ground

• Calculate λ
• Length of antenna = λ/4 = 8.33 cm
• Get effective aperture using G = 4πAe/λ2 = 0.016m2
• ER(d) =2E0d0 2hthr = 113.1 *10-6V/m
d λd
Pt Gt Gr 2
Use Pr (d ) 
(4 ) 2 d 2 L
=5.4 *10-13 W = -122dBw or -92.68dBm

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D
R: Reflection receiver
D: Diffraction Building Blocks
S: Scattering

Diffraction

Diffraction
• Diffraction occurs when waves hit the edge of an obstacle
• “Secondary” waves propagated into the shadowed region
• Water wave example
• Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a
shadowed region.
• Excess path length (difference between the direct path and diffracted path)
results in a phase shift
• The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector
sum of the electric field components of all the secondary wavelets in the
space around the obstacle.
• Huygen’s principle: all points on a wavefront can be considered as point
sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and that these wavelets
combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation.

Diffraction Example

Diffraction Example

Excess path length (difference between the direct path and diffracted path)
Is (Δ) = h2(d1 + d2)
2 d1d2
Corresponding phase difference is ø = 2πΔ
λ
α= β +ϒ
= h (d1 + d2)
d1d2
υ=h
2 ( 𝑑1+𝑑2) =α
2 𝑑1𝑑2 = Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction
λ 𝑑1𝑑2 λ ( 𝑑1+𝑑2)
parameter

Diffraction Loss
• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the Tx and Rx is obstructed by surfaces that have
sharp edges
• Edges act as a secondary line source
• The diffraction parameter ν is
defined as
OR υ = α√ (2dtdr/λ (dt + dr)) The diffraction loss Ld

(dB) is approximated
• hm is the height of the obstacle by
• dt is distance transmitter-obstacle
• dr is distance receiver-obstacle

Knife-edge diffraction
v=f(d1,d2,h)

Diffraction geometry
• Fresnel-Kirchoff distraction parameters,

Fresnel Screens
• Fresnel zones relate phase shifts to the positions of
obstacles
• A rule of thumb used for line-of-sight microwave links Radius of nth
55% of the first Fresnel zone is kept clear.
Fresnel zone
rn = 2 𝑑1𝑑2
λ ( 𝑑1+𝑑2)

Fresnel Zones
• Bounded by elliptical loci of constant delay
• Alternate zones differ in phase by 180
• Line of sight (LOS) corresponds to 1st zone
• If LOS is partially blocked, 2nd zone can destructively interfere
(diffraction loss)
LOS
• How much power is propagated 0 0o
this way? -10 90

-20
• 1st FZ: 5 to 25 dB below 180o
dB -30
free space prop.
-40
Radius of the nth Fresnel zone rn = -50 Obstruction
√𝑛λd1d2/(d1+d2) This approximation -60 Tip of Shadow
is valid for d1,d2 >>rn 1st 2nd

Obstruction of Fresnel Zones 
Knife-edge diffraction loss

Multiple knife-edge diffraction

For cellular communication links, 55% clearance of the first Fresnel
zone is required. For a 1 Km link at 2.5 GHz, what is the maximum
Fresnel zone radius ? What clearance is required for this system?

• Calculate value of λ = 0.12m
• For first Fresnel zone , n =1
• The Fresnel zone radius for d1 = d2 = 500m is rn = 2 𝑑1𝑑2
λ ( 𝑑1+𝑑2)
= 5.48m
• The 55% clearance would require at least 55% of 5.48 = 3.01m
above the obstruction to the LOS path

For the geometry, for f = 900MHz, determine
a) The loss due to knife edge diffraction
b) The height of the obstacle to induce 6dB diffraction loss

• Calculate wavelength
• Redraw the geometry by subtracting the height of the smallest structure
• β = tan-1( (75-25)/10000) = 0.28650
• ϒ = tan-1( 75/2000) = 0.28650
• α =β + ϒ = 0.0424 rad
• υ = α√ (2dtdr/λ (dt + dr)) = 4.24
• Since υ > 2.4, use the last equation for diffraction loss and get it = 25.5dB

• For 6dB loss, υ = 0
• The obstruction height h can be found using similar triangles ( β = ϒ)
as shown in fig. given here
• Hence, h = 25
2000 12000
or h = 4.16 m

If Pt = 10W, Gt = 10dB, Gr = 3dB , L = 1dB at 900 MHz, compute received power in the foll.
Scenario. Compare this value with the case without diffraction. What is path loss due to
diffraction

• Draw the geometry as actual geometry and simplified geometry as
given here
Calculate wavelength = 0.333m

Calculate Power (free space) = 4.48 * 10 -9 W = -53.5dBm

• Calculate β, ϒ, and α as 0.1125 rad, 0. 1950 rad, and 0. 3078 rad

• Calculate υ = 26.12
• Hence Gd (dB) = 20log10 ( 0.225/υ) = - 41.3 dB ( loss due to diffraction)
• Power (Rx) = P(free space) + Gd
= -53.5 – 41.3 = - 94.8 dBm

Scattering
• Rough surfaces
• Lamp posts and trees, scatter all directions
• Critical height for bumps (surface roughness) is f (,incident
angle)( hc=  /8sinθi),
• Smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than
critical height.
• Scattering loss factor modeled with Gaussian distribution,
• Nearby metal objects (street signs, etc.)
• Usually modeled statistically
• Large distant objects
• Analytical model: Radar Cross Section (RCS)
• Bistatic radar equation,

Signal Penetration into Buildings
• RF penetration has been found to be a function of
frequency as well as height within the building. Signal
strength received inside a building increases with
height, and penetration loss decreases with increasing
frequency.
• Walker’s work shows that building penetration loss
decrease at a rate of 1.9 dB per floor from the ground
level up to the 15th floor and then began increasing
above the 15th floor. The increase in penetration loss
at higher floors was attributed to shadowing effects of
adjacent buildings.
• Some devices to conduct the signals into the buildings
Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
• Site specific propagation model and graphical
information system. Ray tracing. Deterministic model.
• Data base for buildings, trees, etc.
• SitePlanner

Propagation Models
• Large scale models predict behavior averaged over distances >> 
• Function of distance & significant environmental features, roughly frequency
independent
• Breaks down as distance decreases
• Useful for modeling the range of a radio system and rough capacity planning,
• Path loss models, Outdoor models, Indoor models
• Small scale (fading) models describe signal variability on a scale of 
• Multipath effects (phase cancellation) dominate, path attenuation considered
constant
• Frequency and bandwidth dependent
• Focus is on modeling “Fading”: rapid change in signal over a short distance or
length of time.
Okumura Model
The Okumura model is a Radio propagation model that was built using the data
collected in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many
urban structures but not many tall blocking structures. The model served as a base for
the Hata Model. Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban,
suburban and open areas. The model for the urban was built and used as the base for
the others.

Okumura Curves
Median Attenuation models
additional propagation losses due
to the signal propagation in a
terrestrial environment. On the y
axis, we have the additional path
loss (in dB). The parameter of the
family of the curves is the distance
between the transmitter and
receiver.

Okumura Model
• It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas, and it is applicable
for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
• Based totally on measurements (not analytical calculations)
• Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km to 100km T-R separation, Antenna heights of
30m to 100m

Okumura Model
• The major disadvantage with the model is its low response to rapid changes in terrain, therefore
the model is fairly good in urban areas, but not as good in rural areas.
• Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss values are around 10 to
14 dB.
• G(hre)：  h 
G ( hte )  20 log  te  1000 m  hte  30 m
 200 
h 
G ( hre )  10 log  re  hre  3 m
 3 
 hre 
G ( hre )  20 log   10 m  hre  3 m
 3 
• The received power in Okumuras model Pr(d) =Pt(dBm) –L50(dB) + Gr (dB)

Okumura and Hata’s model

Problem on Okumura Model
Find the median path loss using Okumuras model for d = 50

Km, hte = 100m, hre =10min an urban environment . EIRP of BS
is 1KW, f = 900 MHz, Find received power. Assume unity gain Rx
Antenna

Hata Model
• Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the Okamura model. Valid 150MHz to
1500MHz, Used for cellular systems
• The following classification was used by Hata: (E = mobile antenna correction factor)
■Urban area L dB  A  B log d  E
■Suburban area L dB  A  B log d  C
■Open area L dB  A  B log d  D
A  69 .55  26 .16 log f  13 .82 hb
B  44 .9  6 .55 log hb
C  2 (log( f / 28 )) 2  5 . 4
D  4 . 78 log( f / 28 ) 2  18 . 33 log f  40 . 94
E  3 . 2 (log( 11 . 75 h m )) 2  4 . 97 for large cities, f  300 MHz
E  8 . 29 (log( 1 . 54 h m )) 2  1 . 1 for large cities, f  300 MHz
E  (1 . 11 log f  0 . 7 ) h m  (1 . 56 log f  0 . 8 ) for medium to small cities
Extension of Hata Model
• COST-231 Hata Model, European standard
• Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
• Smaller cell sizes
• Lower antenna heights
L dB  F  B log d  E  G
F  46 . 3  33 . 9 log f  13 . 82 log hb f >1500MHz
3 Metropolitan centers
G  Medium sized city and suburban areas
0

For extended hata model
L dB  F  B log d  E  G This eqn is for modified one for lower antenna heights, and G = 3dB
for large city
F  46 . 3  33 . 9 log f  13 . 82 log hb
B  44 .9  6 .55 log hb
E  3 . 2 (log( 11 . 75 h m )) 2  4 . 97 for large cities, f  300 MHz
• Calculate E = 3.2(log(11.75*3))2 -4.97 = 2.69dB
• For d = 2Km, LDB (2Km) = 46.3 + 33.9log1800 -13.82log40 – 2.69 + 3 =145.18 dB
• LDB (1Km) = 134.8dB
• Pr = Po(dBm) –[LDB (2Km) - LDB (1Km) ] ( Given Po = 10-6 W = -30 dBm, do = 1Km)
• = -30 – [145.18 -134.8] = - 40.38dBm

Longley-Rice Model
• Point-to-point from 40MHz to 100GHz. irregular terrain model
(ITS).
• Predicts median transmission loss, Takes terrain into account,
Uses path geometry, Calculates diffraction losses
• Inputs:
Frequency
Path length
Polarization and antenna heights
Surface refractivity
Effective radius of earth
Ground conductivity
Ground dielectric constant
Climate
• Disadvantages
Does not take into account details of terrain near the receiver
Does not consider Buildings, Foliage, Multipath
• Original model modified by Okamura for urban terrain

Longley-Rice Model,
OPNET implementation

Indoor Propagation Models
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variability of the environment is much greater
• Key variables: layout of the building, construction materials, building type,
where the antenna mounted, …etc.
• In general, indoor channels may be classified either as LOS or OBS with
varying degree of clutter
• The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external
dimensions and materials of the building, as well as the type of
construction used to create the floors and the external surroundings.
• Floor attenuation factor (FAF)

Indoor Propagation
• Indoor propagation is domited by the same mechanisms as outdoor:

reflection, scattering, diffraction.
• However, conditions are much more variable
• Doors/windows open or not
• The mounting place of antenna: desk, ceiling, etc.
• The level of floors
• Indoor channels are classified as
• Line-of-sight (LOS)
• Obstructed (OBS) with varying degrees of clutter.

Indoor Propagation
• Buiding types
• Residential homes in suburban areas
• Residential homes in urban areas
• Traditional office buildings with fixed walls (hard partitions)
• Open plan buildings with movable wall panels (soft partitions)
• Factory buildings
• Grocery stores
• Retail stores
• Sport arenas

Indoor propagation events and parameters
• Temporal fading for fixed and moving terminals
• Motion of people inside building causes Ricean Fading for the stationary receivers
• Portable receivers experience in general:
• Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
• Ricean fading for LOS paths.
• Multipath Delay Spread
• Buildings with fewer metals and hard-partitions typically have small rms delay spreads: 30-60ns
• Can support data rates excess of several Mbps without equalization
• Larger buildings with great amount of metal and open aisles may have rms delay spreads as large
as 300ns.
• Can not support data rates more than a few hundred Kbps without equalization.
• Path Loss (Log distance path loss model)
• The following formula that we have seen earlier also describes the indoor path loss:
• PL(d)[dBm] = PL(d0) + 10nlog(d/d0) + Xs
• n and s depend on the type of the building
• Xs represents a random variable in dB having a standard deviation of s
• Smaller value for s indicates the accuracy of the path loss model.

In building path loss factors
• Partition losses (same floor)

• Partition losses between floors
• Signal Penetration into Buildings

Partition Losses
• There are two kind of partition at the same floor:

• Hard partions: the walls of the rooms
• Soft partitions: moveable partitions that does not span to the ceiling
• The path loss depends on the type of the partitions

Partition Losses
Average signal loss measurements reported by various researches
for radio paths obscructed by some common building material.
Material Type Loss (dB) Frequency (MHz)

All metal 26 815
Aluminim Siding 20.4 815
Concerete Block Wall 3.9 1300
Loss from one Floor 20-30 1300
Turning an Angle in a Corridor 10-15 1300
Concrete Floor 10 1300
Dry Plywood (3/4in) – 1 sheet 1 9600
Wet Plywood (3/4in) – 1 sheet 19 9600
Aluminum (1/8in) – 1 sheet 47 9600

Partition Losses between Floors
• The losses between floors of a building are determined by

• External dimensions and materials of the building
• Type of construction used to create floors
• External surroundings
• Number of windows
• Presence of tinting on windows

Partition Losses between Floors
Average Floor Attenuation Factor in dB for One, Two, Three and
Four Floors in Two Office Buildings
Building FAF (dB) s (dB)

Office Building 1
Through 1 Floor 12.9 7.0
Through 2 Floors 18.7 2.8
Office Building 2
Through 1 Floor 16.2 2.9

Signal Penetration Into Buildings
• RF signals can penetrate from outside transmitter to the inside of

buildings
• However the siganls are attenuated
• The path loss during penetration has been found to be a function of:
• Frequency of the signal
• The height of the building

Signal Penetration Into Buildings
• Effect of Frequency Frequency (MHz) Loss (dB)
441 16.4
• Penetration loss decreases
896.5 11.6
with increasing frequency
1400 7.6
• Effect of Height
• Penetration loss decreases with the height of the building up-to
some certain height
• At lower heights, the urban clutter induces greater attenuation
• and then it increases
• Shadowing affects of adjascent buildings

Indoor Propagation
• Indoor channels are different from traditional mobile radio channels

in two different ways:
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variablity of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R
separation distances.
• The propagation inside a building is influenced by:
• Layout of the building
• Construction materials
• Building type: sports arena, residential home, factory,...

Partition losses between floors

Partition losses between floors

Log-distance Path Loss Model
• The exponent n
depends on the
surroundings and
building type
• Xs is the variable
in dB having a
standard
deviation s.
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 )  10 n log( d / d 0 )  X s

Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
This model was obtained by
measurements in a multiple floor office
building. The model has breakpoints
and considers both an upper and lower
bound on the path loss. This model
also assumes that there is 30dB
attenuation at do = 1m, which can be
shown to be accurate for f = 900MHz
and unity gain antennas. This model
provides a deterministic limit on the
range of path loss at a particular
distance

Attenuation Factor Model
• FAF represents a floor attenuation factor for a specified number of
building floors.
• PAF represents the partition attenuation factor for a specific
obstruction encountered by a ray drawn between the transmitter and
receiver in 3-D
•  is the attenuation constant for the channel with units of dB per
meter.
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 )  10 n SF log( d / d 0 )  FAF   PAF
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 )  10 n MF log( d / d 0 )   PAF
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 )  10 log( d / d 0 )   d  FAF   PAF
Measured indoor path loss



Mobile Radio Propagation: Small scale fading
• What is small-scale fading?

• In contrast to large-scale propagation we studied so far
• Small-scale fading describe rapid fluctuation of the signal

over
• short period of time and/or
• short travel distance
Pr v
Pt
d=vt

Factors influencing small-scale fading
• Multipath propagation
• Interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal
• Arrive at the receiver at slightly different times
• Speed of the Mobile
• Relative motion between Base Station and the mobile
• Signals travel varying distances
• Speed of the surrounding objects
• Typically this can be ignored if the obstacles are fixed
• May not be so in a busy urban area
• Transmission bandwidth of the signal
• whether the Tx BW is greater than or less than the BW of multipath channel

Wireless Channel Large Scale Losses

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Wireless Channel

Mobile Radio Propagation

Dr. Bharati Singh

1/6/2021 Dr Bharati Singh 1

• To understand wireless networking, we first need to understand

• Wireless communication is significantly different from wired

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• Radio wave propagation attributed to

• Waves travel along different paths of varying

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A path travelled by the radio signal in the wireless medium from Tx to

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• Large-scale propagation models

• Small-scale propagation models

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• Path loss for unobstructed LOS path

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• What will be the order of path loss for a FM radio system

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• dBm and dBW are other two variations of dB

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• For this purpose, a close-in distance d0 is used as a reference point

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• n is called the Path Loss exponent

• The worse the environment is the greater the value of n

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Environment Path Loss Exponent, n

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• Received signal strength referenced in dBm scale

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A transmitter produces 50W of power.

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