IB

SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Topic 1: Stoichiometric Relationships

1.1 Introduction to the Particulate Nature of Matter and Chemical Change

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Matter – any substance that
occupies space and has mass


Mixture – two or more Pure substance – has a definite and constant
compounds or elements that are composition and chemically combined
not chemically combined so they (made up of either one type of atom or
retain their individual properties compound)

Homogeneous mixture – all Heterogeneous mixture – Element – made Compound – atoms of

components are in the same the components are in up of atoms that different elements
phase. It has both uniform different phases. It has a each have the combined in fixed ratios that
composition and uniform non-uniform composition same atomic have different properties
properties throughout and varying properties number from their individual
elements

There is a physical boundary between two phases. For

examples, a solid and a liquid. It is possible to have a
single state but two phases. For example, oil and water.

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

States of matter
Solid Liquid Gas

• Fixed volume • Fixed volume • No fixed volume
• Fixed shape • No fixed shape – takes the • No fixed shape – expands to
• Cannot be compressed shape of the container it occupy the space available
• Attractive forces between occupies • Can be compressed
particles hold the particles • Cannot be compressed • Forces between particles are
together in a close packed • Forces between particles are taken as zero
arrangement weaker than in solids • Particles move around faster
• Particles vibrate in fixed • Particles move around than in a liquid
positions

State symbols
(s) – solid
(l) – liquid
(g) – gas
(aq) – in aqueous solution (dissolved in solvent)


Heating curve for water:

Temperature does not change when the

substance changes state – the energy is being
used to break the attractive forces between the
molecules.

Melting and boiling are endothermic.

Condensation and freezing are exothermic.

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

1.2 The Mole Concept

The Mole
The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance.

One mole of atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms (DB.2). This is known as the Avogadro constant.


÷ 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
number of
moles
particles
× 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟


Formulae and masses
Masses of atoms are compared with one another on a scale in which a single
atom of carbon-12 equals 12 units.

Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an atom is a weighted average of the atomic masses of its
isotopes and their relative abundances.

Relative molecular / formula mass (Mr) for a molecule or formula unit is determined by adding
the Ar values of the individual atoms or ions. Ar and Mr have no units because they are ratios.

Molar mass (M) is the mass of one mole of a substance. It units are grams per mole (g mol-1). It
is equal to the Mr.


Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms / amount (mol) of each element
present in a compound.

Empirical formula
1. Find the amount (mol) of each atom
2. Find the smallest whole number ratios
3. Use these values as subscripts

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Percentage composition by mass

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 × 100

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Empirical formula from percentage composition:

4. Assume mass of compound = 100g, percentage by mass = mass (g)
5. Find the empirical formula

Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms or amount (mol) of elements in a compound.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀)

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

Molecular formula
1. Use the actual molar masses (M) as subscripts

Molecular formula from empirical formula
6. Multiply each subscript in the empirical formula by the subscript multiplier

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

1.3 Reacting Masses and Volumes

Limiting and Excess Reactants
The limiting reagent is completely used up during the reaction. The remaining reactants are
present in amounts that exceed those required to react with the limiting reagent. They are in
excess. The limiting reagent therefore determines the amount of products formed.

In a chemical equation, the coefficients represent molar ratios – the ratio of amounts (moles)
between substances.

Determining the Limiting Reagent

1. Find the moles of both reactants
2. Divide each amount by the respective reactant’s coefficient
3. The lowest value is the limiting reactant

Theoretical, Experimental and Percentage Yield
Theoretical yield is what can theoretically be produced under ideal conditions – it allows the
expected amount of products to be calculated.

Calculating theoretical yield

1. Determine the limiting reagent
2. Use the molar ratios of the limiting reactant and the product to find the moles of
the product.
3. Convert the moles of product into mass

Experimental yield is what is actually produced – yield may not be maximised due to:
• Loss of products from reaction vessels
• Impurity of reactants
• Un-ideal reactions conditions (e.g. temperature and pressure)
• Reverse reactions consuming products in equilibrium systems
• Existence of side reactions due to the presence of impurities

Percentage yield is the experimental yield expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙) 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Ideal Gasses
Ideal gasses contain randomly moving particles of negligible volume with weak or no
intermolecular forces between them and they obey the ideal gas laws.

Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature
and pressure contain equal numbers of particles.

The molar volume of an ideal gas is constant at standard temperature and
pressure (STP), (DB.2)

Equal volumes of gas may contain equal numbers of particles, but the masses will be different
due to different molar masses of gases.

Ideal Gas Laws
Conditions:
• Standard temperature and pressure (STP), (DB.2)
• P: pressure, Pascals (pa)
• V: volume, metres cubed (m3)
• n: amount (moles)
• T: temperature, kelvin (k)
• R: gas constant (db)

Pressure and volume
P1V1 = P2V2 OR P is inversely proportional to V


Pressure and temperature (K)
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2 OR P is directly proportional to T


Volume and temperature (K)
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 OR V is directly proportional to T


Ideal gas equation

V! P! V! P!
= PV = nRT (DB.1)
T! T!

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Ideal Gases
Real gases deviate from ideal gas behaviour at high pressures and low temperatures. Gasses
with the strongest intermolecular forces are more likely to deviate from ideal gas behaviour.

High pressure – gas particles are closer together so the volume of the particles becomes
significant and intermolecular forces can operate.

Low temperatures – gas particles move less rapidly so intermolecular forces between particles
can operate.


Solutions and concentrations
The molar concentration of a solution is the amount (mol) of a substance dissolved in 1 dm3 of
solvent.

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚!! ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚! )

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
𝑐 (𝑔 𝑑𝑚!! ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚! )
÷ 1000

dm3
cm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔) (DB.2)
𝑐 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) = × 10! × 1000
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)

A standard solution is one of known concentration.

Titration:

*DB refers to data booklet (papers 2 & 3)