ASSIGNMENT

Topic:- MODULE-VI Control System Components and

Basic Control Actions

NAME:- AMIT KUMAR TIWARY

ROLL NO:- BE/10155/17

BRANCH :- ECE 'A'
BATCH :- 2020
SEMESTER :-6th
 Control Theory
 Control System Components and Basic Control Actions:
• Sensors and encoders in control system
• Potentiometer
• Tachometers
• Servomotors
• Synchros
• Operational Amplifiers
 Basic control actions:
• on-off control
• P, PI, PD and PID
 Control system components

 A closed loop control system consists of :

• Controller (error detector and control elements)
• Controlled system
• Feedback element
 Control system components

Components of controller and feedback element (low power items)

• Sensors
• Differencing and amplification
• Control logic implementation platform (hardware/software based)
• Actuators
 Sensors and encoders
• Sensors and encoders are important
components used to monitor the
performance and for feedback in control
systems. The principle of operation and
applications of
• some of the sensors and encoders that
are commonly used in control systems
 Sensors
These are low power transducers which produce low power
output signal as a
• measure of the controlled and other variables
• A linear relation is generally preferred but not essential. A
suitable, unambiguous
• functional relationship is required
• Output of a sensor is in electrical form: analog or digital
 They are employed for a variety of measurements:
1. Position, velocity, acceleration
2. Pressure, flow of fluids
3. Temperature in a variety of ranges
4. Quantity representation of chemical state of a reactor
5. Neutron flux level in an atomic reactor
6. etc
 Optical Encoder
• An optical encoder is an electromechanical device which has an electrical
output in digital form proportional to the angular position of the input
shaft.
• Optical encoders enable an angular displacement to be converted directly
into a digital form.
• It has a shaft mechanically coupled to an input driver which rotates a disc
rigidly fixed to it. A succession of opaque and clear segments are marked
on the surface of the disc.
• Light from infrared emitting diodes reaches the infrared receivers through
the transparent slits of the rotating disc. An analogue signal is created.
Then electronically, the signal is amplified and converted into digital form.
This signal is then transmitted to the data processor.

Optical Encoder is of 2 types:-

• Absolute encoder
• Incremental encoder
 Absolute encoder
Absolute encoders are feedback devices that provide speed, position
information by outputting a digital word or bit in relation to motion. Unlike
incremental encoders that output a continuous stream of ubiquitous pulses,
absolute encoders output unique words or bits for each position.

By outputting a digital word or bit instead of a stream of pulses, absolute rotary

encoders offer several advantages:
• Higher overall resolution vs incremental encoders
• Better start up performance because of low homing (or initial position) time
• Accurate motion detection along multiple axes
• Multiple output protocols for better electronics integration
• Better recovery from system or power fail ures
 Incremental Encoder
• An incremental encoder is a type of encoder device that converts angular
motion or position of a shaft into an analog or digital code to identify
position or motion. Incremental encoders are one of the most commonly
used rotary encoders.
• An incremental encoder can be used in positioning and motor speed
feedback applications which includes servo/light, indus trial or heavy-duty
applications.

• An incremental encoder provides excellent speed and distance feedback

and, since there are few sensors involved, the systems are both simple and
inexpensive. An incremental encoder is limited by only providing change
information, so the encoder requires a reference device to calculate motion.
 Potentiometer
• A potentiometer is an electromechanical transducer that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The input to the device is in the form of a mechanical displacement,
either linear or rotational. When a voltage is applied across the fixed
terminals of the potentiometer, the output voltage, which is
measured across the variable terminal and ground, is proportional
to the input displacement, either linearly or according to some
nonlinear relation.
• The input to the device is in the form of a mechanical displacement,
either
• linear or rotational. When a voltage is applied across the fixed
terminals of the potentiometer,
• the output voltage, which is measured across the variable terminal
and ground, is proportional
• to the input displacement, either linearly or according to some
nonlinear relation.
 Types of Potentiometers
 Rotary potentiometers
 Linear potentiometers
 Rotary potentiometers

Ten-turn rotary potentiometer (courtesy of Helipot Division of Beckman

Instruments, Inc.).
 Rotary potentiometers

• Rotary potentiometers are available commercially in single-

revolution or multirevolution form, with limited or unlimited
rotational motion.
• The potentiometers are commonly made with wirewound or
conductive plastic resistance material.
 Linear potentiometers

Linear motion potentiometer with built-in operational amplifier (courtesy of

Waters Manufacturing, Inc.).
 Linear potentiometers
• linear potentiometer contains a built-in
operational amplifier.
• For precision control, the conductive
plastic potentiometer is preferable,
because it has infinite resolution, long
rotational life, good output smoothness,
and low static noise.
 Non-wire wound potentiometer

• Carbon composition: coated film, molded

• Conductive plastic: resistance element is in
the form of a cavity (coated with
• carbon resin mixture) in a plastic base and
the unit is hermetically sealed
• Ceramic potentiometer: resistance material
is a hybrid ceramic and metal; immune
• to humidity
 Servomotors
Servomotors are used in feedback control systems. Servomotors have low
rotor inertia and high speed off response. The Servomotors are also known as
control motors. The Servomotors which are used in feedback control system
should have linear relationship between electrical control signal and rotor
speed, torque speed characteristic should be linear, the response of the
servomotor should be fast and inertia should be low.

Servomotors are of two types:

• DC servomotors
• AC servomotors
 AC servomotors
• These motors having two parts namely stator and rotor .AC servomotors
are two phase induction motor. The stator has two distributed windings.
These winding are displaced from each other by 900 electrical.one winding
is called main winding or reference winding. The reference winding is excite
by variable control voltage of the same frequency as the reference winding
but having a phase displacement of 900 electrical. The variable control
voltage for control winding is obtained from the servoamplifier.The direction
of rotation off the rotor can be reversed by reversing the phase difference
between control voltage and reference voltage.
• Rotor can be squirrel cage, drag cup or solid iron and rotor diameter is small
to have low inertia .
• Excitation current in the stator windings should have a phase displacement
of 900 . Normally, a fixed voltage from a constant voltage source is applied
to one of the phases called the referenceph ase.
• The other phase called the control phase is
energized by a voltage of variable magnitu de
and polarity from a servo amplifier
 AC servomotors
• To achieve linear torque-speed characteristics, the rotor resistance is made
high so that X/R ratio is small
• In a two phase servomotor, polarity of the control voltage determines the
direction of rotation
• Torque T(t) and the angular speed θ(t) of the rotor are functions of control
voltage vc(t)
 AC servomotors
Advantages:
• Depending on the precision required, you might not need a
separate position sensing feedback.
• Very rugged, low maintenance.
• Might not need a separate mechanical brake using plugging.
• Should be lower initial cost.
Applications
• X-Y recorders
• Disc drives
• Tape drives
• Printers
 DC servomotors
DC servomotors are separately excited or permanent magnet d.c. servomotors. The
armature of d.c. servomotor has a large resistance, therefore torque speed characteristic
is linear. The torque speed characteristics shows below

The DC servomotors can be controlled from armature side or from field. In field
controlled DC servomotors the ratio of L/R is large i.e. The time constant for field circuit is
large, Due to function of field controlled DC servomotor. The speed of he motor can be
controlled by adjusting the voltage applied to the armture.in armature controlled DC
servomotor the time constant is small and hence the response is fast. The efficiency is
better than the field controlled motor.
 DC servomotors

Advantages:-
The DC servo motor is divided into a brushless and brushless
motor. The brush motor has low cost, simple structure, large
starting torque, wide speed range and easy control. The brushless
motor is small in size, light in weight, large in output, fast in
response, high in speed, small in inertia, smooth in rotation and
stable in torque.
Disadvantages:
Maintenance is required, but maintenance is inconvenient
(replacement of carbon brushes), electromagnetic interference
will occur, and has strict with the environment
 Tachometers
• Tachometers are electromechanical devices that convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• An electromechanical device producing an output voltage
proportional to its shaft speed is called a tachometer/
tachogenerator
• This is used as an analogue speed indicator or velocity feedback
device.
• In control systems, most of the tachometers used are of the dc
variety; that is, the output voltage is a dc signal.
• Two types:
 DC tachogenerator
 AC tachogenerator
DC tachogenerator
 DC tachogenerator
• The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor
moves in the magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor. The magnitude of
the induces emf depends on the flux link with the conductor and the speed of
the shaft.
• The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the
permanent magnet. The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of
the induced emf is proportional to the shaft speed.
• The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the
direct current with the help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures
the induced emf. The polarity of the induces voltage determines the direction
of motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in series with
the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the armature.
• The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

• Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.
 DC tachogenerator

Advantages
• Generated voltage has no undesirable phase shift or
wave shape
• No temperature compensation required
• No zero speed error
• Linear characteristics
Disadvantages:
• Wear & tear of brushes
• Commutator sparking produces noise in generated
voltage
• Output voltage requires low pass filter
• Driving torque is required
AC tachogenerator
 AC tachogenerator
• The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which
have many disadvantages. The AC tachometer generator designs for
reducing the problems. The AC tachometer has stationary armature and
rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent
in AC tachometer generator.
• The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of
the stator. The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are
equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or
frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.
• The circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering
the amplitude of the induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified
and then passes to the capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of
rectified voltages.
 AC tachogenerator
Advantages
• The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the
ripple free output voltage.
• The cost of the generator is also very less.
• Brushless operation
• Less noise
Disadvantage
• The nonlinear relationship obtains between the
output voltage and input speed when the rotor
rotates at high speed.
• A demodulator is required
 Incremental Encoder

• Incremental encoders are frequently found in modern control

systems for converting linear or rotary displacement into digitally
coded or pulse .signals.
• The encoders that output a digital signal are known as absolute
encoders. In the simplest terms, absolute encoders provide as output
a distinct digital code indicative of each particular least significant
increment of resolution.
• Incremental encoders, on the other hand, provide a pulse for each
increment of resolution but do not make distinctions between the
increments.
• the incremental encoder's simplicity in construction, low cost, ease of
application, and versatility have made it by far one of the most
popular encoders in control systems.
• Incremental encoders are available in rotary and linear forms.
Rotary Incremental Encoder

Rotary incremental encoder Figure 4-59 Linear incremental encoder

(courtesy of DISC Instruments, Inc.).
 Rotary Incremental Encoder
• A typical rotary incremental encoder has four basic parts: a light source, a
rotary disk, a stationary ma.sk, and a sensor
• The disk has alternate opaque and transparent sectors. Any pair of these
sectors represents an incremental period. The mask is used to pass or block
a beam of light between the light source and the photosensor located
behind the mask.
Linear Incremental Encoder

Linear incremental encoder

(courtesy of DISC Instruments, Inc.).
 Linear Incremental Encoder
A linear incremental encoder has two digital output signals, A and B,
which issue quadrature square waves. Depending on its internal
mechanism, an encoder may derive A and B directly from sensors
which are fundamentally digital in nature, or it may interpolate its
internal, analogue sine/cosine signals. In the latter case, the
interpolation process effectively sub-divides the scale period and
thereby achieves higher measurement resolution.
 Synchros
The Synchro is a type of
transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft into
an electric signal. It is used as an error detector, encoder and as
a rotary position sensor. The error occurs in the system because of
the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter and the
control transformer are the two main parts of the synchro.

Control Type Synchros System

The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional control systems.
Their systems consist two units. They are
1. Synchro Transmitter
2. Synchro receiver
The synchro always works with these two parts
 Synchro Transmitter
• Their construction is similar to the three phase alternator. The stator of the synchros is made of steel for
reducing the iron losses. The stator is slotted for housing the three phase windings. The axis of the stator
winding is kept 120º apart from each other.
 Synchro Transmitter
A single phase a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor through slip rings.Let applied
a.c. voltage to the rotor is

Where Er – r.ms.value of rotor voltage

ω0 – carrier frequency
Due to this applied voltage a magnetizing current will flow in rotor coil. This
magnetizing current produces sinusoidally varying flux and distributed in the air
gap.Becaause of Transformer action voltages get induced in all stator coil
which is proportional to cosine of angle between stator aand roto coil axes.

Now, consider the rotor of synchro transmitter is at an

angle θ,then voltaages in each stator coil w.r.t. neutral are
 Synchro Transmitter

When θ=0,the maximum induced voltage will be Ean and Ecb will
be zero. This position of the rotor is defined as electrical zero of
he transmitter and is used as the reference for indicating the
angualr position of the rotor.
Thus, the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position
of the rotor shaft and the output are the three single phase
voltages which are the function of the shaft position.
Synchro as an Error Detector
 Synchro Control Transformer
Principle of operation of synchro control transformer is same as that of synchro transmitter. Rotor
of synchro control transformer is cylindrical type. synchro control transformer I m electrochemical
device. The combination of synchro transmitter and synchro control transformer is used as an error
detector. The unction of error detector is to convert the difference of two shaft positions into an
electrical signal.

The output of synchro transmitter is connected to the stator winding of the synchro control
transformer =.therefore the same current will flow in the stator windings of synchro control
transformer but in opposite direction. The voltage across the rotor terminals of control transformer
is

Where Φ= angular displacement between the two rotor. When the wo rotor are aat an angle 900 ,the
voltage induced in control transformer is zero. This position is known as electrical zero position
control transformer.

Let the transmitter rotate through an angle ‘θ’ in the direction indicated aand let control transformer
rotor rotates in the same direction through an angle ‘α ‘ .Then

Put the value of Φ in the equation, we get

From above it is clear that when two rotor shafts are not i n alingnment, the rotor voltage of control
transformer of approximately a sine function of the diffe rence between the two shafts angles.
For small angular displacement between two rotor position
 Operational Amplifiers,
• Operational amplifiers, or simply op-amps, offer a convenient way to build,
implement, or
realize continuous-data or s-domain transfer functions.
• In control systems, op-amps are often used to implement the controllers or
compensators that evolve from the control system design process, so in this section
we illustrate common op-amp configurations.
• An in-depth presentation of op-amps is beyond the scope of this text. For those
interested, many texts are available that are devoted to all aspects of op-amp circuit
design and applications.
• Our primary goal here is to show how to implement first-order transfer functions with
op-amps while keeping in mind that higher-order transfer functions are also
important. In fact, simple high-order transfer functions can be implemented by
connecting first-order op-amp configurations together.
 Basic control actionss
Types of basic control actions
• On – Off control (two position control)
• Proportional control (P-control)
• Integral control (I-control)
• Derivative control (D-control)
• Proportional-Integral control (PI-control)
• Proportional-Derivative control (PD-control)
• Proportional-Integral-Derivative control (PID-
control)
 On-Off control
The On Off Controller or two position controller is the simplest, cheapest and the most
used controllers. It is used in domestic heating systems, refrigeration, water tanks, etc.
When the measured variable is below the set point, the controller is ON and the output
signal has maximum value. When the measured variable is above the set point, the
controller is OFF and output is zero.

Due to its simplicity, widely used in domestic and industrial control system. Temp control
in domestic heating system, automatic electric iron etc When the temp. is below the
thermostat set point, heating is switched on and when the temp. is above the set point,
heating is switched off
 On-Off control

• Control action:
• • The o/p signal from the controller m(t), based on the actuating error signal e(t), may
• be either at a maximum or minimum value
• • m(t) = m1(t) for e(t) > 0
• = m2(t) for e(t) > 0
• •Non-linear control actio
 On-Off control
Neutral zone (Hysteresis)
• In practice, a differential gap is kept when the controller o/p changes from one state
to another
• This is done to avoid chattering effect and corresponding wearing off of
components
Applications
• Air-conditioning/room heating system
• Refrigerator temperature control system
5
• Liquid bath temp. control
• Liquid-level control in tanks
 Proportional control Action
In a controller with proportional control action, there is a continuous linear relation
between the output of the controller m (manipulated variable) and actuating error=r
signal e(deviation)
Output signal m(t) is proportional to error signal e(t).
Mathematically,
m(t) = Kp e(t) ;
Kp is the proportional gain constant
Taking Laplace transform: M(s) = Kp E(s)
 Proportional control Action
Proportional control Action:

Consider a liquid level control system.In this system the float lever is directly
connected to the control valve. When the kevel of the liquid rises, the
sensitivity is proportional gain or proportional sensitivity is proportional band
and is defined as the change in level controller is an amplifier with adjustable
gain.
 Proportional control Action

Advantages:
• Increases the loop gain
• Improves steady state accuracy,
disturbance signal rejection
Disadvantages:
• If gain is very large, system may be
oscillatory/unstable
• Steady state error does not become zero
 Integral control Action
In a controller with integral control action, the output o the controller I
change at a rate which is proportional to the actuating error signal e(t)
Mathematically,

Where Ki is constant
Integral control Action
 Integral control Action
Advantages:
• Eliminates steady state error in a type zero system
Disadvantages:
• In a type-1 system, I-controller leads to instability
• Transient response is inferior
• There may be integral saturation effect
 Derivative control Action
In controller with derivative control action the output of the controller dependds
on the rate of change of actuating error signal e(t),
Mathematically,

Where Kd is known ass the derivative gain contnt

Laplace transform of this equation is:
 Derivative control Action
From the equation nit is clear that when the error is zero or
constant, the output of the controller will be zero, Therefore this
type of controller cannot be used alone. For this type o controller
cannot be used alone. For this type of controller the gain should
be very small. The derivative control action also known as rate
control

Effect of derivative control

 Derivative control Action
Advantages:
• Feed forward control
• For a type zero system, damping ratio increased, and
O/s , settling time reduced
• Fast reaction to any change in the system
• Anticipates error and initiates an early corrective
action and stabilizes the system
• Effective during transient period
Disadvantages:
• Steady state error is not recognized
• Can not be used independently
• Very sensitive to noise signal
 Proportional-derivative control

The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of

the outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.
 Proportional-derivative control

Effects of PD-controller
• Damping factor improves and maximum overshoot decreases
• Rise and settling time reduce
• Bandwidth increases
 Proportional-Integral control

In integral control action the actuating signal consists of

proportional error signal with integral of the error signal.
The block diagram of integral control is shown.
 Proportional-Integral control

Effects of PI-controller
• Improving in damping and reduction in
overshoot
• Bandwidth increases
• Noise is filtered out
• Steady state error is zero
 Proportional-Integral-derivative
control
The proportional integral derivative controller
produces an output, which is the combination of
the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative
controllers.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control
system along with the proportional integral derivative controller is shown in
the following figure.
 Proportional-Integral-derivative
control

Effects of PID-controller
Advantages of all three controllers are available