TECHNICKÁ UNIVERZITA V 

KOŠICIACH
LETECKA FAKULTA

SEMESTER PROJECT

2021 ADIKA STADEVANT OKELO

 TECHNICKÁ UNIVERZITA V KOŠICIACH
LETECKA FAKULTA

AIRCRAFT RAMP SERVICES

Študijný program: Letecka a kozmicka

2021 Košice ADIKA STADEVANT OKELO

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Table of content…………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Aircraft ground handling (ramp services) ……………………………………………………………………4

1. Marshalling …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4

1.1Marshalling signals………………………………………………………………………………………………….4

2.Aircraft towing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6

2.1 The procedure……………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

2.2 Key threats to aircraft to aircraft safety………………………………………………………………………7

2.3Towing risk management……………………………………………………………………………………………8

3. Aircraft air start units…………………………………………………………………………………………………..8

4. Aircraft cleaning…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..9

4.1The need to clean an aircraft…………………………………………………………………………………9

4.2Germs and pathogens in an aircraft………………………………………………………………………9

4.3Aircraft interior cabin cleaning………………………………………………………………………………9

4.5Aircraft exterior cleaning …………………………………………………………………………………….10

4.6Cleaning methods…………………………..…………………………………………………………………….11

5. Ground de-icing of aircrafts………………… ..……………………………………………………………………12

5.1Negative effects of ice……………………………………………………………………………………………12

5.2Aircraft frost removal…………………………………………………………………………………………….12

5.3Precaution when deicing the aircraft on ground…………….………………………………………13

6.Lavatory drainage……………………………………………………………….…………………………………………13

7.Baggage handling……………………………………………………………..………………………………………….. 14

8. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15

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Aircraft ground handling (ramp services)

Ground handling in aviation is a term used to refer to services offered to facilitate aircraft flight or
aircraft ground reposition and positioning for which involves ramp services and customer services
in this case we will discuss about the ramp services.

Major ramp services include

 Marshalling
 Towing the aircraft
 Lavatory drainage
 Water cartage
 Air conditioning
 Air start units
 Luggage handling
 Gate checked luggage
 De-icing
 Aircraft cleaning

1. Marshalling

This is a visual communication or visual signaling between the ground personnel and a pilot on an
airport. Marshalling is a one on one communication and can be used as an alternative to radio
communication or an additional form of communication between the aircraft and the air traffic
controller. The marshaller has the following equipment:

 A reflecting safety vests

 A helmet with acoustic earmuffs
 Gloves or marshalling wands

Generally, at the airport the marshaller signals the pilot to either keep turning, slow down, stop or
turn off the engine. The marshaller may also indicate follow me to the pilot and also guide the
pilot to parking or to the runway. However, at very busy airports the marshaller can be replaced
with a Visual Docking Guidance System (VDGS). On aircraft carriers or helipads, marshallers give
take-off and landing clearances to aircraft and helicopters, where the very limited space and time
between take-offs and landings makes radio communications a difficult alternative.

1.1.Marshalling signals

The use of marshalling signals is typically encountered at larger or busier airports where ground
crew oversee and coordinate the movement of aircraft on airport aprons. The use of signals, for
example, is common at Fixed Based Operator facilities, which are the commercial suppliers of fuel
and other aircraft and crew services at airports. Marshallers normally position themselves
forward of the left wingtip, within view of the pilot, and they will use illuminating lights at night.
Note that the engines of multi-engine aircraft are numbered left to right (pilot’s perspective),
beginning on the outer engine on the aircraft’s left wing.

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Marshalling signals for aircrafts [1]

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2. Aircraft towing
Towing is the forward movement of an aircraft usually with engine off using the power of
specialized ground vehicle. Towing can be done for an aircraft both in service and out of service.
Aircraft towing can affect promulgation of the procedures and requires qualification for those
occupying the flight crew seats during the maneuver

2.1. The procedure

The person in charge in the flight deck of the aircraft gives confirmation to the person in charge
on the ground who are to carry out the tow that the brakes are off, the ground crew then safely
maneuver the aircraft in accordance to Air traffic control clearance. Unless the towing is taking
place outside ATC controlled area an RTF clearance will be required to carry out the towing.

If the aircraft is being towed to the start position or to a push and hold position the clearance is
normally given by the aircraft commander or person on aircraft deck. If an out of service aircraft is
being repositioned, the clearance will normally be obtained by the operator of the tow vehicle.
The prescribed RTF phraseology for obtaining clearance to tow is contained in ICAO PANS-ATM
(Doc 4444) and ICAO Manual of Radiotelephony (Doc 9432).

Formerly almost all aircrafts required installation of the ground locking pin during the towing
process on at least the nose landing gear, but this is no longer necessary. If ground pin is installed
during the tow it may need to be removed after the tow and usually require recording on
documents such as Aircraft Technician Log.

The ‘traditional’ method of towing an aircraft was to allow the ground vehicle to attach to the
aircraft nose landing gear by means of a towbar. These must be approved for use with a particular
aircraft type and clearly marked as such since there is no universal towbar specification. An
alternative method which is becoming more common for towing is the use of a specialized vehicle
called a ‘tow-barless tug’. This positions two low level ‘arms’ either side of the aircraft nose
landing gear and these are used to engage with the aircraft gear leg and raise it slightly off the
ground.[3]

An example of a towbar [2]

All towing is subject to the observance of any AFM limits for maximum nose landing gear steering
angle.

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The responsibilities of a ground crew team carrying out an aircraft tow include ensuring that no
part of the aircraft structure will impact any fixed object, vehicle, or other aircraft. The ground
crew should have intercom communication with the personnel on the flight deck and both parties
should be able to listen to communications with ATC. In the absence from the flight deck of a pilot
qualified on the aircraft type, the person in charge of the ground vehicle carrying out the tow will
usually be responsible for obtaining any necessary ATC aircraft movement clearances.

The function of any flight deck occupant(s) is likely to be the appropriate operation of the aircraft
braking system and the provision of sufficient aircraft electrical power to operate the radio and
appropriate external and internal lighting. It is likely that where available, an APU will be running
to provide electrical power and that hydraulic accumulator pressure for braking will be achieved
by use of an electrical pump.

Tow-barless tag [4]

2.2.Key threat to aircraft safety

Towing can be a hazard and can cause damage to the aircraft and injury to the personnel in
charge therefore to minimize damage to the aircraft the following ground procedures must be
carried out:

1. The towing vehicle driver is responsible for safety operation of the towing vehicle and
obeying emergency stop signals given by the team leader.
2. Wing walkers positioned at each wing tip are assigned by the team leader to ensure no
clearance to obstruction to the aircraft’s path.
3. A qualified person occupies the pilot’s seat to observe and operate the brakes as required
4. Aircraft parked In the hangar must be statically grounded immediately
5. Prior to any movement of the aircraft on the runway or taxiway the air traffic controller
must be contacted to know the frequency of clearance.
6. Wheel chocks are placed fore and aft of the main landing gear of a packed aircraft.
7. Aircrafts are packed in specific areas. Generally, the distance between the rows of packing
should be wide enough to provide easy access to emergency vehicles.
8. When moving an aircraft do not start and stop immediately. For added safety the aircraft
brakes must never be applied unless instructed by the ground team leader.
9. Towing speed should not exceed that of the walking members of the team.

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2.3.Towing risk management

The presence of accidents and incidents indicate that there are several recurring events that lead
to aircrafts damage during the towing:

 Failure to maintain overall situation awareness of other traffic regardless of ATC clearance
 Inadequate awareness of the aircraft’s dimension and turning arcs by the ground crew
 Failure to keep the towed aircraft on the taxiway center
 Inappropriate brake application

3. Aircraft air start units

These are portable power source that provide initial movement and rotation of large aircraft
turbine engines. They contain highly compressed air which is blown to the turbine engine making
them turn, this then drives the engine through a geared turbine motor.

The source of power of the air start units are usually an onboard auxiliary power, cross-feeding air
from an on running engine or a portable gas generator.

Compared to electrical starters air starter units have high power to weight ratio, which measures
the all-around performance of an engine or engine start unit. Electric start units tend to also run
very hot if the engine does not start right away, whereas air start units will run for as long as the
air supply lasts. Air start units also weight about 75% less than corresponding electric units.
Ultimately, air starters are safer, lighter, and more efficient than choosing electric starters.

Air starter unit [5]

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4. Aircraft cleaning

Maintaining an automotive in a perfect working condition is a requirement for efficient and

effective performance. Aircraft cleaning is an essential service that should be done on occasional
basis as aircraft is subjected to oil spillage air pressure and environmental factors.

Aircraft cleaning is a professional cleaning service carried out by specialists to help guard against
the most common viruses, germs, and diseases. Although aircraft cleaning is a unique type of
work characterized by a high concentration of physical activities in time and space, yet a quick
interior cabin deep cleaning service of the aircraft can eliminate up to 99.9% of germs.

Cleaning and disinfection on aircraft require special attention to detail, as it is necessary to use
agents that are not corrosive or otherwise detrimental to aircraft components. For this reason,
not all effective cleaning and disinfecting agents can be used in the aircraft cabin.

4.1.The need to clean an aircraft

Aircraft and air travel are an essential means of transportation in the modern age. Whether
people are travelling for the business or pleasure purpose a clean aircraft always put a big smile
on the passengers’ faces and make their journey more comfortable and cozier. In my personal
experience, a clean aircraft makes me so happy that besides the other services I rate the airline or
that journey with 5 stars.

Due to the great competition among the airlines, it has become more important than ever to
enlist an aircraft cleaner service to ensure that their passengers, flight attendants or cabin crew
are protected from the threat of infectious microbes that can be found on the inside surface of
the airplane.

Travel can facilitate the transfer of communicable disease. The volume and rapidity of travel can
have an international impact on disease. This is particularly true for aircraft, as the global span of
the aviation industry requires the loading and rapid transport of people and supplies from many
locations all over the world.

4.2. Germs and Pathogens in the Aircraft

The air close cabin of an aircraft is an ideal incubator for microbial pathogens to survive and act as
germ transfer points to infect all those that come into contact. It only takes one infected member
of aircrew or passenger, to pass their germs onto the aircraft interior and infect all other
passengers and flight attendants that encounter the surface thereafter.

Pathogens and viruses such as Coronavirus (COVID-19), MRSA, E-Coli and Hepatitis have been
detected on the interior surface of aircraft. An expert cleaner service applies a biocidal cleaning
solution that eradicates the microbial pathogens leaving aircraft clean and safe to use.

4.3.Aircraft interior cabin cleaning

Aircraft interior cleaning also is known as aircraft detailing service is the act of performing a
thorough cleaning, restoration, and finishing. Interior detailing involves a deep cleaning of the
whole interior cabin including galley, toilet compartments, passenger cabins, and flight deck. The

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purpose of inside cabin cleaning is to avoid health risks, restore the interior beauty, remove the
offensive odor, and to avoid the spread of dirt and contaminations within the aircraft

Interior Cleaning includes the vacuuming of carpets and seats, spot cleaning of stains in carpeting,
seats and headliner; also cleaning the cockpit displays and gauges, interior windows, wall panels,
countertops, lavatory seat and deck, entranceway steps and handrails and emptying the trash.
The lavatory and galley cabinets and drawers require cleaning as well.

Aircraft Windows

The aircraft windows are normally made of glass or plastic and can be easily damaged
during the cleaning process. It is therefore highly recommended that brushes and
abrasive clothes shall not be used for such type of cleaning. The correct way of aircraft
window cleaning is to use clean, soft, lint-free cloths that are specially designed and
approved for aircraft or sensitive environment glass or transparent plastic cleaning. Along
with the approved and recommend cleaning products, the aircraft window cleaning is
carried out using the aircraft manufacturer’s procedures outlined especially for window
cleaning.

Aircraft Cockpit

Aircraft cockpit cleaning involves vacuuming, dusting, and cleaning the aircraft
instruments and display screens. All components of the aircraft cockpit are cleaned with
attention to details but with care to avoid damaging the expensive components. Only
clean, soft, lint-free cloths and dust brushes are used on aircraft instruments and displays.
Only approved anti-static fluids are sprayed onto instruments and displays.

Aircraft headliner

The aircraft headliners require spot cleaning. Areas are tested prior to cleaning to ensure
the cleaning agent do not stain the headliner. Some headliners require dry cleaning
agents only and will stain if a water-based product is used. We determine the special
cleaning requirements for the headliner before the headliner is cleaned.

Aircraft Carpets

Routine cleaning of the carpets is accomplished with a vacuum followed with spot
cleaning. Semi-annually, the carpets are cleaned using a hot water extraction machine
and a mild detergent pre-spray. The pre-spray shall is rinsed with a mild acid rinse
approved for carpet cleaning. All soap residues are rinsed out with care not to wet the
carpet backing. After cleaning, carpet blowers are installed to speed up the drying time. It
is critical that the carpet backing does not get wet. If the carpet backing gets wet,
corrosion may result on the aircraft floorboards. The aircraft carpet deep cleaning attempt
to remove carpet stains such as coffee, grease and oils, and common food or drink spots.

4.4.Aircraft Exterior Surface Cleaning

Aircraft exterior cleaning also is known as aircraft exterior detailing service involves restoring the
original condition of the surface of the aircraft. The exterior cleaning can be carried out using a
water wash, just wash, or simply wiping the aircraft with spray cleaner and cloth. The purpose of
exterior cleaning is to remove dirt, bugs, exhaust streaks, oil stains and spots from the outer
surface of the aircraft body which helps to enhance the physical appearance of the aircraft and
enhances the lifespan of the aircraft exterior body, paintwork, and associated components.

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4.4a. Aircraft Polishing Unpainted and Painted Surfaces

The aircraft unpainted surfaces, known as brightwork, require polishing to remove surface
corrosion and to enhance their appearance. These areas are polished when oxidation
begins to appear using an orbital buffer or by hand with a non-abrasive cleaning/polishing
solution. Surrounding painted and plastic exterior surfaces (such as light lenses) are
masked off to prevent damage. Surfaces are left with a mirror-like finish and all debris
associated with polishing is removed. Painted surfaces require polishing to protect the
high gloss exterior finish of the entire aircraft and in specific areas to remove stubborn
stains, typically around exhaust areas.

4.4b.Aircraft Polishing Unpainted Aluminum

Polishing unpainted aluminum is a must job when considering aircraft exterior cleaning.
All areas are polished including the leading edges of the aircraft wings, horizontal and
vertical stabilizers, engine inlets, and the cockpit window frames. The areas are masked
off to prevent damage to painted surfaces. The aluminum is polished either by hand or by
using orbital buffers, non-abrasive pads, and a non-abrasive aluminum cleaning polish. All
exterior cleaning processes meet the manufacturer’s specifications.

4.5. Cleaning Methods

For aircraft exterior cleaning there are three major methods: wet wash, dry wash, and polishing.
Polishing can be either done manually by hand or the polishing activity can be performed using
specialized mechanical polishing machines. The cleaning service that you choose will give you
the extent of soiling and the final desired appearance in the result.

A. Wet Wash

The aircraft wet wash is useful for removing oil, grease, or carbon deposits and most soils.
This method, however, can add very little or no value to the remediation of corrosion and
oxide films. In this method cleaning components are sprayed or moped over the aircraft
exterior and then high-water pressure wash is used to rinse the surface of the aircraft.
Predominantly, alkaline or emulsion cleaning products can be used in this method of
cleaning.

b. Dry Wash

The aircraft dry wash is used when the goal is to remove airport film, dust, and small
accumulations of dirt and soil. Dry wash is used in cases when the use of liquids is not
suitable. This is important to understand that dry wash method is not suitable for
removing heavy deposits of carbon, grease, or oil, especially in the engine exhaust areas.
Dry wash materials are applied with spray, mops, or cloths, and removed by dry mopping
or wiping with clean, dry cloths.

c. Polishing

Polishing restores the luster to painted and unpainted surfaces of the aircraft and is
usually performed after the surfaces have been cleaned. Polishing is also used to remove
oxidation and corrosion. Polishing materials are available in various forms and degrees of

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abrasiveness. It is important that the aircraft manufacturer’s instructions be used in

specific applications.

5. Ground deicing of aircraft

Ice is a very big problem for IFR pilots as it has all negative effect to the aircraft it can result in
drastic changes in the aerodynamic properties of the aircraft, imbalance in the propeller and
vibration, produces increased weight on aircraft and reduces the speed, to fight these effects
aircrafts are equipped with anti-icing and de-icing system however even though aircrafts maybe
equipped with these systems light general aviation aircrafts are not supposed to be flown in icing
conditions for long period of time. These systems are to give pilots options where some icing
exists

5.1.Negative effect of ice

 Destroys smooths flow of air over the wings thus reducing lift and increasing drag thus
increasing fuel consumption
 Can change the pitching moment of an aircraft
 Increase in angle of lift to compensate for decrease on lift causes more accumulation of
ice on lower part of the wing
 Can cause damage to external equipment’s such as antenna and also clog inlets such as
pitot tube
 Changes the flight characteristics
 causes destructive vibration and hampers true instrument readings
 causes unbalance or freezes the control surfaces
 fills fixed slots and jams movable slots
 hampers radio reception and affects engine performance or damage leading to surge,
vibration and thrust loss
 can cause structural damage to the aircraft
During winter season for safety operation of aircraft safety deicing measures should be taken
therefore there are external deicing systems at the airport, the ice on the aircraft maybe due to
rain or frost formation on major parts of aircraft after along flight or snow on landing gear after
taxiing on a snowy runway in accordance to ICAO and FAA an aircraft must be free from frozen
contaminations on wings, control surfaces, engine inlets and any other critical parts before takeoff
[6]

5.2. Aircraft frost removal

On the ground the frost on the aircraft can be removed by placing the aircraft in a warm hangar or
using a frost remover or by using a de-icing fluid, de-icing fluids may contain ethylene glycol and
isopropyl alcohol and are therefore safe to apply by hand or spray, however de-icing fluids may
have a bad effect on the window and exterior of the aircraft therefore only recommended fluid

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should be used, the fluid should also be applied within 2 hours of flight. De-icing trucks are also
used to spray de-icing fluids on the surfaces of the aircraft

De-icing the surface of aircraft on ground by de-icing trucks- image by thepointsguy.co.uk [

5.3.precautions when deicing aircraft on the ground

 Deicing fluid must not be sprayed directly on wiring harnesses, electrical components,
wheels, brakes, and exhaust
 Deicing fluid can cause crazing of acrylics or window penetration therefore must not be
directed on the windows of the aircraft
 Precaution to minimize flow of deicing fluid into the engines of the aircraft and control
cavities
 Deicing fluid should not be directed onto the orifices of pitot head or static ports
 Landing gear and wheel bays should be free from buildup of slush or accumulations of
blown snow from the aircraft mixed with deicing fluid

Image by aircraftsystems.com showing places where deicing fluid should not directly
contact [2]

6. Lavatory drainage

Lavatory Service Cart is used to drain the waste from the aircraft waste tank. The aircraft waste
tank is drained by pulling the waste drain valve handle on the toilet servicing panel after attaching

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the ground lavatory service cart to the 4-inch drain outlet and removing the drain plug. The tank is
cleaned by attaching water pressure to the ground flush connection.

7. Baggage handling

Baggage handling is the process of transporting passenger luggage from a check-in counter at a
departure airport, onto a plane cargo hold and then to a collection point at an arrival airport.

A baggage handling system (BHS) is made up of several different processes and checks. A BHS is
designed to count bags, check weights of bags, balance loads, screen suitcases for security
reasons, transport bags through an airport conveyor belt system and read bag information
automatically

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8. References
1. Marshalling signals http://www.langleyflyingschool.com/Pages/Flight%20Operations--
Marshalling%20Signals.html#:~:text=Marshalling%20Signals.%20The%20use%20of
%20marshalling%20signals%20is,commercial%20suppliers%20of%20fuel%20and
%20other%20aircraft%20
2. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2018/12/towing-of-aircraft.html
3. https://skybrary.aero/index.php/Aircraft_Towing
4. https://eagletugs.com/ejp-10
5. Air starter unit : https://www.airport-supply.at/en-1/products/rheinmetall/
6. Manual of Aircraft Ground De-icing/Anti-icing Operations (Doc 9640) Second Edition 2000
pdf available online

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