An Assignment On,

Friction

Submit To,
Dr. Md. Aftab Ali Shaikh
Professor
Department of Chemistry
University of Dhaka

Submit By,
Wasi-Ur-Rahaman Wasik
ID: 024-216
BBA Program(26th Batch), 2019-20
Department of Management
University of Dhaka

Date of Submission,
14th January, 2021
Table of Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Friction ........................................................................................................................................ 3
3. Friction Concepts ....................................................................................................................... 4
4. Friction and Surface Roughness ............................................................................................... 4
5. Various Types of Friction .......................................................................................................... 5
5.1 Laws of Dry Friction........................................................................................................... 5
5.2 Dry Friction ......................................................................................................................... 6
5.2.1 Normal force ................................................................................................................ 7
5.2.2 Coefficient of friction (μ) ............................................................................................ 8
5.2.3 Static friction .............................................................................................................. 12
5.2.4 Kinetic friction ........................................................................................................... 14
5.3 Angle of friction ................................................................................................................ 14
5.4 Limitations of the Coulomb model .................................................................................. 15
5.5 Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model................................................................. 15
5.6 Dry friction and instabilities ............................................................................................ 16
6. Fluid Friction ............................................................................................................................ 16
7. Lubricated friction ................................................................................................................... 16
8. Skin friction .............................................................................................................................. 17
9. Internal friction ........................................................................................................................ 17
10. Radiation Friction ................................................................................................................ 17
11. Other Types Friction ............................................................................................................ 18
11.1 Rolling resistance .............................................................................................................. 18
11.2 Braking friction ................................................................................................................. 18
11.3 Triboelectric effect ............................................................................................................ 18
11.4 Belt friction ........................................................................................................................ 18
12. Reducing Friction ................................................................................................................. 18
12.1 Devices................................................................................................................................ 18
12.2 Lubricants.......................................................................................................................... 19
13. Energy of Friction................................................................................................................. 19
13.1 Work of friction ................................................................................................................ 20

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 13.2 Friction plot .......................................................................................................................... 20
........................................................................................................................................................... 20
14 Applications........................................................................................................................... 21
14.1 Transportation .................................................................................................................. 21
14.2 Measurement ..................................................................................................................... 21
14.3 Household usage................................................................................................................ 21
15 Basic Problems ...................................................................................................................... 21
16 Three Experiments ............................................................................................................... 22
17 Properties of Friction ........................................................................................................... 26
18 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 27
19 References ............................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 1: Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions. ..................... 3
Figure 2: Friction Concepts (Shaikh) .................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: Friction and Surface Roughness .......................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4: Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp. Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes
of forces. N is the normal force, mg is the force of gravity, and Ff is the force of friction. ............................... 7
Figure 5: Coefficient of friction (μ)..................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 6: Static friction ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 7: When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction. The friction increases as the
applied force increases until the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is
less than the maximum static friction. ............................................................................................................ 13
Figure 8:Kinetic friction .................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 9: Angle of friction, θ, when block just starts to slide. ......................................................................... 15
Figure 10: Friction plot ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 11 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 12 .......................................................................................................................................................... 25

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 1. Introduction

Frictional forces are unavoidable in our daily lives. If we were not able to counteract them, they would
stop every moving object and bring to a halt every rotating shaft. About 20% of the gasoline used in
an automobile is needed to counteract friction in the engine and in the drive train. On the other hand,
if friction were totally absent, we could not get an automobile to go anywhere, and we could not walk
or ride a bicycle. We could not hold a pencil, and, if we could, it would not write. Nails and screws
would be useless, woven cloth would fall apart, and knots would untie. In this report, there will be
discussion about friction and it’s types and finally experiments and properties of friction.

2. Friction

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. Frictional resistance to the relative motion of two solid objects
is usually proportional to the force which presses the surfaces together as well as the roughness of
the surfaces.
Ffriction = μN
Where N is normal force, μ is the coefficient of friction.

Figure 1: Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions.

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3. Friction Concepts

Figure 2: Friction Concepts (Shaikh)

4. Friction and Surface Roughness

Figure 3: Friction and Surface Roughness

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 5. Various Types of Friction

There are various types of friction:

(a) Dry friction: It resists relative lateral motion of two solids in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between
moving surfaces
(b) Fluid friction: It describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are
moving relative to each other
(c) Lubricated friction: It is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.
(d) Skin friction: is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the
surface of a body.
(e) Internal friction: is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.

When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can
have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood
together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction
occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types
of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation or damage to components.
Friction is a component of the science of tribology.
Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land. Most land
vehicles rely on friction for acceleration, deceleration and changing direction. Sudden reductions in
traction can cause loss of control and accidents.
Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface
adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of
these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates
the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.
Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent. In the presence
of friction, some kinetic energy is always transformed to thermal energy, so mechanical energy is
not conserved.
5.1 Laws of Dry Friction
The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to
18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:

• Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
• Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
• Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

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 5.2 Dry Friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry
friction are 'static friction' between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called
sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.
Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to
calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:
Ff ≤ μFN
Where,

• Ff is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface, in
a direction opposite to the net applied force.
• μ is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
• FN is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal)
to the surface.
The Coulomb friction Ff may take any value from zero up to μFN, and the direction of the
frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the
absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in
order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such
motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the
Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would
commence. This maximum force is known as traction.
The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic
friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example,
a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an
example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional
force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide
backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they
oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

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 5.2.1 Normal force

Figure 4: Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp. Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. N is the
normal force, mg is the force of gravity, and Ff is the force of friction.

The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together, and its
direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal
surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where N=mg. In this
case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration
due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function
of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the
same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction
force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the block.
If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal
force N between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied
by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined
plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the
plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined
using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation
of the normal force may include forces other than gravity.

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 5.2.2 Coefficient of friction (μ)

The coefficient of friction, often symbolized by μ, is a dimensionless scalar value which describes
the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. It depends
on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction. It has range from
zero to greater than one. For surfaces at rest relative to each other, where is the coefficient of static
friction. For surfaces in relative motion, where is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Figure 5: Coefficient of friction (μ)

It is an axiom of the nature of friction between metal surfaces that it is greater between two surfaces
of similar metals than between two surfaces of different metals— hence, brass will have a higher
coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other μ = μs, where μs is the coefficient of static friction. This is
usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The coefficient of static friction exhibited by a pair of
contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material deformation characteristics
and surface roughness, both of which have their origins in the chemical bonding between atoms in
each of the bulk materials and between the material surfaces and any adsorbed material.
The fractality of surfaces, a parameter describing the scaling behavior of surface asperities, is
known to play an important role in determining the magnitude of the static friction.

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For surfaces in relative motion μ = μk, where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb
friction is equal to Ff, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to
its motion relative to the other surface.
Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction. The
coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement – it has to be measured experimentally, and
cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Both
static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair
of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some
sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.
Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values
outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value
of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can
yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that µ is always < 1, but this is
not true. While in most relevant applications µ < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force
required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the
object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction
that can be substantially larger than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system
property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength),
the COF for any two materials depends on system variables
like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and
deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials,
namely surface structure. For example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a
COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds
when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does
not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is
removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low
speed' test.

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 5.2.2.1 Approximate coefficients of friction

Static Friction, Kinetic/Sliding Friction,

Materials

Dry and clean Lubricated Dry and clean Lubricated

Aluminum Steel 0.61 0.47

Aluminum Aluminum 1.05-1.35 0.3 1.4-1.5

Gold Gold 2.5

Platinum Platinum 1.2 0.25 3.0

Silver Silver 1.4 0.55 1.5

Silicon
Alumina
nitride 0.004 (wet)
ceramic
ceramic

BAM
Titanium
(Ceramic alloy 0.04–0.05 0.02
boride (TiB2)
AlMgB14)

Brass Steel 0.35-0.51 0.19 0.44

Cast iron Copper 1.05 0.29

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 Cast iron Zinc 0.85 0.21

Concrete Rubber 1.0 0.30 (wet) 0.6-0.85 0.45-0.75 (wet)

Concrete Wood 0.62

Copper Glass 0.68 0.53

Copper Steel 0.53 0.36 0.18

Glass Glass 0.9-1.0 0.005–0.01 0.4 0.09–0.116

Human Human
0.01 0.003
synovial fluid cartilage

Ice Ice 0.02-0.09

Polyethene Steel 0.2 0.2

PTFE
PTFE (Teflon) 0.04 0.04 0.04
(Teflon)

Steel Ice 0.03

PTFE
Steel 0.04-0.2 0.04 0.04
(Teflon)

Steel Steel 0.74-0.80 0.005–0.23 0.42-0.62 0.029–0.19

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 Wood Metal 0.2–0.6 0.2 (wet) 0.49 0.075

Wood Wood 0.25–0.62 0.2 (wet) 0.32–0.48 0.067–0.167

Under certain conditions some materials have very low friction coefficients. An example is (highly
ordered pyrolytic) graphite which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01. This ultralow-friction
regime is called superlubricity.
5.2.3 Static friction

Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. Its
coefficient is denoted by μs, is usually higher than that of kinetic friction.

Figure 6: Static friction

Static friction is considered to arise as the result of surface roughness features across multiple
length-scales at solid surfaces. These features, known as asperities are present down to nano-scale
dimensions and result in true solid to solid contact existing only at a limited number of points
accounting for only a fraction of the apparent or nominal contact area. The linearity between
applied load and true contact area, arising from asperity deformation, gives rise to the linearity
between static frictional force and normal force, found for typical Amonton-Coulomb type friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The
maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the
coefficient of static friction and the normal force: Fmax = μsFn. When there is no sliding occurring,
the friction force can have any value from zero up to Fmax. Any force smaller than Fmax attempting

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to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite
direction. Any force larger than Fmax overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to
occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicable—the friction between the
two surfaces is then called kinetic friction. However, an apparent static friction can be observed
even in the case when the true static friction is zero.
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the
ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is
stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to
as limiting friction, although this term is not used universally.

Figure 7: When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction. The friction increases as the applied force increases
until the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.

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 5.2.4 Kinetic friction
Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other. Its coefficient is denoted
by μk.

Figure 8:Kinetic friction

The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of
kinetic friction and the normal force: Fk = μkFn.
New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction. Kinetic
friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding between the
surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities; however, in many other cases roughness effects are
dominant, for example in rubber to road friction Surface roughness and contact area affect kinetic
friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.
The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be explained by thermodynamics. Upon sliding, new
surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it.
Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the
new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force is required to
move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.

5.3Angle of friction

For the maximum angle of static friction between granular materials, see Angle of repose.
For certain applications, it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle
before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction
angle. It is defined as:
tan θ =μs

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Where θ is the angle from horizontal and µs is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.
This formula can also be used to calculate µs from empirical measurements of the friction angle.

Figure 9: Angle of friction, θ, when block just starts to slide.

5.4 Limitations of the Coulomb model

The Coulomb approximation follows from the assumptions that: surfaces are in atomically close
contact only over a small fraction of their overall area; that this contact area is proportional to the
normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact); and that the
frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area. The
Coulomb approximation is fundamentally an empirical construct. It is a rule-of-thumb describing
the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the
approximation is its simplicity and versatility. Though the relationship between normal force and
frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the
contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction
for the analysis of many physical systems.
When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for
example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal
force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag
racing tires are adhesive for this reason. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental
physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications.
"Negative" coefficient of friction
As of 2012, a single study has demonstrated the potential for an effectively negative coefficient of
friction in the low-load regime, meaning that a decrease in normal force leads to an increase in
friction. This contradicts everyday experience in which an increase in normal force leads to an
increase in friction. This was reported in the journal Nature in October 2012 and involved the
friction encountered by an atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene sheet in
the presence of graphene-adsorbed oxygen.
5.5 Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model
Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many numerical
simulation applications such as multibody systems and granular material. Even its most simple
expression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are required in many
applied cases, although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently numerically
integrate mechanical systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral or unilateral contact.Some

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quite nonlinear effects, such as the so-called Painlevé paradoxes, may be encountered with
Coulomb friction.
5.6 Dry friction and instabilities
Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems which display a stable
behaviour in the absence of friction. These instabilities may be caused by the decrease of the
friction force with an increasing velocity of sliding, by material expansion due to heat generation
during friction (the thermo-elastic instabilities), or by pure dynamic effects of sliding of two elastic
materials (the Adams-Martins instabilities). The latter were originally discovered in 1995
by George G. Adams and João Arménio Correia Martins for smooth surface and were later found in
periodic rough surfaces. In particular, friction-related dynamical instabilities are thought to be
responsible for brake squeal and the 'song' of a glass harp, phenomena which involve stick and slip,
modelled as a drop of friction coefficient with velocity.
A practically important case is the self-oscillation of the strings of bowed instruments such as
the violin, cello, hurdy-gurdy, erhu, etc.
A connection between dry friction and flutter instability in a simple mechanical system has been
discovered, watch the movie for more details.
Frictional instabilities can lead to the formation of new self-organized patterns (or "secondary
structures") at the sliding interface, such as in-situ formed tribofilms which are utilized for the
reduction of friction and wear in so-called self-lubricating materials.

6. Fluid Friction

Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal
resistance to flow is named viscosity. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its
"thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher
viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.
All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous. For
teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or an ideal
fluid which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

7. Lubricated friction

Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication
is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative
to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces.
In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional
viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate lubrication
allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive
stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub
destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

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 8. Skin friction

Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly
related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows
the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.
Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two ways
to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like
an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as
much as is practicable.

9. Internal friction

Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while
it undergoes deformation.
Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an
object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature. The
change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress.
Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.
Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose
the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist
the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original
shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or elasticity.

10. Radiation Friction

As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein[65] in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation

friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, “radiation will exert pressure on
both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at
rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during
the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted
on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the
resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that
increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief.”

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 11. Other Types Friction

11.1 Rolling resistance

Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a
surface caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is
less than that associated with kinetic friction. Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance
are 0.001.One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor
vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.
11.2 Braking friction
Any wheel equipped with a brake is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the
purpose of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery. Braking friction differs
from rolling friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas the
coefficient of friction for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials for brake
pads.
11.3 Triboelectric effect
Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which
can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up
discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.
11.4 Belt friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a
pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can
be modeled by the belt friction equation.
In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation
can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to
know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from
slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction
when accomplishing basic tasks.

12. Reducing Friction

12.1 Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.
Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing
imposed load. For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually
specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

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 12.2 Lubricants
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is
placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The
science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are
mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.
Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial
decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of
frictional energy would still be dissipated.
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as
graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of
the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise,
known as dither.

13. Energy of Friction

According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it
may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into thermal energy.
A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat which
raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early
philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a
driving force.
When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given by
a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work

Where,
Ffric is the friction force,

Fn is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit vector
pointing against the object's motion,

μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary from

x location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path), is the position of the
object.
Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility.

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 13.1 Work of friction
In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work, because
there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is
always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work. However, friction can
do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug,
then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves
forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction
between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves,
doing positive work.
The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact
surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as
in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction
welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional
forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in
relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. As surfaces are worn by work due to
friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly. For
example, bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction.

13.2 Friction plot

Figure 10: Friction plot

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14 Applications

Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

14.1 Transportation
i. Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical
challenge in designing brake systems. Disk brakes rely on friction between a disc
and brake pads that are squeezed transversely against the rotating disc. In drum
brakes, brake shoes or pads are pressed outwards against a rotating cylinder (brake
drum) to create friction. Since braking discs can be more efficiently cooled than drums,
disc brakes have better stopping performance.
ii. Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails.
iii. Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles:
-Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on
either side of a car.
-Road texture affects the interaction of tyres and the driving surface.

14.2 Measurement

• A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.

• A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.

14.3 Household usage

• Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the head of a matchstick and
the rubbing surface of the match box).
• Sticky pads are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively
increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object.

15 Basic Problems

P1: A mass is resting on a flat surface which has a normal force of 98 N, with a coefficient of static
friction of 0.35. What force would it take to move the object?
Solution:
We know that,
Fs = µs x N
Here,

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N = 98 N and µs = 0.35
Then,
Fs = 98 N x 0.35 = 34.3 N
P2: A 15 kg piece of wood is placed on top of another piece of wood. There is 35 N of static
friction measured between them. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the two pieces
of wood.
Solution:
We know that,
Fs = µs x N,
Here,
N = 15 kg x 9.81 m/s2 = 147.15 N,
Fs = 35N, µs = 35/147.15 = 0.24

16 Three Experiments

Here we deal with the frictional forces that exist between dry solid surfaces, either stationary
relative to each other or moving across each other at slow speeds. Consider three simple thought
experiments:

i. Send a book sliding across a long horizontal counter. As expected, the book slows and then
stops. This means the book must have an acceleration parallel to the counter surface, in the
direction opposite the book’s velocity. From Newton’s second law, then, a force must act on
the book parallel to the counter surface, in the direction opposite its velocity. That force is a
frictional force.
ii. Push horizontally on the book to make it travel at constant velocity along the counter. Can
the force from you be the only horizontal force on the book?
No, because then the book would accelerate. From Newton’s second law, there must be a
second force, directed opposite your force but with the same magnitude, so that the two
forces balance. That second force is a frictional force, directed parallel to the counter.
iii. Push horizontally on a heavy crate. The crate does not move. From Newton’s second law, a
second force must also be acting on the crate to counteract your force. Moreover, this
second force must be directed opposite your force and have the same magnitude as your
force, so that the two forces balance. That second force is a frictional force. Push even
harder. The crate still does not move. Apparently the frictional force can change in
magnitude so that the two forces still balance. Now push with all your strength. The crate
begins to slide. Evidently, there is a maximum magnitude of the frictional force. When you
exceed that maximum magnitude, the crate slides.

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Two Types of Friction. Figure 11 shows a similar situation. In Fig. 11a, a block rests on a tabletop,
with the gravitational force balanced by a normal force .
In Fig. 11b, you exert a force on the block, attempting to pull it to the left. In response, a
frictional force is directed to the right, exactly balancing your force. The force is called the
static frictional force. The block does not move.

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 Figure 11

Here,
(a) The forces on a stationary block. (b–d) An external force , applied to the block, is
balanced by a static frictional force . As F is increased, also increases, until fs reaches
a certain maximum value.
(b) Once reaches its maximum value, the block “breaks away,” accelerating suddenly in the
direction of . (f ) If the block is now to move with constant velocity, F must be reduced
from the maximum value it had just before the block broke away. (g) Some experimental
results for the sequence (a) through (f ).

Figures 11c and 11d show that as you increase the magnitude of your applied force, the magnitude
of the static frictional force also increases and the block remains at rest. When the applied force
reaches a certain magnitude, however, the block “breaks away” from its intimate contact with the
tabletop and accelerates leftward (Fig. 11e).The frictional force that then opposes the motion is
called the kinetic frictional force .

Usually, the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force, which acts when there is motion, is less than
the maximum magnitude of the static frictional force, which acts when there is no motion. Thus, if
you wish the block to move across the surface with a constant speed, you must usually decrease the
magnitude of the applied force once the block begins to move, as in Fig. 11f. As an example, Fig.
11g shows the results of an experiment in which the force on a block was slowly increased until
breakaway occurred. Note the reduced force needed to keep the block moving at constant speed
after breakaway.

Microscopic View. A frictional force is, in essence, the vector sum of many forces acting between
the surface atoms of one body and those of another body. If two highly polished and carefully
cleaned metal surfaces are brought together in a very good vacuum (to keep them clean), they

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cannot be made to slide over each other. Because the surfaces are so smooth, many atoms of one
surface contact many atoms of the other surface, and the surfaces cold-weld together instantly,
forming a single piece of metal. If a machinist’s specially polished gage blocks are brought together
in air, there is less atom-to-atom contact, but the blocks stick firmly to each other and can be
separated only by means of a wrenching motion.
Usually, however, this much atom-to-atom contact is not possible. Even a highly polished metal
surface is far from being flat on the atomic scale. Moreover, the surfaces of everyday objects have
layers of oxides and other contaminants that reduce cold-welding.

When two ordinary surfaces are placed together, only the high points touch each other. (It is like
having the Alps of Switzerland turned over and placed down on the Alps of Austria.) The actual
microscopic area of contact is much less than the apparent macroscopic contact area, perhaps by a
factor of 104. Nonetheless,

Figure 12

Figure 12: The mechanism of sliding friction.

(a) The upper surface is sliding to the right over the lower surface in this enlarged view.
(b) A detail, showing two spots where cold-welding has occurred. Force is required to break the welds and
maintain the motion.

Many contact points do cold-weld together. These welds produce static friction when an applied
force attempts to slide the surfaces relative to each other. If the applied force is great enough to pull
one surface across the other, there is first a tearing of welds (at breakaway) and then a continuous
re-forming and tearing of welds as movement occurs and chance contacts are made (Fig. 12). The
kinetic frictional force that opposes the motion is the vector sum of the forces at those many
chance contacts. If the two surfaces are pressed together harder, many more points cold-weld. Now
getting the surfaces to slide relative to each other requires a greater applied force: The static
frictional force has a greater maximum value. Once the surfaces are sliding, there are many

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more points of momentary cold-welding, so the kinetic frictional force also has a greater
magnitude.
Often, the sliding motion of one surface over another is “jerky” because the two surfaces alternately
stick together and then slip. Such repetitive stick-and-slip can produce squeaking or squealing, as
when tires skid on dry pavement, fingernails scratch along a chalkboard, or a rusty hinge is opened.
It can also produce beautiful and captivating sounds, as in music when a bow is drawn properly
across a violin string.

17 Properties of Friction

Experiment shows that when a dry and unlubricated body presses against a surface in the same
condition and a force attempts to slide the body along the surface, the resulting frictional force
has three properties:

Property 1. If the body does not move, then the static frictional force and the component of
that is parallel to the surface balance each other. They are equal in magnitude, and is directed
opposite that component of

Property 2. The magnitude of has a maximum value fs,max that is given by

fs,max _ μsFN,

Where μs is the coefficient of static friction and is the magnitude of the normal force on the
body from the surface. If the magnitude of the component of that is parallel to the surface exceeds
fs,max, then the body begins to slide along the surface.

Property 3. If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force
rapidly decreases to a value fk given by

fk _ μkFN,

Where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Thereafter, during the sliding, a kinetic frictional
force with magnitude given by Second equation opposes the motion.

The magnitude FN of the normal force appears in properties 2 and 3 as a measure of how firmly
the body presses against the surface. If the body presses harder, then, by Newton’s third law, FN is
greater. Properties 1 and 2 are worded in terms of a single applied force , but they also hold for
the net force of several applied forces acting on the body. Both equations are not vector equations;
the direction of or is always parallel to the surface and opposed to the attempted sliding, and
the normal force is perpendicular to the surface.
The coefficients μs and μk are dimensionless and must be determined experimentally.

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Their values depend on certain properties of both the body and the surface; hence, they are usually
referred to with the preposition “between,” as in “the value of μs between an egg and a Teflon-
coated skillet is 0.04, but that between rock-climbing shoes and rock is as much as 1.2.”We assume
that the value of μk does not depend on the speed at which the body slides along the surface.

18 Conclusion

Friction is a force that resists the motion of an object or material that is in contact with another
object or material. It is often called the resistive force of friction. It can cause problems but is also
useful and necessary.

The resistance can result in static friction, where objects do not move with respect to each other. Or,
it can be kinetic or dynamic, where there is motion. The different types friction are dry, fluid,
lubricated, skin, internal and radiation friction. The cause of friction is a combination of molecular
adhesion, surface roughness, and deformation effects.

The standard friction equation includes the coefficient of friction between materials.

19 References

i. David Halliday, R. R. (n.d.). Fundamentals of Physics Extended Edition. Wiley.

ii. Shaikh, D. M. (n.d.). General Science & Environment. pptx, University of Dhaka, Department of
Chemistry.

iii. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from wikipidea.com: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction

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