Ilocos Sur Polytechnic State College: College of Teacher Education Mark Leo Hortizuela Bsed Iii

Republic of the Philippines
ILOCOS SUR POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE

College of Teacher Education
Main Campus, Sta. Maria 2705, Ilocos Sur
Activity 6
Outstanding Personalities of Curriculum Foundation Who
Contributed to Curriculum Development
CLUSTER 1: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION
1. PLATO
Philosopher, Writer (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the
author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western thought.
Quote: “All the gold which is under or upon the earth is not enough to
give in exchange for virtue
Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student
of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty
and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political
philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of
language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of
higher learning in the Western world. He died in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.
Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato's
life has been constructed by scholars through his writings and the writings of
contemporaries and classical historians. Traditional history estimates Plato's
birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars, tracing later events
in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his
parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato's father, Ariston, descended
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

from the kings of Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be
related to the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman Solon.
Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather,
Aristocles, following the tradition of the naming the eldest son after the
grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence of this, or that Plato was the
eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that "Plato" was a nickname,
referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is
record that the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.
As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught
by some of Athens' finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the
doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as well as Parmenides. These probably
helped develop the foundation for Plato's study of metaphysics (the study of
nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).
Plato's father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her
uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is
believed to have had two full brothers, one sister and a half brother, though it
is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often, members of Plato's
family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of
Plato's pride in his family lineage.
As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his
course in life. One was meeting the great Greek philosopher Socrates.
Socrates's methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato so much that he
soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the question of

virtue and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was
the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for
a brief time between 409 and 404 B.C.E. The defeat of Athens ended its
democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two of Plato's
relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new
government, part of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely
reduced the rights of Athenian citizens. After the oligarchy was overthrown
and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a career in politics, but
the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured him on this idea and he turned
to a life of study and philosophy.
After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the
Mediterranean region, studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy,
and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in Egypt. During this time, or
soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate among
scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three
distinct periods.
2. ARISTOTLE
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in northern Greece. Both of his
parents were members of traditional medical families, and his father,
Nicomachus, served as court physician to King Amyntus III of Macedonia. His
parents died while he was young, and he was likely raised at his family’s
home in Stagira. At age 17 he was sent to Athens to enroll in Plato's

Academy. He spent 20 years as a student and teacher at the school,
emerging with both a great respect and a good deal of criticism for his
teacher’s theories. Plato’s own later writings, in which he softened some
earlier positions, likely bear the mark of repeated discussions with his most
gifted student.
When Plato died in 347, control of the Academy passed to his nephew
Speusippus. Aristotle left Athens soon after, though it is not clear whether
frustrations at the Academy or political difficulties due to his family’s
Macedonian connections hastened his exit. He spent five years on the coast
of Asia Minor as a guest of former students at Assos and Lesbos. It was here
that he undertook his pioneering research into marine biology and married his
wife Pythias, with whom he had his only daughter, also named Pythias.
In 342 Aristotle was summoned to Macedonia by King Philip II to tutor
his son, the future Alexander the Great—a meeting of great historical figures
that, in the words of one modern commentator, “made remarkably little impact
on either of them.”
Aristotle and the Lyceum
Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 B.C. As an alien, he couldn’t own property,
so he rented space in the Lyceum, a former wrestling school outside the city.
Like Plato’s Academy, the Lyceum attracted students from throughout the
Greek world and developed a curriculum centered on its founder’s teachings.
In accordance with Aristotle’s principle of surveying the writings of others as

part of the philosophical process, the Lyceum assembled a collection of
manuscripts that comprised one of the world’s first great libraries.
Aristotle’s Works
It was at the Lyceum that Aristotle probably composed most of his
approximately 200 works, of which only 31 survive. In style, his known works
are dense and almost jumbled, suggesting that they were lecture notes for
internal use at his school. The surviving works of Aristotle are grouped into
four categories. The “Organon” is a set of writings that provide a logical toolkit
for use in any philosophical or scientific investigation. Next come Aristotle’s
theoretical works, most famously his treatises on animals (“Parts of Animals,”
“Movement of Animals,” etc.), cosmology, the “Physics” (a basic inquiry about
the nature of matter and change) and the “Metaphysics” (a quasi-theological
investigation of existence itself).
Third are Aristotle’s so-called practical works, notably the
“Nicomachean Ethics” and “Politics,” both deep investigations into the nature
of human flourishing on the individual, familial and societal levels. Finally, his
“Rhetoric” and “Poetics” examine the finished products of human productivity,
including what makes for a convincing argument and how a well-wrought
tragedy can instill cathartic fear and pity.
Aristotle’s Death and Legacy

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., anti-Macedonian
sentiment again forced Aristotle to flee Athens. He died a little north of the city
in 322, of a digestive complaint. He asked to be buried next to his wife, who
had died some years before. In his last years he had a relationship with his
slave Herpyllis, who bore him Nicomachus, the son for whom his great ethical
treatise is named.
Aristotle’s favored students took over the Lyceum, but within a few decades
the school’s influence had faded in comparison to the rival Academy. For
several generations Aristotle’s works were all but forgotten. The historian
Strabo says they were stored for centuries in a moldy cellar in Asia Minor
before their rediscovery in the first century B.C., though it is unlikely that these
were the only copies.
In 30 B.C. Andronicus of Rhodes grouped and edited Aristotle’s
remaining works in what became the basis for all later editions. After the fall of
Rome, Aristotle was still read in Byzantium and became well-known in the
Islamic world, where thinkers like Avicenna (970-1037), Averroes (1126-1204)
and the Jewish scholar Maimonodes (1134-1204) revitalized Aritotle’s logical
and scientific precepts.
Aristotle in the Middle Ages and Beyond
In the 13th century, Aristotle was reintroduced to the West through the
work of Albertus Magnus and especially Thomas Aquinas, whose brilliant

synthesis of Aristotelian and Christian thought provided a bedrock for late
medieval Catholic philosophy, theology and science.
Aristotle’s universal influence waned somewhat during the
Renaissance and Reformation, as religious and scientific reformers
questioned the way the Catholic Church had subsumed his precepts.
Scientists like Galileo and Copernicus disproved his geocentric model of the
solar system, while anatomists such as William Harvey dismantled many of
his biological theories. However, even today, Aristotle’s work remains a
significant starting point for any argument in the fields of logic, aesthetics,
political theory and ethics.
3. JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was a German philosopher-
psychologist and educator, noted for his contributions in laying the
foundations of scientific study of education.
Johann Friedrich Herbart was born on May 4, 1776, in Oldenburg, the
son of the state councilor for Oldenburg. He attended the University of Jena
(1794-1799). While there he studied under Johann Gottlieb Fichte and met
Friedrich von Schiller. Upon graduation Herbart went to Interlaken,
Switzerland, where he served as tutor to the governor's three sons. In
Switzerland he met Johann Pestalozzi and visited his school at Burgdorf.
Herbart taught philosophy and pedagogy at Göttingen (1802-1809). He
began to seek a sound philosophical base upon which to rest his educational
theories. His major works during this time include ABC's of Observation

(1804), The Moral or Ethical Revelation of the World: The Chief Aim of
Education (1804), General Pedagogics (his chief educational work, 1806),
Chief Points of Logic (1806), Chief Points of Metaphysics (1806), and General
Practical Philosophy (1808).
In 1809 Herbart accepted the chair of philosophy at Königsberg
University. He met Wilhelm von Humboldt, the Prussian commissioner of
education, and at his request served on the commission for higher education.
Herbart, a believer in normal schools and teacher education, sponsored the
establishment of a pedagogical school and practice (laboratory) school at
Königsberg in 1810. He then married Mary Drake, an English girl.
Herbart wrote System of Psychology (1814), Text-book of Psychology
(1816), Psychology as a Science (1825), and a two-volume work, General
Metaphysics (1829). His work cast him as a liberal thinker in many minds, and
this did not fit well into the reactionary tone then gaining headway in Prussia.
It cost him an appointment to Hegel's vacated chair of philosophy at Berlin
University in 1831. Dissatisfied with the way things were progressing in
Prussia, Herbart returned to Göttingen in 1833. He lectured at the university
and published Outline of Pedagogical Lectures (1835). He died on Aug. 11,
1841.
4. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS
John Amos Comenius, Czech Jan Ámos Komenský, (born March 28,
1592, Nivnice, Moravia, Habsburg domain [now in Czech Republic]—died

Nov. 14, 1670, Amsterdam, Neth.), Czech educational reformer and religious
leader, remembered mainly for his innovations in methods of teaching,
especially languages. He favored the learning of Latin to facilitate the study of
European culture. Janua Linguarum Reserata (1632; The Gate of Tongues
Unlocked) revolutionized Latin teaching and was translated into 16 languages.
Life
Comenius was the only son of respected members of a Protestant
group known as the Bohemian Brethren. His parents died when he was age
10, and after four unhappy years spent living with his aunt in Strážnice, he
was sent to a secondary school at Přerov. Though the teaching methods
there were poor, he was befriended by a headmaster who recognized his gifts
and encouraged him to train for the ministry. Following two years at the
Herborn Gymnasium in the Nassau region (now part of Germany), he entered
the University of Heidelberg (1613). While there he came under the influence
of Protestant millennialists, who believed that men could achieve salvation on
earth. He also read with enthusiasm the works of Francis Bacon and returned
home convinced that the millennium could be attained with the aid of science.
As a young minister Comenius found life wholly satisfying, but the
outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618 and the emperor Ferdinand II’s
determination to re-Catholicize Bohemia forced him and other Protestant
leaders to flee. While in hiding, he wrote an allegory, The Labyrinth of the
World and the Paradise of the Heart, in which he described both his early
despair and his sources of consolation. With a band of Brethren he escaped

to Poland and in 1628 settled in Leszno. Believing that the Protestants would
eventually win and liberate Bohemia, he began to prepare for the day when it
would be possible to rebuild society there through a reformed educational
system. He wrote a “Brief Proposal” advocating full-time schooling for all the
youth of the nation and maintaining that they should be taught both their
native culture and the culture of Europe.
Educational Reform
The reform of the educational system would require two things. First, a
revolution in methods of teaching was necessary so that learning might
become rapid, pleasant, and thorough. Teachers ought to “follow in the
footsteps of nature,” meaning that they ought to pay attention to the mind of
the child and to the way the student learned. Comenius made this the theme
of The Great Didactic and also of The School of Infancy—a book for mothers
on the early years of childhood. Second, to make European culture accessible
to all children, it was necessary that they learn Latin. But Comenius was
certain that there was a better way of teaching Latin than by the inefficient and
pedantic methods then in use; he advocated “nature’s way,” that is, learning
about things and not about grammar. To this end he wrote Janua Linguarum
Reserata, a textbook that described useful facts about the world in both Latin
and Czech, side by side; thus, the pupils could compare the two languages
and identify words with things. Translated into German, the Janua soon
became famous throughout Europe and was subsequently translated into a

number of European and Asian languages. Comenius wrote that he was
“encouraged beyond expectation” by the book’s reception.
5. ROBERT HUTCHINS
Hutchins, born in Brooklyn, New York, moved at age eight to Oberlin, Ohio,
where his father, a minister, taught at Oberlin College, an institution Hutchins
attended from 1915 to 1917. He served in the ambulance service during World
War I prior to attending and graduating from Yale University (1921) and the Yale
Law School (1925). He was named dean of the Yale Law School in 1927 where
he presided until 1930, when he became the youngest president ever of a major
university, the University of Chicago. Upon leaving the University of Chicago in
1951, he spent four years with the Ford Foundation (1951–1954) and then the
remainder of his career with the Ford Foundation-sponsored Fund for the
Republic (1954–1977) and the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions
(1959–1973, 1975–1977).
While president of the University of Chicago (1930–1951), Hutchins was an
eloquent spokesperson for a particular view of higher education. A liberal
education was a moral endeavor to discover what was good and how to act on it.
He believed that the university should nurture the life of the mind and be a
community of scholars rather than an organization without a core, with
specialization in the disciplines, and with increased vocationalism framing the
curriculum. An expression of his approach was the Hutchins College of the
University of Chicago, where young students who had not yet finished high
school were admitted to study and acquired a liberal education and where, for

example, successful completion of a degree was based on passing
comprehensive examinations rather than accumulating course credits. The
pedagogical model of choice was small discussion classes and the Socratic
method, and the content for discussions included interacting with the Great
Books.
Hutchins was a controversial administrator and no area of the university
escaped his scrutiny. He continually engaged members of the University of
Chicago faculty in attempts to make the university, from his point of view, more
just and equitable. In the extracurricular arena, despite the fact that the University
of Chicago dominated football in the Western Conference (later to become the
Big Ten) and one of its players was the first Heisman trophy winner, Hutchins in
1939 convinced the university that it should drop intercollegiate football. He
purportedly claimed, as the reason for dropping it, that it was possible to win 12
letters before learning to write one.
During his presidency at Chicago, Hutchins defended the university and its
faculty in academic freedom issues. A staunch defender of free speech in both
the academy and in a democratic society, his principled defenses prevailed.
When the case of one faculty member accused of teaching communism was to
be discussed by the board of trustees, a faculty colleague confronted Hutchins
and said: "If the trustees fire [the faculty member], you will receive the
resignations of 20 full professors tomorrow morning. Hutchins replied, "Oh, no, I
won't. My successor will" (Mayer, p. xii).

During his tenure at the university Hutchins was involved in the publication of
the Great Books of the Western World and the Encyclopedia Britannica. These
two enterprises both enhanced Chicago's reputation and brought additional
monetary resources for use in the university. Despite his opposition to the
pragmatists in the philosophy department, Hutchins was a consummately
successful fundraiser who had no difficulty spending money (he always exceeded
the yearly university budget).
During World War II Hutchins committed the university to complete support of
the war effort. The university was the site, or more precisely and perhaps
ironically, a squash court under the football stands in Stagg Field was the site, of
the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. This theoretical advance, a part of
the Manhattan project, led, of course, to the first atomic bomb and the beginning
of the nuclear age. After the war Hutchins tried but failed to get nuclear physicists
to not disseminate their knowledge and techniques and to discontinue such work.
Hutchins' strong beliefs in democratic values and his defense of fundamental
freedoms continued during his tenure with Fund for the Republic, a Ford
Foundation-sponsored organization. He led a number of projects that directly
opposed the political machinations of the now infamous Joseph McCarthy, the
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) and other groups that
perceived communist threats to the United States. Among the most devastating
projects of the Fund for the Republic was one that produced a two-volume report
of blacklisting in industry with an emphasis on television and the movies.

Hutchins, however, did not emerge unscathed from this work and was attacked
by the press and popular media for his views.
During its first few years the Fund for the Republic concentrated on projects
that produced information and knowledge that could be widely disseminated. The
major activity of the fund from the late 1950s until the mid-1970s, however, was
support for the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions. His last attempt to
create a community of scholars, the Center in Santa Barbara, California, was a
place for resident scholars and invited guests to discuss serious issues. Under
Hutchins the Center hosted and supported numerous international conferences
and a publishing enterprise that created an international presence for its
deliberations.
6. WILLIAM BAGLEY
William Chandler Bagley was born on March 15, 1874, in Detroit,
Michigan, the son of William Chase and Ruth Walker. His family moved from
Massachusetts to Detroit, where his father worked as a hospital
superintendent. After graduating from a high school in Detroit, he enrolled in
1891 in the Michigan Agricultural College (now Michigan State University). In
1895, he graduated with a bachelor's degree, and started to work as a teacher
in a small school in Garth, Michigan.
The teaching experience in Garth helped Bagley decide on his life-
calling. He borrowed money and enrolled in graduate school at the University
of Wisconsin, where he earned his master’s degree in 1898. Two years later,
in 1900, he was awarded a Ph.D. in education and psychology from Cornell

University, where he studied under Edward B. Titchener, one of the leading
psychologists at the time. His dissertation was entitled The Apperception of
the Spoken Sentence.
In 1901, Bagley worked as a principal in an elementary school in St.
Louis, Missouri. Around the same time he married Florence MacLean Winger,
with whom he had four children.
In 1902, Bagley began teaching at the Montana State Normal College
at Dillon, Montana, as professor of psychology and pedagogy. After few years
spent there he moved to New York and taught at the State Normal School in
Oswego. In 1909, he was appointed professor and director of the School of
Education at the University of Illinois, where he built a strong education
department. During his tenure there he founded the Kappa Delta Pi honorary
society in education. He developed and refined the basic concepts that
became the foundation for the society's ideals.
Bagley became professor of education at Teachers College, Columbia
University in 1917, and stayed in that position until his retirement in 1939. His
work at Columbia was his most productive, publishing numerous books and
papers in the area of education.
Bagley founded and/or edited several journals and magazines. In 1905
he founded the Inter-Mountain Educator, which was the first educational
journal in the northern Rocky Mountain region. In 1910, he co-founded and
edited the Journal of Educational Psychology, and edited School and Home
Education (1912–1914). In the period from 1920 to 1925, he was editor of the
Journal of the National Education Association. He worked with the Carnegie

Foundation to found the Society for the Advancement of Education, for which
he edited its journal, School and SOCIETY. He died in 1946, at the age of 72,
in New York City.
An American educator and editor. A critic of pragmatism and
progressive education, he advocated educational "essentialism." Bagley
published chiefly on the topics of teacher education, curriculum, philosophy of
education, and educational psychology. His experience as teacher and
administrator of public schools laid a strong practical foundation for his
theoretical formulations regarding improvement in public education. Bagley
promoted a core of traditional subjects as essential to a good education, the
goal of which is the development of good citizens who will be useful to
society. He believed this education should be available to all, and opposed
the use of standardized tests that were biased against minority groups. At a
time when schools were moving toward progressive education, Bagley's views
of the importance of maintaining the authority of the teacher and principal of
the school, emphasizing the importance of obedience by students to such
authority, provided a strong contrast to the egalitarian views of the
progressives. He regarded education as the method of passing on the
knowledge of a society to the next generation. However, his view was limited
to academic knowledge, rather ignoring the complex of cultural beliefs and
behaviors that are commonly accepted by all members of a society, and the
important role of parents in transmitting this to their children.
7. JOHN DEWEY

John Dewey, (born Oct. 20, 1859, Burlington, Vt., U.S.—died June 1,
1952, New York, N.Y.), American philosopher and educator who was a
founder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in
functional psychology, and a leader of the progressive movement in education
in the United States.
Dewey graduated with a bachelor’s degree from the University of
Vermont in 1879. After receiving a doctorate in philosophy from Johns
Hopkins University in 1884, he began teaching philosophy and psychology at
the University of Michigan. There his interests gradually shifted from the
philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel to the new experimental
psychology being advanced in the United States by G. Stanley Hall and the
pragmatist philosopher and psychologist William James. Further study of child
psychology prompted Dewey to develop a philosophy of education that would
meet the needs of a changing democratic society. In 1894 he joined the
faculty of philosophy at the University of Chicago, where he further developed
his progressive pedagogy in the university’s Laboratory Schools. In 1904
Dewey left Chicago for Columbia University in New York City, where he spent
the majority of his career and wrote his most famous philosophical work,
Experience and Nature (1925). His subsequent writing, which included articles
in popular periodicals, treated topics in aesthetics, politics, and religion. The
common theme underlying Dewey’s philosophy was his belief that a
democratic society of informed and engaged inquirers was the best means of
promoting human interests.
Being, Nature, And Experience

In order to develop and articulate his philosophical system, Dewey first
needed to expose what he regarded as the flaws of the existing tradition. He
believed that the distinguishing feature of Western philosophy was its
assumption that true being—that which is fully real or fully knowable—is
changeless, perfect, and eternal and the source of whatever reality the world
of experience may possess. Plato’s forms (abstract entities corresponding to
the properties of particular things) and the Christian conception of God were
two examples of such a static, pure, and transcendent being, compared with
which anything that undergoes change is imperfect and less real. According to
one modern version of the assumption, developed by the 17th-century
philosopher René Descartes, all experience is subjective, an exclusively
mental phenomenon that cannot provide evidence of the existence or the
nature of the physical world, the “matter” of which is ultimately nothing more
than changeless extension in motion. The Western tradition thus made a
radical distinction between true reality on the one hand and the endless
varieties and variations of worldly human experience on the other.
Dewey held that this philosophy of nature was drastically impoverished.
Rejecting any dualism between being and experience, he proposed that all
things are subject to change and do change. There is no static being, and
there is no changeless nature. Nor is experience purely subjective, because
the human mind is itself part and parcel of nature. Human experiences are the
outcomes of a range of interacting processes and are thus worldly events.
The challenge to human life, therefore, is to determine how to live well with
processes of change, not somehow to transcend them.

Dewey developed a metaphysics that examined characteristics of
nature that encompassed human experience but were either ignored by or
misrepresented by more traditional philosophers. Three such characteristics—
what he called the “precarious,” “histories,” and “ends”—were central to his
philosophical project.
8. JEAN PAUL SARTRE
Sartre was born in Paris where he spent most of his life. After a traditional
philosophical education in prestigious Parisian schools that introduced him to the
history of Western philosophy with a bias toward Cartesianism and
neoKantianism, not to mention a strong strain of Bergsonism, Sartre succeeded
his former school friend, Raymond Aron, at the French Institute in Berlin (1933–
1934) where he read the leading phenomenologists of the day, Husserl,
Heidegger and Scheler. He prized Husserl's restatement of the principle of
intentionality (all consciousness aims at or “intends” an other-than-
consciousness) that seemed to free the thinker from the inside/outside
epistemology inherited from Descartes while retaining the immediacy and
certainty that Cartesians prized so highly. What he read of Heidegger at that time
is unclear, but he deals with the influential German otologist explicitly after his
return and especially in his masterwork, Being and Nothingness (1943). He
exploits the latter's version of Husserlian intentionality by insisting that human
reality (Heidegger's Dasein or human way of being) is “in the world” primarily via
its practical concerns and not its epistemic relationships. This lends both
Heidegger's and Sartre's early philosophies a kind of “pragmatist” character that
Sartre, at least, will never abandon. It has been remarked that many of the

Heideggerian concepts in Sartre's existentialist writings also occur in those of
Bergson, whose “Les Données immediates de la conscience” (Time and Free
Will) Sartre once credited with drawing him toward philosophy. But it is clear that
Sartre devoted much of his early philosophical attention to combating the then
influential Bergsonism and that mention of Bergson's name decreases as that of
Heidegger grows in Sartre's writings during the “vintage” existentialist years.
Sartre seems to have read the phenomenological ethicist Max Scheler, whose
concept of the intuitive grasp of paradigm cases is echoed in Sartre's reference to
the “image” of the kind of person one should be that both guides and is fashioned
by our moral choices. But where Scheler in the best Husserlian fashion argues
for the “discovery” of such value images, Sartre insists on their creation. The
properly “existentialist” version of phenomenology is already in play.
Though Sartre was not a serious reader of Hegel or Marx until during and
after the war, like so many of his generation, he came under the influence of
Kojève's Marxist and protoexistentialist interpretation of Hegel, though he never
attended his famous lectures in the 1930s as did Lacan and Merleau-Ponty. It
was Jean Hyppolite's translation of and commentary on Hegel's Phenomenology
of Spirit that marked Sartre's closer study of the seminal German philosopher.
This is especially evident in his posthumously published Notebooks for an Ethics
written in 1947–48 to fulfill the promise of an “ethics of authenticity” made in
Being and Nothingness. That project was subsequently abandoned but the
Hegelian and Marxist presence became dominant in Sartre's next major
philosophical text, the Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960) and in an essay that
came to serve as its Introduction, Search for a Method (1957). Dilthey had

dreamt of completing Kant's famous triad with a fourth Kritik, namely, a critique of
historical reason. Sartre pursued this project by combining a Hegelian-Marxist
dialectic with an Existentialist “psychoanalysis” that incorporates individual
responsibility into class relationships, thereby adding a properly Existentialist
dimension of moral responsibility to a Marxist emphasis on collective and
structural causality—what Raymond Aron would later criticize as an impossible
union of Kierkegaard and Marx. In the final analysis, Kierkegaard wins out;
Sartre's “Marxism” remains adjectival to his existentialism and not the reverse.
This becomes apparent in the last phase of his work.
Sartre had long been fascinated with the French novelist Gustave
Flaubert. In what some would consider the culmination of his thought, he weds
Existentialist biography with Marxian social critique in a Hegelian “totalization” of
an individual and his era, to produce the last of his many incompleted projects, a
multi-volume study of Flaubert's life and times, The Family Idiot (1971–1972). In
this work, Sartre joins his Existentialist vocabulary of the 1940s and early 1950s
with his Marxian lexicon of the late 1950s and 1960s to ask what we can know
about a man in the present state of our knowledge. This study, which he
describes as “a novel that is true,” incarnates that mixture of phenomenological
description, psychological insight, and social critique that has become the
hallmark of Sartrean philosophy. These features doubtless contributed to his
being awarded the Nobel prize for literature, which he characteristically refused
along with its substantial cash grant lest his acceptance be read as approval of
the bourgeois values that the honor seemed to emblemize.

In his last years, Sartre, who had lost the use of one eye in childhood,
became almost totally blind. Yet he continued to work with the help of a tape
recorder, producing with Benny Lévy portions of a “co-authored” ethics, the
published parts of which indicate, in the eyes of many, that its value may be more
biographical than philosophical.
After his death, thousands spontaneously joined his funeral cortège in a
memorable tribute to his respect and esteem among the public at large. As the
headline of one Parisian newspaper lamented: “France has lost its conscience.”
9. JOHN PESTALOZZI
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zürich, Switzerland on January
12, 1746. His father died when Johann was only five, and his mother raised
Johann and his sister alone. Johann started his formal education rather late,
at the age of nine, but successfully completed school on time. He initially
enrolled to study ministry at the University of Zürich, but due to his shyness he
decided to switch his major from theology to law.
At the University of Zürich, Pestalozzi met Johann Kasper Lavater and
the reform party. He entered the world of politics. However, the death of his
friend Johann Kasper Bluntschli turned him from politics, and induced him to
devote himself to education.
Through his association with reformists, Pestalozzi had become aware
of social problems, which helped him develop a deeper sense for human

suffering. He began to research different ideas and schemes for improving the
condition of the people. Influenced by the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau to
"go back to nature," Pestalozzi started a social experiment—he purchased a
piece of waste land at Neuhof in Aargau, where he attempted to cultivate
madder, a plant whose roots can be used as a source of red dye. His idea
was to use this farm as a way of providing shelter and education for orphans.
Pestalozzi married his childhood friend and they had their first child,
Jacobi, soon after. He developed his teaching methods from teaching Jacobi
based on Rousseau's ideas in Emile. His wife proved to be a “down-to-earth”
woman, who helped her husband curb many of his impractical ideas. His
social experiment with a group of orphans was successful for five whole
years. Nevertheless, the project failed financially and the family went bankrupt
in 1780. However, when everything looked hopeless, Elizabeth Naef, a
neighbor, fortunately turned the whole farm project into a successful business
and saved Pestalozzi’s project.
In 1780, Pestalozzi wrote a series of reflections The Evening Hours of
a Hermit, which outlined his basic theory that education begins at home and
should occur naturally through direct experience. This was followed by his
masterpiece, Leonard and Gertrude (1781), an account of the gradual
reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole village, by the efforts of
a good and devoted woman. This work became a bestseller in Germany, and
the name of Pestalozzi became internationally recognized.
Pestalozzi with the orphans in Stans (detail); oil on canvas painting by
Konrad Grob, 1879 The French invasion of Switzerland in 1798 brought into

view Pestalozzi’s truly heroic character. A number of children were left in
Stans, in Canton Unterwalden, on the shores of Lake Lucerne, without
parents, home, food, or shelter. Pestalozzi gathered a number of them in a
deserted convent, which he turned into an orphanage. During the winter he
personally tended them with the utmost devotion, but in June 1799 the French
reclaimed the building for use as a hospital, and the orphanage was closed.
In 1799, Pestalozzi started yet another project. He volunteered his
service as a teacher to the village of Burgdorf, where he used his own
educational methods in his work with children. However, due to the non-
traditional nature of his teaching, the villagers became suspicious of
Pestalozzi’s success, with the result that he was compelled to open his own
private school. In a short time, with two additional teachers, the school
became the center of international attention and fame, and received
government support.
In 1801, Pestalozzi gave an exposition of his ideas on education in the
book How Gertrude teaches her Children. In 1802, he went as deputy to
Paris, and tried unsuccessfully to interest Napoleon I of France in a scheme of
national education.
In 1805, Pestalozzi moved his school to a castle at Yverdon, near
Neuchâtel, and for 20 years he worked steadily on this project. It became
famous worldwide, and he was visited by all who took an interest in education,
including Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, Count Ioannis Antonios
Kapodistrias, and Anne Louise Germaine de Staël. He was praised by
Wilhelm von Humboldt and by Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Many visiting educators

studied his methods and incorporated them into their own teaching, including
Carl Ritter and Friedrich Fröbel. Educational systems in countries all over
Europe were modified to reflect Pestalozzi’s ideas.
10. GEORGE COUNTS
Counts was born and raised in Baldwin, Kansas. His family was Methodist
and, by his own account, imparted strong ideals of fairness and brotherhood.
Counts earned his B.A. from Baker University, the local Methodist school, in
1911 with a degree in classical studies. After graduating, he was employed as
a high school math and science teacher, an athletic coach, and principal
before beginning postgraduate studies in education at the University of
Chicago in 1913, at the age of twenty-four. After receiving a Ph.D. degree with
honors, Counts taught at Delaware College, now the University of Delaware
(1916–1917) as head of the department of education. He taught educational
sociology at Harris Teachers College in St. Louis, Missouri (1918–1919),
secondary education at the University of Washington (1919–1920), and
education at Yale University (1920–1926) and at the University of Chicago
(1926–1927). For nearly thirty years, Counts taught at Teachers College,
Columbia University in New York (1927–1956). After being required to retire
at the age of 65 from Teachers College, Counts taught at the University of
Pittsburgh (1959), Michigan State University (1960), and Southern Illinois
University (1962–1971).

Sociology and Education
Much of Counts's scholarship derives from his pioneering work in the
sociology of education. His adviser as a doctoral student at the University of
Chicago was the chairman of the department of education, psychologist
Charles H. Judd. Significantly, Counts insisted on fashioning for himself a
minor in sociology and social science at a time when professors of education
wholly embraced psychology as the mediating discipline through which to
study educational practice and problems. Although his contemporaries were
fascinated with the "science of education" and its psychological
underpinnings, Counts was interested in the study of social conditions and
problems and their relationship to education. Heavily influenced by Albion
Small and other Chicago sociologists, Counts saw in sociology the opportunity
to examine and reshape schools by considering the impact of social forces
and varied political and social interests on educational practice. For example,
in the Selective Character of American Secondary Education (1922), Counts
demonstrated a close relationship between students' perseverance in school
and their parents' occupations. In the Social Composition of Boards of
Education: A Study in the Social Control of Public Education (1927) and
School and Society in Chicago (1928), he asserted that dominant social
classes control American boards of education and school practices
respectively. Because schools were run by the capitalist class who wielded
social and economic power, Counts argued, school practices tended towards

the status quo, including the preservation of an unjust distribution of wealth
and power.
Counts's educational philosophy was also an outgrowth of John
Dewey's philosophy. Both men believed in the enormous potential of
education to improve society and that schools should reflect life rather than be
isolated from it. But unlike Dewey's Public and Its Problems, much of Counts's
writing suggests a plan of action in the use of schools to fashion a new social
order.
Social Reform
From 1927 to the early 1930s Counts became fascinated with the Soviet
Union precisely for its willingness to employ schools in the inculcation of a
new social order. Although he later became disillusioned with mounting
evidence of Soviet totalitarianism and an outspoken critic of the Communist
Party (he was elected as president of the American Federation of Teachers in
1939 having run as the anti-Communist candidate), Counts–like twenty-first
century criticalists–believed that schools always indoctrinated students. What
interested Counts was the schools' orientation: what kind of society did the
schools favor and to what degree. As he put it, the word indoctrination "does
not frighten me" (1978, p. 263). This position, in particular, later brought
Counts fierce critics like Franklin Bobbit, a leader of the social efficiency
movement, who countered that the schools were not to be used as agents of
social reform.

CLUSTER 2 – HISTORICAL FOUNDATION
1. FRANKLIN BOBBIT
John Franklin Bobbitt (February 16, 1876 near English, Indiana –
March 7, 1956 in Shelbyville, Indiana) was a North-American educationist, a
university professor and a writer. A representative of the efficiency minded
thinkers, he specialized in the field of the curriculum.
EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION
His parents were James and Martha Bobbitt, he was born in the small
town of English, Indiana on February 16, 1876. Bobbitt graduated in 1901
from the Indiana University. He first worked in several rural schools in Indiana.

From 1903 to 1907, Bobbitt was a teacher at the Philippine Normal School in
Manila. He went to the Philippines as part of a member of a committee sent to
draw up an elementary school curriculum for the islands. They had the
freedom to form an original curriculum to fit the needs of the population. At
first they PUT together American textbooks which they had been familiar with
in United States schools, but a director of education in the Philippines made
them look this over. When they saw that their idea did not fit with the social
realities, they discarded their original plan. This time they drew up a plan with
a variety of things to help the people gain health, make a living, and enjoy
self-realization. They got away from the American textbooks and found
activities derived from the Philippine culture. This is when Bobbitt realized that
there were more useful solutions to forming a curriculum than just using
traditional beliefs.
Bobbitt went on and received a PhD from Clark University in 1909. From 1909
until his retirement in 1941, Bobbitt worked as faculty at the University of
Chicago.
He felt that the curriculum was a way to prepare students for their
future roles in the new industrial society. He influenced the curriculum by
showing how teaching classical subjects should be replaced by teaching
subjects that correspond to social needs. In 1918, Bobbitt wrote The
Curriculum: a summary of the development concerning the theory of the
curriculum. This became an official specialization in the education sciences.

The entrance point of a curriculum was, according to Bobbitt, to see which
results have to be accomplished.
Bobbitt felt that the curriculum has to adapt to the needs of an
individual and to the needs of the new industrial society, people should not be
taught what they would never use. They should only learn those skills which
were necessary to fulfill their personal tasks. Education was according to
Bobbitt primarily a preparation for adulthood and not for childhood or youth.
This resulted in an early differentiation in education. Bobbitt was not a
supporter of coeducation. In his view girls had a very different future than
boys, so they did not need the same sort of education.
Bobbitt created five steps for curriculum making: (a) analysis of human
experience, (b) job analysis, (c) deriving objectives, (d) selecting objectives,
and (e) planning in detail. The first step was about separating all of human
experience into major fields. This was followed by step two, where the fields
were broken down into more specific activities. The third step was to form the
objective from the abilities needed to perform the activities. Next is the fourth
step, where the objectives are selected from to find ones that would serve as
the basis for planning activities for the students. The last step was to lay out
activities, experiences, and opportunities that would be needed to obtain the
objectives.
Besides a change in the content of the curriculum, Bobbitt was also
calling for the elimination of conventional school subjects. He preferred
subjects that were themselves areas of living, such as citizenship and leisure

(p97). Bobbitt also believed that schools were charged to provide society with
what it needed as determined by scientific analyses (p100).
Bobbitt realized that there were too many activities (for example related
to citizenship, health, spare time, parentship, work related activities and
languages) to fit in any curriculum. A part of those activities were well taught
by socialization: the so-called undirected experiences. This is why the
curriculum has to aim at the particular subjects that are not sufficiency learned
as a result of normal socialization, these subjects were described as
shortcomings.
2. WERRETT CHARTERS
Werrett Wallace Charters (1875–1952) was a pioneering researcher in
teacher education and curriculum development. His scientific approach to
curriculum development through analysis of life activities broke new ground in
the emerging field of curriculum study.
Born in Hartford, Ontario, Charters attended the Hartford Village
School and, after finishing studies at Hagersville High School, enrolled at
McMaster University in Toronto for one year. Taking a break from the
university, he taught at the Rockford Public School for two years before he
returned to McMaster to earn a bachelor’s of art degree. A leader throughout
his life, Charters served as class president during his final year at McMaster.
In 1923, he received an honorary doctorate degree from his alma mater.

Charters earned his teaching diploma at Ontario Normal College in
1899 and, subsequently, became the principal of Hamilton City Model School.
He later served as the school’s administrator and instructor of teachers-in-
training. So successful were his teacher preparation methods that the Board
of Examiners named the Hamilton Model School as the premier model school
in Ontario. Charters later earned a bachelor’s degree from the University of
Toronto, and a master’s degree and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago.
John Dewey, renowned educational philosopher and the first Laureate of
Kappa Delta Pi, was his dissertation advisor.
Upon completing his doctorate, Charters served as principal of the
Winona State Normal School in Minnesota before transferring to the
University of Missouri, where he became a Professor of Theory of Teaching
and the Dean of the School of Education. Concerned particularly about
instruction in rural schools, Charters traveled throughout Missouri to visit and
inspect high schools, often walking miles between train stations and the
schools themselves. His first book, Methods of Teaching, appeared in 1909.
From 1917–1928, Charters was a faculty member at four institutions:
the University of Illinois, Carnegie Institute of Technology, University of
Pittsburgh, and University of Chicago. In 1928, he left the University of
Chicago to become Professor of Education and Director of the Bureau of
Educational Research at The Ohio State University. He also served as
Director of Research at Stephen’s College in Columbia, Missouri, from 1920–
1949.

While at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (1919–23), Charters
engaged in numerous research projects, especially ones in vocational and
professional education. By analyzing the professional activities of various
occupations to determine deficiencies in content knowledge, Charters
developed curricula for training in fields such as pharmacy, secretarial work,
and radio education. For Charters, activity analysis was the critical starting
point of curriculum development. “Without such analysis,” he explained, “we
are entirely at a loss to know how to proceed in building the curriculum”
(Charters 1923, 40). Increasing productivity through heightened efficiency in
industry was another of his professional emphases, and one which Charters
would continue throughout his career.
Upon leaving the Carnegie Institute, Charters assumed the position of
Professor of Education and Director, Research Bureau for Retail Training, at
the University of Pittsburgh. There, he continued to work with business and
industry to develop efficient, systematic curricula. He published Curriculum
Construction (1923), one of his major contributions to the emerging curriculum
field, initiating the need for methods of developing curriculum—methods
centered on life activities rather than content itself. By preparing students for
specific life activities, he believed that education would enable students to
solve issues which they would encounter regularly as adults (Seguel 1966).
Hence, Charters, along with his contemporary Franklin Bobbitt, helped shift
concerns for development away from school subject knowledge toward
students’ presumed adult functioning.

3. WILLIAM KILPATRICK
William Heard Kilpatrick was born on 20 November 1871, the first child
of the Reverend Dr. James Hines Kilpatrick and his second wife, Edna Perrin
Heard; they were married on 20 December 1870. Before that marriage,
Reverend Kilpatrick, a widower, cared for the three sons and two daughters
who had been born to him and his first wife. The elder Kilpatrick had moved to
White Plains, Georgia, in 1853, after graduating from Mercer University, with
the express purpose of teaching in school. After teaching one year, however,
he became pastor of the White Plains Baptist Church, a position in which he
continued until his death in 1908. More than simply an influential member of
the clergy, the Reverend Kilpatrick was a central figure in the political, civic
and legal activities of this small agricultural town. Indeed, he is even said to
have ‘pulled teeth for anyone who came to his home’—a skill he had
developed as the owner of a 1,600 acre plantation that included at least thirty
slaves, an inheritance from his father.3 His religious convictions, as well as
his personal and temperamental attributes, were to influence William strongly,
and even, in certain ways, to permanently shape his character.
Kilpatrick’s father was stern, meticulous, serious-minded and
essentially without humour. The Reverend Kilpatrick instilled in his son a
commitment to detailed record keeping that would stay with him throughout
his life. William kept a daily diary that in 1951 numbered some forty-five
volumes, and wrote numerous letters to his family and friends. He also
acquired from his father a penchant for clear, meticulous, well-developed

thinking and the habits of hard, sustained work. As a result, William was
widely known later in life for spending more time than most academics on his
work activities; he often felt the pangs of guilt associated with commitments to
teaching and scholarly investigations that took him away from his wife and
children. He was also known, even as a young man, for wanting to become
successful and a leader of some prominence. William also learned first from
his father to speak out against inequities, and to express unequivocally even
unpopular ideas about which he felt strongly.
William’s mother provided a counterbalance of sorts to the stern,
humorless demeanor of his father. ‘Heard’ (the name which she lovingly used
for her first son) learned from his mother the value of a sense of belonging,
while becoming self-secure and self- confident. Of his mother Kilpatrick said,
‘she helped me early to learn not to be selfish, that I must give to others their
just due; thus helping me early in life to balance the personal demands that
might have been selfish against the rights and the demands of the other
people.’ The relationship between William and his mother was apparently one
that also helped fundamentally shape his dispositions and character—and
even his teaching. He repeatedly attributed whatever success he had in
teaching ‘to the fact that [his mother] inculcated in him a “fine sensitivity” to
people—not to hurt anyone no matter how lowly.’ It may well be the case that
Kilpatrick’s close, advocacy-oriented relationship with his students, discussed
below, was prompted initially by that ‘fine sensitivity’ he saw in his mother.
William Heard Kilpatrick’s first venture into higher education took place
in 1888 when he enrolled in courses at his father’s Alma Mater—Mercer

University in Macon, Georgia. His experiences there, however, were less
inspirational than they apparently had been for the Reverend Kilpatrick. Even
as he began his junior year, William was without strong professional ambition
and, in a larger sense, lacked a direction for his life. While he excelled first in
ancient languages and then in mathematics, he had no firm sense of who he
might become, having decided, like his brothers, not to pursue theological
studies and become a member of the clergy. During his junior year, however,
Kilpatrick stumbled upon a book that would have a long-lasting impact on his
personal and professional life. Given the ideological contours of the strict
religious household in which he had grown up, Kilpatrick had heard only that
The origin of species was to be despised—a book which only wicked non-
believers would take to heart.6 Yet Kilpatrick’s curiosity led him finally to
borrow the book from a Mercer library. It proved to be a text that would shape
in no small measure his general philosophy of education, and his own
orientation to teaching. Concerning his initial reading of this work, Kilpatrick
said,
The more I read it the more I believed it and in the end I accepted it
fully. This meant a complete reorganization, a complete rejection of my
previous religious training and philosophy. By accepting Darwin’s Origin of
species, I rejected the whole concept of the immortal soul; of life beyond
death, of the whole dogma of religious ritual connected with the worship of
God.
Clearly, his exposure to the ideas in The origin of species was a
monumental event in the young Kilpatrick’s life. He understood well the

repercussions his changed orientation would have on his relationship with his
parents, especially his father. Yet there was an important sense in which
William’s moral convictions would continue in spite of his rejection of the
religious creed that had been a part of his childhood. Foreshadowing his
future commitments and activities, Kilpatrick noted that his denunciation of
religion ‘did not change in any way my moral outlook. I now had no theology,
by my social and my moral life continued in exactly the same way.’
After graduating from Mercer, Kilpatrick borrowed $500 from one of his
brothers so that he might pursue graduate studies at Johns Hopkins
University—an event that, like the reading of The origin of species, was to
change the course of his thinking, and his life. Of his initial experiences at
Johns Hopkins, Kilpatrick was to later say,
Even by breathing the air I could feel that great things were going on. I
have never been so deeply stirred, so emotionally moved before or since. I
had the feeling that here was the intellectual center of America. And I was
eager to join this exciting new world; I too wanted to merge myself in this avid
pursuit of truth. […] This institution had the power to influence a youth of
twenty beyond anything now known in America.
4. HAROLD RUGG
Harold Ordway Rugg, son of Edward and Merion Abbie (Davidson)
Rugg, was born in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, on January 17, 1886. His father
was a carpenter. Following his graduation from high school in Fitchburg, Rugg

worked for two years in a textile mill before he enrolled in Dartmouth College.
At Dartmouth he earned his B.S. degree in 1908 and a graduate degree in
civil engineering in 1909.
Upon leaving Dartmouth, Rugg worked briefly for the Missouri Pacific
Railroad and then taught civil engineering for about a year at James Millikin
University in Decatur, Illinois. In 1911 he entered the University of Illinois,
where he taught engineering and did graduate work in education and
sociology under the direction of William C. Bagley. On September 4, 1912,
Rugg married Bertha Miller; they adopted two children. The marriage was the
first of three for Rugg, two of which ended in divorce. Rugg completed his
Ph.D. program in 1915 and in the fall of that year moved on to the University
of Chicago, where he taught and carried on research in the fields of
administration and educational statistics under Charles H. Judd. The
experience Rugg gained at Chicago led in turn to a post with Edward L.
Thorndike's U.S. Army Committee on the Classification of Personnel during
World War I. The work with Thorndike was noteworthy in that it was the first
widespread attempt to test adults for aptitudes and intelligence.
Rugg returned to Chicago after the war and spent another year working
with Judd. He left Chicago in January of 1920 to accept an appointment at
Teachers College, Columbia University, and remained a member of the
Teachers College faculty for some 30 years.

During his stint with the Thorndike committee, Rugg had become
interested in the work of a number of contemporary social critics, and his
intellectual interests began to shift from engineering and statistics to the social
sciences. These new interests continued to develop during his early years at
Columbia, and Rugg quickly gained national recognition, as well as lasting
influence, as a leader in the field of curriculum design. He was noted both for
his innovative efforts to unify the social sciences and for his empirical
methods of selecting content for the social studies curriculum.
Many of Rugg's novel ideas concerning curriculum development were
implemented in his 14-volume social studies textbook series, published under
the general title "Man and His Changing Society" between 1929 and 1940.
(Louise Krueger, who had become Rugg's second wife on August 25, 1930—
they had one child—assisted with the preparation of eight of the books.)
Rugg's attempt to provide an accurate account of the strengths and
weaknesses of American society in the textbooks brought him a degree of
notoriety rarely duplicated in academic circles. Although the books were
warmly received and widely read when they first appeared, the series was
considered subversive in some conservative quarters and as a result was
eventually dropped by most of the school districts that had used it. The
controversy over the Rugg books led to one of the stormiest and most
sensational cases of textbook censorship in the history of American
education. It is still a highly instructive case study.

Apart from his professorship at Teachers College, where he also
served as educational psychologist at the experimental Lincoln School, Rugg
was involved in a number of other significant educational activities. He was,
for instance, one of the charter members of the John Dewey Society and one
of the founders of the National Council for the Social Studies. In 1934 he
helped organize The Social Frontier, a journal highly regarded for its social
and educational analysis from the liberal point of view. Rugg later edited the
journal after it had been renamed Frontiers of Democracy. He also served for
over a decade as social studies editor of Senior Scholastic and for 11 years
as editor of the Journal of Educational Psychology. At various times in his
career he was an educational consultant or visiting lecturer in the Middle East,
the Far East, Western Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In
addition, he came to be generally acknowledged as an unofficial delegate of
the American Progressive Education Association to the international New
Education Fellowship.
5. HOLLIS CASWELLL
Background

Caswell, Hollis L. was born on October 22, 1901 in Woodruff, Kansas, United
States. Son of Hollis Leland and Lotta (Hood) Caswell.
Education
Student, Kansas State College, Hays, 1920. Bachelor of Arts Nebraska, 1922.
Doctor of Laws (honorary), University Nebraska, 1955.
Master of Arts, Columbia University, 1927. Doctor of Philosophy, Columbia
University, 1929. Doctor of Laws (honorary), Tufts University, 1955.
Doctor of Laws (honorary), Northwestern University, 1956. Doctor of Pedagogy
(honorary), Havana University, 1956.
Career
High school principal, Auburn, Nebraska, 1922-1924; superintendent schools,
Syracuse, Nebraska, 1924-1926; assistant professor, George Peabody College,
Nashville, 1929-1931; professor, George Peabody College, Nashville, 1931-
1937; associate director division Surveys Field and Studies, George Peabody
College, Nashville, 1929-1937; professor, Teachers College Columbia University,
from 1937; director division instruction, Teachers College Columbia University,
1938-1950; director Teachers College Schools and School Experimentation,
Teachers College Columbia University, 1943-1948; associate dean, Teachers
College Columbia University, 1946-1949; dean, Teachers College Columbia
University, 1949-1954; president, Teachers College Columbia University, 1954-
1962; president emeritus, Teachers College Columbia University, from 1962;
Marshall Field Junior professor education, Teachers College Columbia

University, 1962-1967. Consultant numerous state education departments,
municipal school systems. Burton lecturer, Harvard University, 1955.
Steinmetz Memorial lecturer, 1952. Consultant pre-induction training branch
War Department, 1943, acting chief program section. Chairman of the executive
com.Soc. for Curriculum Study, 1936-1937.
Director United Community Defense Services, 1951, vice president 1951-1955.
Achievements
Hollis L. Caswell has been listed as a noteworthy academic administrator by
Marquis Who's Who.
6. RALPH TYLER
Ralph Winfred Tyler was born April 22, 1902, in Chicago, Illinois, and
soon thereafter (1904) moved to Nebraska. In 1921, at the age of 19, Tyler
received the A.B. degree from Doane College in Crete, Nebraska, and began
teaching high school in Pierre, South Dakota. He obtained the A.M. degree
from the University of Nebraska (1923) while working there as assistant
supervisor of sciences (1922-1927). In 1927 Tyler received the Ph.D. degree
from the University of Chicago.
After serving as associate professor of education at the University of
North Carolina (1927-1929), Tyler went to Ohio State University where he
attained the rank of professor of education (1929-1938). It was around 1938
that he became nationally prominent due to his involvement in the
Progressive Education related Eight Year Study (1933-1941), an investigation
into secondary school curriculum requirements and their relationship to

subsequent college success. In 1938 Tyler continued work on the Eight Year
Study at the University of Chicago, where he was employed as chairman of
the Department of Education (1938-1948), dean of social sciences (1948-
1953), and university examiner (1938-1953). In 1953 Tyler became the first
director of the Stanford, California-based Center for Advanced Study in the
Behavioral Sciences, a position he held until his retirement in 1966.
Ralph Tyler's scholarly publications were many and spanned his entire
career. Among his most useful works is Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction (1949), a course syllabus used by generations of college students
as a basic reference for curriculum and instruction development. Basic
Principles perhaps influenced more curriculum specialists than any other
single work in the curriculum field. This syllabus, written in 1949 when Tyler
was teaching at the University of Chicago, identifies four basic questions
which have guided the development of untold curricula since the 1940s: 1)
What are the school's educational purposes? 2) What educational
experiences will likely attain these purposes? 3) How can the educational
experiences be properly organized? 4) How can the curriculum be evaluated?
An author of several other books, Tyler also wrote numerous articles
appearing in yearbooks, encyclopedias, and periodicals.
When Tyler first went to Ohio State University in 1929 he was already
formulating his ideas regarding the specification of educational objectives.
While working with various departments at Ohio State in an effort to discover
better instructional methods, he began to solidify his belief that true learning is

a process which results in new patterns of behavior, behavior meaning a
broad spectrum of human reactions that involve thinking and feeling as well
as overt actions.
This reasoning reveals the cryptic distinction between learning specific
bits and pieces of information and understanding the unifying concepts that
underlie the information. Tyler stressed the need for educational objectives to
go beyond mere memorization and regurgitation. Indeed, learning involves not
just talking about subjects but a demonstration of what one can do with those
subjects. A truly educated person, Tyler seems to say, has not only acquired
certain factual information but has also modified his/her behavior patterns as
a result. (Thus, many educators identify him with the concept of behavioral
objectives.) These behavior patterns enable the educated person to
adequately cope with many situations, not just those under which the learning
took place. Tyler asserted that this is the process through which meaningful
education occurs, his caveat being that one should not confuse "being
educated" with simply "knowing facts"; the application of facts is education's
primary raison d'etre.
Tyler's establishment of the Center for Advanced Study in the
Behavioral Sciences was one of his most noteworthy achievements. His ideas
for the center at the time were very progressive and remained excellent
examples for proposals regarding scholarly study into the 1980s. Scholars
visiting the center were not confined by any set routine or schedule in regard
to their research. They were free to collaborate with each other, schedule
meetings and workshops, or simply do independent research.

Tyler's involvement with the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) project was another momentous achievement that had far
reaching effects upon improved education in the United States. This long-term
study provided extensive data about student achievement in school. Tyler
also played a significant role in the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development (ASCD) and its "Fundamental Curriculum
Decisions." (1983).
7. HILDA TABA
Hilda Taba, (born December 7, 1902, Kooraste, Russian Empire [now
Estonia]—died July 6, 1967, Burlingame, California, U.S.), Estonian-born
American educator, who is considered one of the most-significant contributors
to the fields of intergroup education and curriculum design.
As a child, Taba attended the elementary school where her father was
the schoolmaster. After completing her undergraduate studies in 1926 at the
University of Tartu in Estonia, where she majored in history and education,
Taba moved to the United States and began postgraduate studies at Bryn
Mawr College, where she received an M.A. in 1927. In 1932 she received a
doctoral degree at Teachers College, Columbia University, where William H.
Kilpatrick oversaw her work. She also studied with the philosopher John
Dewey, whose thought was influential in her later work. Unable to secure a
job in Estonia, Taba became a teacher of German in 1933 at the Dalton
School, in New York City. The Dalton School was at the time involved in the
Eight-Year Study, an investigation into alternative curricula and new practices

in areas such as student testing and teacher development. Taba’s
participation brought her together with the study’s research director, Ralph
Tyler, who hired her as part of his research team at Ohio State University. In
1939 she became the director of the curriculum laboratory at the University of
Chicago, which she headed until 1945.
Taba subsequently initiated, designed, and directed several research
projects aimed at intergroup education, an educational program that drew
extensively on concepts from cognitive and social psychology to increase
understanding and tolerance between pupils from different ethnic and cultural
backgrounds. Taba’s Intergroup Education Project, launched in New York City
in 1945, was a success, and it led to the establishment of the Center of
Intergroup Education at the University of Chicago in 1948.
In 1951 Taba accepted an invitation to reorganize and develop social
studies curricula in Contra Costa county, California. Among the ideas she and
others developed during this project were a spiral curriculum; inductive
teaching strategies for the development of concepts, generalizations, and
applications; and the organization of learning content on three levels—key
ideas, organizational ideas, and facts. These curricular developments gained
worldwide recognition in the 1960s and early 1970s. Taba and her colleagues’
attention in the 1950s to the value of a multicultural curriculum foreshadowed
similar intercultural and multicultural reforms in the 1990s.
CLUSTER 3 – PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION

1. IVAN PAVLOV
Ivan Pavlov, in full Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, (born September 14
[September 26, New Style], 1849, Ryazan, Russia—died February 27, 1936,
Leningrad [now St. Petersburg]), Russian physiologist known chiefly for his
development of the concept of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic
experiment, he trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a metronome
or buzzer, which was previously associated with the sight of food. He
developed a similar conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of
conditioning, in his pioneering studies relating human behaviour to the
nervous system. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
in 1904 for his work on digestive secretions.
Pavlov, the first son of a priest and the grandson of a sexton, spent his
youth in Ryazan in central Russia. There, he attended a church school and
theological seminary, where his seminary teachers impressed him by their
devotion to imparting knowledge. In 1870 he abandoned his theological
studies to enter the University of St. Petersburg, where he studied chemistry
and physiology. After receiving the M.D. at the Imperial Medical Academy in
St. Petersburg (graduating in 1879 and completing his dissertation in 1883),
he studied during 1884–86 in Germany under the direction of the
cardiovascular physiologist Carl Ludwig (in Leipzig) and the gastrointestinal
physiologist Rudolf Heidenhain (in Breslau).
Having worked with Ludwig, Pavlov’s first independent research was
on the physiology of the circulatory system. From 1888 to 1890, in the

laboratory of Botkin in St. Petersburg, he investigated cardiac physiology and
the regulation of blood pressure.
He became so skillful a surgeon that he was able to introduce a
catheter into the femoral artery of a dog almost painlessly without anesthesia
and to record the influence on blood pressure of various pharmacological and
emotional stimuli. By careful dissection of the fine cardiac nerves, he was able
to demonstrate the control of the strength of the heartbeat by nerves leaving
the cardiac plexus; by stimulating the severed ends of the cervical nerves, he
showed the effects of the right and left vagal nerves on the heart.
Pavlov married a pedagogical student in 1881, a friend of the author
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, but he was so impoverished that at first they had to live
separately. He attributed much of his eventual success to his wife, a
domestic, religious, and literary woman, who devoted her life to his comfort
and work. In 1890 he became professor of physiology in the Imperial Medical
Academy, where he remained until his resignation in 1924. At the newly
founded Institute of Experimental Medicine, he initiated precise surgical
procedures for animals, with strict attention to their postoperative care and
facilities for the maintenance of their health.
2. EDWARD THORNDIKE
Edward L. Thorndike, in full Edward Lee Thorndike, (born August 31,
1874, Williamsburg, Massachusetts, U.S.—died August 9, 1949, Montrose,
New York), American psychologist whose work on animal behaviour and the
learning process led to the theory of connectionism, which states that

behavioral responses to specific stimuli are established through a process of
trial and error that affects neural connections between the stimuli and the
most satisfying responses.
Thorndike graduated from Wesleyan University in 1895. He studied
animal behaviour with William James at Harvard University (1895–97) and
with James McKeen Cattell at Columbia University, where he received his
Ph.D. (1898) and where he spent most of his career. He first proposed his two
behavioral laws, the law of effect and the law of exercise, in his doctoral
dissertation, which was published in 1911 as Animal Intelligence. He regarded
adaptive changes in animal behaviour as analogous to human learning and
suggested that behavioral associations (connections) could be predicted by
application of the two laws. The law of effect stated that those behavioral
responses that were most closely followed by a satisfying result were most
likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the
same stimulus. The law of exercise stated that behaviour is more strongly
established through frequent connections of stimulus and response. In 1932
Thorndike determined that the second of his laws was not entirely valid in all
cases. He also modified the law of effect to state that rewards for appropriate
behaviour always substantially strengthened associations, whereas
punishments for inappropriate responses only slightly weakened the
association between the stimulus and the wrong response. Thorndike’s early
work is regarded as the first laboratory study of animal learning. His emphasis
on measurement and the quantitative analysis of data, as opposed to merely

descriptive accounts of experiments, has been enormously influential in
modern psychology, particularly affecting behaviourist experimentation.
While still a graduate student at Columbia, Thorndike began an
association with Robert S. Woodworth, with whom he studied transfer of
learning. In a paper published in 1901, Thorndike and Woodworth found that
learning in one area does not facilitate learning in other areas; where specific
training in one task seemed to cause improvement in learning another, the
improvement could be attributed to common elements in the two exercises,
not to overall enhancement of the subject’s learning abilities. This finding
supported proponents of school curricula that emphasized practical, relevant
subject matter and activities.
3. ROBERT GAGNE
Robert Mills Gagné (born 1916) was an American educator whose
studies of learning and instruction profoundly affected American schooling.
Robert Mills Gagné was born August 21, 1916, in North Andover,
Massachusetts. He earned an A.B. degree from Yale in 1937 and a Ph.D.
from Brown University in 1940. He was a professor of psychology and
educational psychology at Connecticut College for Women (1940-1949),
Pennsylvania State University (1945-1946), Princeton (1958-1962), and the
University of California at Berkeley (1966-1969) and was a professor in the
Department of Educational Research at Florida State University in

Tallahassee starting in 1969. Gagné also served as a research director for the
Air Force (1949-1958) at Lackland, Texas, and Lowry, Colorado. He was
employed as a consultant to the Department of Defense (1958-1961) and to
the United States Office of Education (1964-1966). In addition, he served as a
director of research at the American Institute of Research in Pittsburgh (1962-
1965).
Gagné's work had a profound influence on American education and on
military and industrial training. Gagné and L.J. Briggs were among the early
developers of the concept of instructional systems design which suggests that
all components of a lesson or a period of instruction can be analyzed and that
all components can be designed to operate together as an integrated plan for
instruction. In a significant article titled "Educational Technology and the
Learning Process" (Educational Researcher, 1974), Gagné defined instruction
as "the set of planned external events which influence the process of learning
and thus promote learning."
Gagné was also well-known for his sophisticated stimulus-response
theory of eight kinds of learning which differ in the quality and quantity of
stimulus-response bonds involved. From the simplest to the most complex,
these are: signal learning (Pavlovian conditioning), stimulus-response learning
(operant conditioning), chaining (complex operant conditioning), verbal
association, discrimination learning, concept learning, rule learning, and
problem solving.

Gagné argued that many skills may be analyzed into a hierarchy of
behaviors, called a learning hierarchy. An instructor would develop a learning
hierarchy for something to be taught by stating the skill to be learned as a
specific behavior and then asking and answering the question "What would
you have to know how to do in order to perform this task, after being given
only instructions?" Gagné tested the concept of learning hierarchies in
studies, mainly using simple arithmetic skills. His findings tended to support
the notion of learning hierarchies and indicated that individuals rarely learn a
higher skill without already knowing the lower skill.
Gagné's approach to learning and instruction, especially the
instructional systems design approach, was sometimes criticized as most
appropriate for mastery learning of information and intellectual skill objectives,
but less suited for attitude and cognitive strategy outcomes. Undoubtedly,
Gagné's work had a tremendous impact on thinking and theories in
educational circles. His hierarchical theory of prerequisite steps in learning
had many implications for the sequencing of instruction, and many feel it
contributed to the development of a more scientific approach to instruction. In
the field of English, for example, it allowed teachers to break English
language skills into successively simple components and to teach the
components in an orderly sequence, reinforcing correct responses along the
way. Gagné's focus on systematic precise instructions also helped to lay the

groundwork for individualized instruction and school accountability in
American society.
4. JEAN PIAGET
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on August 9, 1896.
His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature with an
interest in local history. His mother, Rebecca Jackson, was intelligent and
energetic, but Jean found her a bit neurotic -- an impression that he said led
to his interest in psychology, but away from pathology! The oldest child, he
was quite independent and took an early interest in nature, especially the
collecting of shells. He published his first “paper” when he was ten -- a one
page account of his sighting of an albino sparrow.
He began publishing in earnest in high school on his favorite subject,
mollusks. He was particularly pleased to get a part time job with the director
of Nuechâtel’s Museum of Natural History, Mr. Godel. His work became well
known among European students of mollusks, who assumed he was an adult!
All this early experience with science kept him away, he says, from “the
demon of philosophy.”
Later in adolescence, he faced a bit a crisis of faith: Encouraged by his
mother to attend religious instruction, he found religious argument childish.
Studying various philosophers and the application of logic, he dedicated
himself to finding a “biological explanation of knowledge.” Ultimately,
philosophy failed to assist him in his search, so he turned to psychology.

After high school, he went on to the University of Neuchâtel.
Constantly studying and writing, he became sickly, and had to retire to the
mountains for a year to recuperate. When he returned to Neuchâtel, he
decided he would write down his philosophy. A fundamental point became a
centerpiece for his entire life’s work: “In all fields of life (organic, mental,
social) there exist ‘totalities’ qualitatively distinct from their parts and imposing
on them an organization.” This principle forms the basis of his structuralist
philosophy, as it would for the Gestaltists, Systems Theorists, and many
others.
In 1918, Piaget received his Doctorate in Science from the University of
Neuchâtel. He worked for a year at psychology labs in Zurich and at Bleuler’s
famous psychiatric clinic. During this period, he was introduced to the works
of Freud, Jung, and others. In 1919, he taught psychology and philosophy at
the Sorbonne in Paris. Here he met Simon (of Simon-Binet fame) and did
research on intelligence testing. He didn’t care for the “right-or-wrong” style of
the intelligent tests and started interviewing his subjects at a boys school
instead, using the psychiatric interviewing techniques he had learned the year
before. In other words, he began asking how children reasoned.
In 1921, his first article on the psychology of intelligence was published
in the Journal de Psychologie. In the same year, he accepted a position at
the Institut J. J. Rousseau in Geneva. Here he began with his students to

research the reasoning of elementary school children. This research became
his first five books on child psychology. Although he considered this work
highly preliminary, he was surprised by the strong positive public reaction to
his work.
In 1923, he married one of his student coworkers, Valentine Châtenay.
In 1925, their first daughter was born; in 1927, their second daughter was
born; and in 1931, their only son was born. They immediately became the
focus of intense observation by Piaget and his wife. This research became
three more books!
In 1929, Piaget began work as the director of the International Bureau
of Education, a post he would hold until 1967. He also began large scale
research with A. Szeminska, E. Meyer, and especially Bärbel Inhelder, who
would become his major collaborator. Piaget, it should be noted, was
particularly influential in bringing women into experimental psychology. Some
of this work, however, wouldn’t reach the world outside of Switzerland until
World War II was over.
5. LEV VYGOTSKY
Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the
western region of the Russian Empire. He attended Moscow State University,
where he graduated with a degree in law in 1917. Vygotsky studied a range of
topics while at university, including sociology, linguistics, psychology, and

philosophy. However, his formal work in psychology did not begin until 1924
when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow.
He completed a dissertation in 1925 on the psychology of art but was
awarded his degree in absentia due to an acute tuberculosis relapse that left
him incapacitated for a year.
Following his illness, Vygotsky began researching topics such as
language, attention, and memory with the help of students, including Alexei
Leontiev and Alexander Luria.
Vygotsky's Career and Theories
Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing six books on psychology
topics over a ten-year period. His interests were diverse but often centered on
issues of child development and education. He also explored the psychology
of art and language development.
The Zone of Proximal Development
According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is "[The]
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers." (Lev Vygotsky, Mind in Society, 1978).
The "zone" is the gap between what a child knows and what they do not yet
know.

Acquiring the missing information requires skills that a child does not yet
possess or cannot do independently, but which they can do with the help of a
more knowledgeable other.
Parents and teachers can foster learning by providing educational
opportunities that lie within a child's zone of proximal development. Kids can
also learn a great deal from their peers. Teachers can foster this process by
pairing less skilled children with more knowledgeable classmates.
6. HOWARD GARDNER
Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943. His
parents had fled from Nürnberg in Germany in 1938 with their three-year old
son, Eric. Just prior to Howard Gardner’s birth Eric was killed in a sleighing
accident. These two events were not discussed during Gardner’s childhood,
but were to have a very significant impact upon his thinking and development
(Gardner 1989: 22). The opportunities for risky physical activity were limited,
and creative and intellectual pursuits encouraged. As Howard began to
discover the family’s ‘secret history’ (and Jewish identity) he started to
recognize that he was different both from his parents and from his peers.
His parents wanted to send Howard to Phillips Academy in Andover
Massachusetts – but he refused. Instead he went to a nearby preparatory
school in Kingston, Pennsylvania (Wyoming Seminary). Howard Gardner
appears to have embraced the opportunities there – and to have elicited the

support and interest of some very able teachers. From there he went to
Harvard University to study history in readiness for a career in the law.
However, he was lucky enough to have Eric Erikson as a tutor. In Howard
Gardner’s words Erikson probably ‘sealed’ his ambition to be a scholar (1989:
23). But there were others:
My mind was really opened when I went to Harvard College and had
the opportunity to study under individuals—such as psychoanalyst Erik
Erikson, sociologist David Riesman, and cognitive psychologist Jerome
Bruner—who were creating knowledge about human beings. That helped set
me on the course of investigating human nature, particularly how human
beings think. (Howard Gardner quoted by Marge Sherer 1999)
Howard Gardner’s interest in psychology and the social sciences grew
(his senior thesis was on a new California retirement community) and he
graduated summa cum laude in 1965.
7. DANIEL GOLEMAN
Daniel Goleman grew up in a Jewish household in Stockton, California, the
son of Fay Goleman (née Weinberg; 1910–2010), professor of sociology at
the University of the Pacific, and Irving Goleman (1898–1961), humanities
professor at the Stockton College (now San Joaquin Delta College). His
mother's brother was nuclear physicist Alvin M. Weinberg.
Goleman studied in India using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard
and a post-doctoral grant from the Social Science Research Council. While in
India, he spent time with spiritual teacher Neem Karoli Baba, who was also

the guru to Ram Dass, Krishna Das and Larry Brilliant. He wrote his first book
based on travel in India and Sri Lanka.
Goleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during
the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. David
McClelland, his mentor at Harvard, recommended him for a job at Psychology
Today, from which he was recruited by The New York Times in 1984.
Goleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning at Yale University's Child Studies Center, which then moved to the
University of Illinois at Chicago. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for
Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. He
sits on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.
CAREER
Goleman authored the internationally best-selling book Emotional Intelligence
(1995, Bantam Books), which spent more than one-and-a-half years on The New
York Times Best Seller list. In Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998, Bantam
Books), Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as
much as IQ for workplace success, and made a similar argument for leadership
effectiveness in Primal Leadership (2001, Harvard Business School Press).
Goleman's most recent best-seller is Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence
(Harper, 2013).

In his first book, The Varieties of Meditative Experience (1977) (republished in
1988 as The Meditative Mind), Goleman describes almost a dozen different
meditation systems. He wrote that "the need for the meditator to retrain his
attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant
ingredient in the recipe for altering consciousness of every meditation system".
Awards
Goleman has received many awards, including:
 Career Achievement award for journalism from the American
Psychological Association
 Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in
recognition of his efforts to communicate the behavioral sciences to the
public
CLUSTER 4 – SOCIOLOGICAL DDFOUNDATION
1. JOHN DEWEY
John Dewey, (born Oct. 20, 1859, Burlington, Vt., U.S.—died June 1,
1952, New York, N.Y.), American philosopher and educator who was a
founder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in
functional psychology, and a leader of the progressive movement in education
in the United States.

Dewey graduated with a bachelor’s degree from the University of
Vermont in 1879. After receiving a doctorate in philosophy from Johns
Hopkins University in 1884, he began teaching philosophy and psychology at
the University of Michigan. There his interests gradually shifted from the
philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel to the new experimental
psychology being advanced in the United States by G. Stanley Hall and the
pragmatist philosopher and psychologist William James. Further study of child
psychology prompted Dewey to develop a philosophy of education that would
meet the needs of a changing democratic society. In 1894 he joined the
faculty of philosophy at the University of Chicago, where he further developed
his progressive pedagogy in the university’s Laboratory Schools. In 1904
Dewey left Chicago for Columbia University in New York City, where he spent
the majority of his career and wrote his most famous philosophical work,
Experience and Nature (1925). His subsequent writing, which included articles
in popular periodicals, treated topics in aesthetics, politics, and religion. The
common theme underlying Dewey’s philosophy was his belief that a
democratic society of informed and engaged inquirers was the best means of
promoting human interests.
Being, Nature, And Experience
In order to develop and articulate his philosophical system, Dewey first
needed to expose what he regarded as the flaws of the existing tradition. He
believed that the distinguishing feature of Western philosophy was its
assumption that true being—that which is fully real or fully knowable—is

changeless, perfect, and eternal and the source of whatever reality the world
of experience may possess. Plato’s forms (abstract entities corresponding to
the properties of particular things) and the Christian conception of God were
two examples of such a static, pure, and transcendent being, compared with
which anything that undergoes change is imperfect and less real. According to
one modern version of the assumption, developed by the 17th-century
philosopher René Descartes, all experience is subjective, an exclusively
mental phenomenon that cannot provide evidence of the existence or the
nature of the physical world, the “matter” of which is ultimately nothing more
than changeless extension in motion. The Western tradition thus made a
radical distinction between true reality on the one hand and the endless
varieties and variations of worldly human experience on the other.
Dewey held that this philosophy of nature was drastically impoverished.
Rejecting any dualism between being and experience, he proposed that all
things are subject to change and do change. There is no static being, and
there is no changeless nature. Nor is experience purely subjective, because
the human mind is itself part and parcel of nature. Human experiences are the
outcomes of a range of interacting processes and are thus worldly events.
The challenge to human life, therefore, is to determine how to live well with
processes of change, not somehow to transcend them.
Dewey developed a metaphysics that examined characteristics of
nature that encompassed human experience but were either ignored by or
misrepresented by more traditional philosophers. Three such characteristics—

what he called the “precarious,” “histories,” and “ends”—were central to his
philosophical project.
2. ALVIN TOFFLER
Alvin Toffler was born in New York City where he grew up and spent
his early life. He and his little sister are children of Poland migrants. By the
age of 7, he was inspired by his uncle and aunt, an editor and poet, to
become a writer in the future. Alvin Toffler started since this time writing
poetry and stories.
After High School, Alvin Toffler studied English at New York University
where he also obtained his degree. During his study period, Alvin met his
future wife Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell, also known as Heidi. He met her when
he was on his way walking to Washington Square Park, and since they met,
they have been inseparable. Heidi was in that time also coincidentally
studying a course at New York University. Alvin Toffler immediately married
Heidi after graduating in 1950.
The pair shared approximately the same vision and were both
interested in writing. Alvin Toffler was inspired by authors who write about a
personal experience. For this reason, he and his wife decided to work as blue-
collar workers while at the same time study industrial mass production in their
work.

Later, after five years working as blue-collar workers, Alvin Toffler was
offered a job as an editor at a Union newspaper. He next worked as a
correspondent for the White House where he wrote on the political affairs of
the American Congress and the White House.
In about three years, Alvin Toffler was requested by Fortune Magazine
to work as a labor columnist. From this period, he began writing about
business and management. Although Alvin Toffler was already offered various
positions, he decided to become an independent writer. Alvin Toffler next
wrote for scholarly journals and magazines.
His name became more known. Alvin Toffler was next requested by
IBM to execute research and write on the social- and organizational impact of
computers. This initiative made him come in contact with the earliest
computer scientists and artificial intelligence theorists.
As a result of the insights he gained, Alvin Toffler was stimulated to
execute research on what the impact would be on society if changes happen
too fast. The outcome of his work was published in 1970 in his book ‘Future
Shock.’ The book has sold millions of copies and is translated in many
languages. In 1980, he published ‘The Third Wave,’ a book that describes the
type of revolutions that already happened in the past and the one that will
occur in the future. According to Alvin Toffler, the first two revolutions were the

agricultural and industrial revolutions, and the third revolution is the
technological revolution. In his book, he predicted that technologies such as
cable television, internet, and other digital technologies would emerge.
In 1996, Alvin Toffler founded together with Tom Johnson the Toffler
Associates, a consultancy firm specialized in and committed to providing
consultancy services in Risk Management, Strategic Advisory, Organizational
Transformation, and Innovation and Agility. The establishment of the company
was successful. Toffler Associates currently have an international customer
portfolio which comprises businesses, governmental institutions, and NGO’s

REFERENCES
 https://youtu.be/VSRdyTCglsU
 https://studylib.net/doc/6613280/biography---plato
 https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/aristotle
 https://biography.yourdictionary.com/johann-friedrich-herbart
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Amos-Comenius
 https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2075/Hutchins-Robert-
1899-1977.html
 https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/William_Chandler_Bagl
ey
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sartre/
 https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Johann_Heinrich_Pest
alozzi
 https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1891/Counts-George-S-
1889-1974.html
 https://peoplepill.com/people/john-franklin-bobbitt/
 https://www.kdp.org/aboutkdp/laureates/charterswerrett.php
 https://www.performancemagazine.org/thinkers-on-
education/kilpatrick-william-heard-1871-1965/
 https://biography.yourdictionary.com/harold-rugg
 https://prabook.com/web/hollis_l.caswell/625617

 https://biography.yourdictionary.com/ralph-w-tyler
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hilda-Taba
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-Pavlov
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-L-Thorndike
 https://biography.yourdictionary.com/robert-mills-gagne
 http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html
 https://www.verywellmind.com/lev-vygotsky-biography-2795533
 https://infed.org/mobi/howard-gardner-multiple-intelligences-and-
education/
 https://peoplepill.com/people/daniel-goleman/
 https://www.toolshero.com/toolsheroes/alvin-toffler/

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ILOCOS SUR POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE

Outstanding Personalities of Curriculum Foundation Who

Contributed to Curriculum Development

CLUSTER 1: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION

Philosopher, Writer (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE)

Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the

author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western thought.

give in exchange for virtue

of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty

and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political

philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of

contemporaries and classical historians. Traditional history estimates Plato's

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

related to the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman Solon.

doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as well as Parmenides. These probably

nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).

uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is

family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of

Plato's pride in his family lineage.

Socrates's methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato so much that he

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two of Plato's

relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new

to a life of study and philosophy.

After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the

Mediterranean region, studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy,

parents were members of traditional medical families, and his father,

Nicomachus, served as court physician to King Amyntus III of Macedonia. His

home in Stagira. At age 17 he was sent to Athens to enroll in Plato's

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

Academy. He spent 20 years as a student and teacher at the school,

teacher’s theories. Plato’s own later writings, in which he softened some

frustrations at the Academy or political difficulties due to his family’s

In 342 Aristotle was summoned to Macedonia by King Philip II to tutor

Aristotle and the Lyceum

Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 B.C. As an alien, he couldn’t own property,

Greek world and developed a curriculum centered on its founder’s teachings.

In accordance with Aristotle’s principle of surveying the writings of others as

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

part of the philosophical process, the Lyceum assembled a collection of

manuscripts that comprised one of the world’s first great libraries.

It was at the Lyceum that Aristotle probably composed most of his

for use in any philosophical or scientific investigation. Next come Aristotle’s

theoretical works, most famously his treatises on animals (“Parts of Animals,”

“Movement of Animals,” etc.), cosmology, the “Physics” (a basic inquiry about

the nature of matter and change) and the “Metaphysics” (a quasi-theological

investigation of existence itself).

Third are Aristotle’s so-called practical works, notably the

“Rhetoric” and “Poetics” examine the finished products of human productivity,

including what makes for a convincing argument and how a well-wrought

tragedy can instill cathartic fear and pity.

Aristotle’s Death and Legacy

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION MARK LEO HORTIZUELA BSED III

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., anti-Macedonian

in 322, of a digestive complaint. He asked to be buried next to his wife, who

were the only copies.

In 30 B.C. Andronicus of Rhodes grouped and edited Aristotle’s

Islamic world, where thinkers like Avicenna (970-1037), Averroes (1126-1204)

and the Jewish scholar Maimonodes (1134-1204) revitalized Aritotle’s logical

and scientific precepts.

Aristotle in the Middle Ages and Beyond