CHAPTER I:

INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution,
movement, and properties of the waters of the earth. A knowledge of hydrology is
fundamental to decision making processes where water is a component of the system of
concern.
The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the
oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Many sub cycles exist. The
evaporation of inland water and its subsequent precipitation over land before returning in the
ocean is one example. The driving force for the global water transport system is provided by
the sun, which furnishes the energy required for evaporation. Note that the water quality also
changes during passage through the cycle; for example, sea water is converted to fresh water
through evaporation.
 CHAPTER II:
WEATHER BASICS (Meteorology): Atmospheric Waters
Meteorology is the study of the changes in temperature, air pressure, moisture, and
wind direction in the troposphere. Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that
focuses on weather processes and forecasting. Meteorological phenomena are observable
weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.
Meteorology is important because of the impact of air conditions on life.
 First of all, has vital role in urban administration
 Second, long term weather forecasting is important for agriculture.
 Meteorology is also important for both air and marine transportation.
Atmosphere is a layer or a set of layers of surrounding a or other, that is held in place
by the of that body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to
is high and the of the atmosphere is low. Simply describes as a blanket of air that surrounds
the earth.
The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the
life that it sustains. Dry air from contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other "noble" gases (by volume),
but generally a variable amount of water vapor is also present, on average about 1% at sea
level.
Layers of Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains
most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow.
 Stratosphere
 The second layer of the atmosphere. This extends upwards from
the tropopause to about 50 km.
 Mesosphere
 The third layer of the atmosphere. Here the temperature again
decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the
"mesopause".
 Thermosphere
 The fourth layer of the atmosphere, the thermosphere lies above the
mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again increase
with height.
 Exosphere
 The last layer of the atmosphere.
Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation,
growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds. consist of droplets of liquid water (warm
clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase clouds). Cloud droplets
initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the of air
exceeds a critical value according to.
 Nucleation is a physical process in which a change of state occurs in a substance
around certin focal points, known as nuclei. common example is the condensation of water
vapor into droplets in the atmosphere, the formation of ice crystals when water freezes, and
appearance of gas bubbles in a liquid.
Atmospheric Aerosol is composed of tiny of solid and liquid particles which have a
small fall speed in air and therefore appear to be suspended in the atmosphere on short
timescale.
Solar radiation (short wavelength) warms the earth. Earth radiates some of that
energy (long wavelength) back towards space. Some solar radiation is reflected/absorbed by
atmosphere before it reaches Earth.
General Circulation
The worldwide system of, which transports warm air from the equator where solar
heating is greatest towards the higher, is called the general circulation of the atmosphere, and
it gives rise to the Earth’s.
The general circulation serves to transport heat energy from warm equatorial regions
to colder and regions. Without such latitudinal redistribution of heat, the equator would be
much hotter than it is whilst the poles would be much colder.
Thermal circulations tend to be shallow - do not extend up through the depth of the
troposphere examples of thermal circulations:
 sea breeze
 land breeze
 mountain and valley breezes
 monsoons
The Coriolis Effect describes the turn of the wind to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere caused by earth's rotation.
Geographic Distribution
Natural arrangement and appointment of various form of animal and plant in the
different regions and localities of the earth for example: wild potatoes are found in significant
along the west coast of Africa and central America.
Temperature Variation
 Amount of solar energy receive by any region varies with time of day and with
latitude. This difference in solar energy create temperature variations.
 Diurnal variations- change in temperature from day to night brought about by the
daily rotation of the earth.
 Barometer- measure air pressure.
 Rain gauge- measure the amount of rain that has fallen over time period.
Seasonal Variation in addition to its daily rotation, the Earth revolves in a complete
orbit around the sun once each year. Since the axis of the Earth tilts to the plane of orbit, the
angle of incident solar radiation varies seasonally between hemispheres.
 Variation with Latitude the shape of the Earth causes a geographical variation in the
angle of incident solar radiation. Since the Earth is essentially spherical, the sun is more
nearly overhead in equatorial regions than at higher latitudes.
Variation with Topography not related to movement or shape of the earth are
temperature variations induced by water and terrain.
Variation with Altitude this decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as lapse
rate.
Humidity
 The concentration of present in the air
Three primary Measurement of Humidity
• Absolute humidity
• Relative humidity
• Specific humidity
Geographic distribution refers to the way that something is distributed over a
geographical area and can be represented on a map. Geographical distribution is commonly
used to demonstrate the spread of animal species and plants around the world.
 CHAPTER III:
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation replenishes surface water bodies, renews soil moisture for plants, and
recharges aquifers. Its principal forms are rain and snow. The relative importance of these
forms is determined by the climate of the area under consideration.
Hydrologic modeling and water resources assessments depend upon a knowledge of
the form and amount of precipitation occurring in a region of concern over a time period of
interest.
Types of Precipitation
 Convective Precipitation
 Convective precipitation is typical of the tropics and is brought about by
heating of the air at the interface with the ground.
 Orographic Precipitation
 Orographic precipitation results from the mechanical lifting of moist
horizontal air currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges.
 Cyclonic Precipitation
 Cyclonic precipitation is associated with the movement of air masses from
high-pressure regions to low-pressure region.
 Frontal Precipitation
 A frontal is called as the hot moist air mass boundary. This precipitation is
caused by the expansion of air near the frontal surface.
 Non-Frontal Precipitation
 This is a cold moist air mass boundary that moves and results in
precipitation.
Forms of Precipitation
 Rain
 is precipitation that falls to the surface of the Earth as water droplets.
 Hail
 forms in cold storm clouds. It forms when very cold water droplets freeze,
or turn solid, as soon as they touch things like dust or dirt.
 Snow
 is precipitation that falls in the form of ice crystals. Hail is also ice, but
hailstones are just collections of frozen water droplets.
 Virga
 is a type of precipitation that begins to fall from a cloud, but evaporates
before it reaches the surface of the Earth.
 Drizzle
 is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and
intensity greater than 1mm/h. The tiny drops forming a drizzle appear to
float in the air.
  Glaze
 is formed when rain or drizzle comes in contact with the cold ground at
around 0 degrees Celsius. The water drops freeze to form an ice coating.
 Sleet
 is frozen raindrops formed when rainfall passes through the air at
subfreezing temperatures.
Measurement of Precipitation
Cylindrical Rain Gauges as this type of rain gauge can also be used to measure
snow, it is alternatively known as a cylindrical rain/snow gauge. It consists of a cylindrical
vessel with a uniform diameter from top to bottom and an orifice at the top. It does not have a
funnel.
Ordinary rain gauges are the type used at non-automated observatories. With such
devices, the observer takes measurements using a rain-measuring glass at regular intervals.
Siphon rain gauge enables automatic, continuous measurement and recording of
precipitation.
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauges is type of rain gauge generates an electric signal (i.e., a
pulse) for each unit of precipitation collected, and allows automatic or remote observation
with a recorder or a counter. The only requirement for the instrument connected to the rain
gauge is that it must be able to count pulses.
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Recorder is recorder counts and records pulses
(signals) from a tipping bucket rain gauge, anemometer, etc.
Windshields a significant influence on the observation of precipitation with snow and
rain gauges, and there is no way to avoid its effects.
Exposure the environment of the instrument’s location significantly influences
observation of precipitation; the surroundings must be considered when selecting the
observation site.
 CHAPTER IV:
WATER LOSSES
Interception loss
The portion of the precipitation that is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation from
plant surfaces or is absorbed by the plant. It is the difference between the precipitation actually
occurring over an area and the part that reaches the soil.

Evaporation
 Evaporation or vaporization is the process by which water changes from liquid
state to vaporous state.
 Two main factors influencing the evaporation from an open water surface are the
supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization and the ability to transport
the vapor away from the evaporating surface.
 The ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporating surface depends on
the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient in the air
above it.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS EVAPORATION
1. Temperature
 The greater the temperature of the liquid and its surroundings, the faster the
rate of evaporation.
2. Surface area occupied by the liquid
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, which implies that the process only
occurs at the surface of the liquid.
3. Humidity of the surroundings
 The greater the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere over the liquid, the
slower the rate of evaporation.
4. Air circulation or wind speed
 By decreasing the humidity of the liquid’s surrounding, a powerful breeze or
wind can increase the rate at which the liquid evaporates.
Transpiration
Transpiration is the process by which soil moisture taken up by vegetation is
evaporated from the airspaces in plant leaves. In transpiration water is extracted by the plants'
roots, transported upwards through its stem, and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny
openings in the leaves called stomata.
Evapotranspiration
 The processes of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation
are often times referred to collectively by Evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is the
combination of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from vegetation.
Infiltration
 The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It is commonly used
in both hydrology and soil sciences. The infiltration capacity is defined as the
maximum rate of infiltration.
 The infiltration capacity decreases as the soil moisture content of soils surface layers’
increases. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually
occur unless there is some physical barrier.
Watershed Leakage
The geological structure of the subsurface below a particular catchment area may be
such that part of rain water may find its way through fissures, cracks and outcrops of water
bearing strata to some outlet. This outlet may be in some other basin or may be in the sea.
This type of loss is called watershed leakage.
Actual amount of loss in any drainage basin depends upon the following factors:
• Nature of precipitation,
• Type and development of vegetal cover.
•  The area covered by buildings, pavements and other permanent structures.
• The climatological factors such as temperature of the area, humidity and wind
velocity.
 CHAPTER V:
RUN OFF
"Runoff" is the term usually employed to distinguish the flow of water running off
the land's surface during and shortly after rainfall, from the longer term flow of groundwater
to rivers. This distinction is achieved by the analysis of flow data from perennial streams and
rivers in humid climates, but in many agro hydrological and water harvesting situations,
groundwater contributions are not present and all flow is runoff. This will almost certainly be
the case in arid and semi-arid climates.
Surface and Subsurface Run Off Phenomenon
 Surface runoff is water from rain, snow melting, or other sources that flows over
the land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle.
 Interflow, also known as subsurface runoff is relatively rapid flow toward the
stream channel that occurs below the surface. It occurs more rapidly than base
flow, but typically more slowly than surface runoff.
Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Mechanisms
Runoff is generated by a combination of two mechanisms
 Saturation excess occurs when the soil becomes fully saturated with water,
exceeding the water holding capacity of the soil; when the surplus rainfall can no
longer be held in the soil, the water is directed to another location through
overland flow (Johnson et al., 2003).
 Infiltration excess occurs when rainfall intensity exceeds the maximum rate that
water can infiltrate into the soil, and water must flow over land to a different area
(Yang et al., 2015).
Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Cycle
 The hydrological cycle has many interconnected components, with runoff
connecting precipitation to bodies of water. Surface runoff is precipitation that
does not infiltrate into the soil and runs across the land surface into surface waters
(streams, rivers, lakes or other reservoirs) (Perlman, 2016). Surface runoff varies
by time and location, with about one-third of the precipitation that falls on land
turning into runoff; the other two-thirds is evaporated, transpired, or infiltrated
into the soil (Perlman, 2016). By returning excess precipitation to the oceans and
controlling how much water flows into stream systems, runoff is important in
balancing the hydrological cycle. The water balance equation governs the
hydrological cycle by describing the flow of water into and out of a system for a
specific period of time.
Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Water Stage-Discharge Relationship
The relationship between the amount of water flowing in a river or stream and stage at
any particular point is usually known as stage–discharge relationship. Stage–discharge
relationships for flow in rivers and channels are established by concurrent measurements of
stage (y) and discharge (Q) (through velocity measurements, dilution methods, or other
techniques) and the results are fitted graphically or statistically to yield the development of
rating curves. The dynamic relationship between stage and discharge, which is unique to a
particular selected station along the river, can be determined via mathematical relationships.
Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Measurement
1. Estimates of runoff
Estimates of runoff are made for two reasons:
 They are essential guides in the decision of which system of runoff measurement
to use, either volumetric or continuous. After this decision has been made, these
estimates must be used to determine the size and capacity (peak flow and flow
volume) of the equipment.
 If the measurement of runoff is not to be undertaken, then calculations must be
made to estimate the design specifications of bunds, channels etc. that are to be
used in the mechanics of water harvesting and field layouts.
 Estimates Based on Previous Data
A project may be fortunate in succeeding previous work that has already undertaken runoff
measurement. These data can provide a good starting point for the selection of appropriate
equipment.
 Theoretical Estimates of Flow
A great deal of research has been undertaken to develop hydrological models that can predict
runoff peak flows and volumes
2. Collecting runoff data
 Volumetric data
 Continuous Systems
3. Water level recording instruments
a. Crest Gauges - These gauges’ record only the highest level of flow, but do so
automatically
b. Manual Gauges - These are simple gauges and provide records whenever an
observer is present to read them.
c. Automatic Water Level Recorders - These are relatively sophisticated gauges
that provide a constant record of water levels
d. Electronic Logging Recorders
e. Chart Recorders
 f. Bubble (Servo-manometer) Recorders

Components of Stream Flow

Streams are created when excess water from rain, snowmelt, or near-
surface groundwater accumulates on the ground surface and begins to run downhill. This
excess water from rain or snowmelt generally occurs when the water accumulates at a faster
rate than the soil and organic matter (e.g., dead and decaying vegetation) can absorb the
water, plants can use it, or the water can be evaporated into the air. The volume of water in a
stream moving downslope at a given time, known as streamflow or stream discharge, is a
combination of surface-water runoff and base flow. Streamflow varies as these component
amounts vary.
Run off characteristics of Streams
When the ground becomes saturated (either from rainfall or snowmelt), some of the
water runs off the surface as saturated overland flow. This usually occurs as a result of
rainstorms or high spring snowmelt when the available water exceeds the soil's infiltration
rate. Surface runoff also can occur when precipitation encounters relatively impermeable
surfaces, such as hardened soils, surficial bedrock, or human-made structures such as
pavement or buildings. Surface runoff enters a stream more rapidly than does groundwater,
and produces a more noticeable response in streamflow (see figure on page 126).
Factor affecting Runoff
Several factors can affect surface runoff. The extent of runoff is a function (ƒ)
of geology, slope, climate, precipitation, saturation, soil type, vegetation, and time.
Geology includes rock and soil types and characteristics, as well as degree of weathering.
Drainage density is a measure of the length of channel per unit area. Many channels per unit
area means that more water is moving off of the surface, rather than soaking into the soil.
Drainage basins or watersheds have different shapes and sizes. Large drainage basins are
usually divided into smaller ones. Size and shape have a direct effect on surface runoff.
Drought: Classification of Drought
A drought is when there is a lack of precipitation over an extended period of time,
usually a season or more, resulting in a water shortage for some activity, group, or
environmental sector. Its impacts result from the interplay between the natural event (less
precipitation than expected) and the demand people place on water supply, and human
activities can exacerbate the impacts of drought.
Water Harvesting
The term ‘water harvesting’ generally refers to the collection of rainstorm-
generated runoff from a particular area (a catchment) in order to provide water for human,
animal, or crop use. The water thus collected can either be utilized immediately, as for
irrigation, or be stored in aboveground ponds or in subsurface reservoirs, such as cisterns or
shallow aquifers, for subsequent utilization. As such, water harvesting is an ancient practice
that has enabled some societies to subsist in semiarid and arid areas where other sources of
fresh water (e.g., rivers, lakes, or aquifers) are scant or unavailable.

CHAPTER VI:
INFILTRATION AND PRECOLATION

Infiltration and percolation are two related but different processes describing the

movement of moisture through soil. Infiltration is defined as the downward entry of water
into the soil or rock surface (SSSA, 1975) and percolation is the flow of water through soil
and porous or fractured rock.
Infiltration Processes
Infiltration-capacity decreases rapidly due to following processes:
 Packing of the soil-surface by rain;
 Swelling of the soil, thus closing sun-checks and other openings;
 In washing of fine materials to the soil surface openings.
 After rain ends, restoration of the infiltration capacity begins.
 Wind-action and differential temperatures close to the soil surface aid in
reopening the soil-pores, shrinkage of colloids takes place, perforations of
earthworms and insects are restored, and the infiltration-capacity returns to its
maximum value usually within a period of a day or less for sandy soils, although
several days may be required for clays and fine textured soils.
Infiltration Measurements
The measure of infiltration of water into the soil is an important indication
concerning: the efficiency of irrigation and drainage, optimizing the availability of water for
plants, improving the yield of crops and minimizing erosion.
 Double ring infiltrometer
 is a simple instrument that is used to determine the rate of infiltration of
water into the soil.
 Tension infiltrometer
 measures the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil. Water held under
tension infiltrates into a dry soil through a highly permeable nylon
membrane.
Hydrologic Investigations in Determining Subsurface Resource
The first step in any hydrologic investigation is characterization of the resource.
Initially, upper, lower, and lateral boundaries of the groundwater basin are determined, and
then aquifer properties—such as saturated thickness, hydraulic conductivity (ft/day),
transmissivity (ft²/day), specific yield, and storage coefficient—are determined to understand
the storage and yield capacity of the basin.
Groundwater basins are dynamic; aquifers adjust constantly to short-term and long-
term changes in climate, groundwater withdrawals, and land uses. Thus, the amount of water
entering the basin (recharge) and the amount of water leaving the basin (discharge) are also
important factors in the evaluation of groundwater availability.
Hydraulics of Low of Groundwater
Ground-water hydraulics is concerned with the natural or induced movement of water
through permeable rock formations. The principal method of analysis in ground-water
hydraulics is the application, generally by field tests of discharging wells, of equations
derived for particular boundary conditions. Prior to 1935, such equations were known only
for the relatively simple steady flow condition, which incidentally generally does not occur in
nature.
Groundwater Exploration and Exploitation in the Philippines
The Philippines obtains its water supply from different sources. These include:
rainfall, surface sources, i.e. rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, and groundwater resources. It has
18 major river basins and 421 principal river basins as defined by the National Water
Regulatory Board(NWRB).
Groundwater exploration Is the investigation of underground formations to
understand the hydrologic cycle, know the groundwater quality, and identify the nature,
number and type of aquifers.
Most of the liquid freshwater resources are stored underground as groundwater (99%).
The regional distribution on earth, however, varies and depends mainly on climatic
conditions as well as the geology of the subsurface. In contrast to many raw materials, a great
amount of the groundwater is recharged in the hydrologic cycle by infiltrating precipitation.
The data required for a resource assessment are obtained by:
 hydrogeological exploration, observations and measurements at boreholes and
wells
 geophysical investigations on the earth’s surface
 airbone geophysical survey
 satellite image analysis or meteorological observations.
Groundwater exploitation Is referred to the extraction of water for irrigation and
human consumption. Water exploitation is greatly connected with agriculture. Nevertheless, a
large contribution to water exploitation is connected with the industrial and residential sectors
and, seasonally, with tourism. Water exploitation can be estimated by “the exploitation
index” that is defined as withdrawal of conventional freshwater resources (surface and
groundwater) over total renewable resources (expressed in %).
 The proper exploitation of ground water resources involves apart from the location of
suitable source, the construction of properly designed wells. The design and the execution of
water supply systems and their maintenance is an integral part of the scheme of exploration
and management. Numerous problems of ground water exploration & exploitation require
systematic use of scientific techniques.

Agencies Involved in the Collection of Hydrologic Data

 PAG-ASA
 (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration)
 Collecting of hydrologic data, and these data will be used in weather and flood
forecasting and various research projects of agency.
 NIA
 (National Irrigation Administration)
 Responsible in gathering and reporting water discharge data.
 NPC
 (National Power Corporation)
 Primarily responsible for the collection of stream flow data
 NAMRIA
 (National Mapping and Resource Information Authority)
 Responsible for providing the public mapmaking services and acting as the
central mapping agency, depository and distribution facility of natural
resources data in the form of maps, charts, text and statistics.
 NOAA
 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
 The agency receives the funds for the data collection telemetry equipment
shall be responsible for its acquisition, installation, operation and maintenance.
 NWRB
 (National Water Resources Board)
 Responsible for ensuring the optimum exploitation, utilization, development,
conservation and providing methods and standards for data collecting, project
investigation, formulation, planning design and feasibility evaluation, and
rules ang regulation for the exploitation and optimum utilization of water
resources.
Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed Protection
Management is both a science and an art whatever is the object/subject being
managed. While a watershed management policy may be placed on paper and thick
documents, its translated actions may differ from watershed to watershed. The policy may
lose its essence, may be reinforced, or threatened and changed to a better policy.
Watershed management in the Philippines is described in this paper from the
perspective of a non-government organization participating with local governments and
national government agencies in pursuing watershed protection, conservation, and
development. Agreements were signed to make this collaboration happen.
CHAPTER VII:
FLOODS: Estimation and Control
A flood is an unusually' high stage in a river, normally the leveI at which the river
overflows its banks and inundates the adjoining area. The damages caused by floods in terms
of loss of life, property and economic loss due to disruption of economic activity are all too
well known.
Causes of Floods
 Heavy Rains
 The simplest explanation for flooding is heavy rains. No matter where you
live, you are surrounded by infrastructure and systems designed to move
rainwater into appropriate basins and reservoirs.
 Overflowing Rivers
 You do not necessarily need to have heavy rains to experience flooding in
your area. For example, if you live along a river and areas upstream from you
experience heavy rains, it could lead to a serious overflow where you live.
 Broken Dams
 When heavy rains come, and water levels rise, aging dams can fail and
unleash torrents of water on unsuspecting households.
 Urban Drainage Basins
 Many of our cities are made of mostly concrete and other impermeable
material. When you have an urban drainage basin that is made of concrete,
there is no ground for water to sink into. So, when those drainage basins fill
up, it is going to mean flooding for low-lying areas.
 Storm Surges and Tsunamis
 Rain is not always the culprit when it comes to flooding. Storm surges related
to hurricanes and other storms can lead to significant flooding, as can tsunamis
that are sometimes caused by underwater earthquakes.
 Channels with Steep Sides
 Flooding often occurs when there is fast runoff into lakes, rivers and other
reservoirs. This is often the case with rivers and other channels that feature
steep sides.
  A Lack of Vegetation
 Vegetation can help slow runoff and prevent flooding. When there is a lack of
vegetation, however, there is little to stop water from running off. This can be
a bit of a conundrum after a drought.

Effects of Flooding
 Loss of lives and property
 Immediate impacts of flooding include loss of human life, damage to property,
destruction of crops, loss of livestock, non-functioning of infrastructure
facilities and deterioration of health condition owing to waterborne diseases.
Flash floods, with little or no warning time, cause more deaths than slow-
rising riverine floods.
 Loss of livelihoods
 As communication links and infrastructure such as power plants, roads and
bridges are damaged and disrupted, economic activities come to a standstill,
resulting in dislocation and the dysfunction of normal life for a period much
beyond the duration of the flooding. Similarly, the direct effect on production
assets, be it in agriculture or industry, can inhibit regularly activity and lead to
loss of livelihoods. The spillover effects of the loss of livelihoods can be felt
in business and commercial activities even in adjacent non-flooded areas.
 Decreased purchasing and production power
 Damage to infrastructure also causes long-term impacts, such as disruptions to
clean water and electricity, transport, communication, education and health
care. Loss of livelihoods, reduction in purchasing power and loss of land value
in the flood plains lead to increased vulnerabilities of communities living in
the area. The additional cost of rehabilitation, relocation of people and
removal of property from flood-affected areas can divert the capital required
for maintaining production.
 Mass migration
 Frequent flooding, resulting in loss of livelihoods, production and other
prolonged economic impacts and types of suffering can trigger mass migration
or population displacement. Migration to developed urban areas contributes to
the overcrowding in the cities. These migrants swell the ranks of the urban
poor and end up living in marginal lands in cities that are prone to floods or
other risks. Selective out-migration of the workforce sometimes creates
complex social problems.
 Psychosocial effects
 The huge psycho-social effects on flood victims and their families can
traumatize them for long periods of time. The loss of loved ones can generate
deep impacts, especially on children. Displacement from one’s home, loss of
property and livelihoods and disruption to business and social affairs can
cause continuing stress. The stress of overcoming these losses can be
overwhelming and produce lasting psychological impacts.
 Hindering economic growth and development
  The high cost of relief and recovery may adversely impact investment in
infrastructure and other development activities in the area and in certain cases
may cripple the frail economy of the region. Recurrent flooding in a region
may discourage long-term investments by the government and private sector
alike. Lack of livelihoods, combined with migration of skilled labour and
inflation may have a negative impact on a region’s economic growth. Loss of
resources can lead to high costs of goods and services, delaying its
development programs.
 Political implications
 Ineffective response to relief operations during major flood events may lead to
public discontent or loss of trust in the authorities or the state and national
governments. Lack of development in flood-prone areas may cause social
inequity and even social unrest posing threat to peace and stability in the
region.
Types of Flood
 Flash floods
 are fast-moving waters that sweep everything in their path. They are caused by
heavy rainfall or rapid snow thaw. Floods usually cover a relatively small area
and occur with little to no notice, generally less than six hours. The rapid
water torrents can move large objects such as cars, rocks, and trees.
  Coastal floods 
 are caused by strong winds or storms that move towards a coast during high
tide. When powerful waves breach the coast’s dune or dike, the area is usually
flooded. Coastal areas with fewer defenses and lower elevation are the most
affected. The best time to repair the breach is during low tide.
 River floods 
 are characterized by gradual riverbank overflows caused by extensive rainfall
over an extended period of time. The areas covered by river floods depend on
the size of the river and the amount of rainfall. River floods rarely result in
loss of lives but can cause immense economic damage.
  Urban floods 
 occur when the drainage system in a city or town fails to absorb the water
from heavy rain. The lack of natural drainage in an urban area can also
contribute to flooding. Water flows out into the street, making driving very
dangerous. Although water levels can be just a few inches deep, urban floods
can cause significant structural damage.
 Pluvial floods 
 form in flat areas where the terrain can’t absorb the rainwater, causing puddles
and ponds to appear. Pluvial flooding is similar to urban flooding, but it occurs
mostly in rural areas. The agricultural activities and properties in areas where
pluvial floods have occurred can be seriously affected.
Managing Floods (Methods of Flood Control)
Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These
methods include planting vegetation to retain extra water, terracing hillsides to slow flow
downhill, and the construction of floodways (man-made channels to divert floodwater). Other
techniques include the construction of levees, lakes, dams, reservoirs, retention ponds to hold
extra water during times of flooding.
 Dams
 Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed completely or
partially to aid in flood protection and control. Many large dams have flood-
control reservations in which the level of a reservoir must be kept below a
certain elevation before the onset of the rainy/summer melt season to allow a
certain amount of space in which floodwaters can fill. Other beneficial uses of
dam created reservoirs include hydroelectric power generation, water
conservation, and recreation
 Diversion canals
 Floods can be controlled by redirecting excess water to purpose-built canals or
floodways, which in turn divert the water to temporary holding ponds or other
bodies of water where there is a lower risk or impact to flooding.
 Floodplains and groundwater replenishment
 Excess water can be used for groundwater replenishment by diversion onto
land that can absorb the water. This technique can reduce the impact of later
droughts by using the ground as a natural reservoir. It is being used in
California, where orchards and vineyards can be flooded without damaging
crops, or in other places wilderness areas have been re-engineered to act as
floodplains.
 River defenses
 In many countries, rivers are prone to floods and are often carefully managed.
Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent
rivers from bursting their banks.
 Coastal defenses
 Coastal flooding has been addressed with coastal defenses, such as sea walls,
beach nourishment, and barrier islands.
Design Flood
 SPILLWAY DESIGN FLOOD
 Design flood used for cite specific purpose of designing the spillway of a
storage structure. This terms is frequently used to denote the maximum
discharge that can be passed in a hydraulic structure without any damage or
serious threat to the stability of the structure.
 STANDARD PROJECT FLOOD (SPF)
 The flood that would result from a severe combination of meteorological and
hydrological factors that are reasonably applicable to the region. Extremely
rare combinations of factors are excluded.
 PROBABLE MAXIMUM FLOOD (PMF)
 The extreme flood that is physically possible in a region as a result of severe
most combinations, including rare combinations of meteorological and
hydrological factors.