UTLEY a VM UEC MASTSM Lh Maas Vees] ot) ot Social Network Analysis Methods and Applications Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust a nanan oe Eo wal oe = hiSocial network analysis is used. widely in the social and behavioral sciences, as well as in economics, marketing, and industrial engincering, The social: network perspective focuses on relationships among social entities: examples include communications among members of a group, economic transactions between corporations, and trade or treaties among nations. The focus on relationships is an important addition to standard social and behavioral research, which is primarily concerned with attributes of the social units. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications reviews and discusses methods for the analysis of social networks with a focus on applications of these methods to many substantive examples. The book is organized into six parts. The introductory chapters give an overview of the social nctwork perspective and describe different kinds of sociat nctwork data. ‘The second part discusses formal represontations for social networks, including notations, graph theory, and matrix operations. The third part cavers structural and locational properties of social networks, including centrality, prestige, prominence, structural balance, clusterability, cohesive subgroup’, and affiliation networks. The fourth part examines methods for social network roles and. positions and includes discussions of structural equivalence, blockmodels, and relational algebras. The properties of dyads and triads are covered in the fifth part of the book, and the final part discusses statistical methods for social networks, Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications is a reference book that can be used by those wac want a comprehensive review of network methods, or by researchers who have gathered network data and want to find che mast appropriate method by which to analyze them. It is also intended for use as a textbook, as it is the first book io provide comprehensive coverage of the methodology and applications of the field,SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSISStructural analysis in the social sciences Mark Granovetter, editor Other books in the series: Ronald L. Breiger, ed., Social Mobility and Social Structure John L. Campbell, J. Rogers Hollingsworth, and Leon N. Lindberg, eds., Governance of the American Economy David Knoke, Political Networks: The Structural Perspective Kyriakos Kontopoulos, The Logies of Social Structure Mark S. Mizruchi and Michael Schwariz, eds., Intercorporate Relations: ‘The Structural Analysis of Business Philippa Pattison, Algebrate Models far Soctal Networks Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz, eds, Social Structures: A Network Approach ‘The series Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences presents approaches that explain social behavior and institutions by reference to relations among such concrete entities as persons and organizations, This con- trasts with at least four other popular strategies: (a) reductionist attempts to explain by a focus on individuals alone; (b} explanations stressing the causal primacy of such abstract concepts as ideas, velues, mental far- monies, and cognitive maps (thus, “structuralism” on the Continent should be distinguished [rom structural analysis in the present sense); (c) technological and material determinism; (d) explanations using “vari- ables” as the main analytic concepts (as in the “structural equation” models that dominated much of the sociology of the 1970s), where structuce is that connecting variables rather than actual social entities. The social network approach is an important example of the strategy of structural analysis; the series also draws on social science theory and research that is not framed explicitly in network terms, but stresses the importance of relations rather than the atomization of reductionism or the determinism of ideas, technology, or material conditions. Though the structural perspective has become extremely popular and influential in all the social sciences, it does not have a coherent identity, and no series yet pulls together such work under a single rubric. By bringing the achievements of structurally oriented scholars to a wider public, the Structural Analysis series hopes to cncourage the use of this very fruitful approach. Mark Granovetter SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS: METHODS AND APPLICATIONS SHORT LOAN STANLEY WWASSERMAN ‘University of it KATHERINE FAUST University of South Carofioa CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSPublished by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge ‘The Pitt Building, Trompington Stteet, Cambriége CB2 1RP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oaklcigh, Metbourne 3165, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1994 First published 1994 Printed in tho United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-ia-Publication Data “Wasserman, Stanley, Sodil network analysis : methods and applications / Stanley Wasserman, Katherine Faust con — (Structural analysis in the social sciences) Inches bibliogcepiical references and index. ISBN 0-521-38269-6 (hardback). ~ ISBN 0-521-38707-8 (pbk) 1, Social networks — Research - Methodology. L Faust, Katherine. TL. Tile, TTL Series EMI3i.N356. 1994 307011 ~ dc20 9420602 cw A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-521.38269-6 Hardback, ISBN 0-521.38707-8 Paperback TAG To Sarah and To Don and Margaret FaustContents List of Tables page xxi List of illustrations xxiv Preface sos. Part I: Networks, Relations, and Structure i 1 Social Network Analysis in the Social and Behavioral Sciences 3 LLL The Social Networks Perspective 4 1.2 Historical and Theoretical Foundations 10 12.1 Empirical Motivations di 1.22 Theoretical Motivations B 1.23 Mathematical Motivations 1s 1.24 In Summary 16 1.3 Fundamental Concepts in Network Analysis 7 14 Distinctive Features 21 1.5 Organization of the Book and How to Read It 2 1.5.1 Complexity 2B 1.5.2. Descriptive and Statistical Methods 2B 1.53 Theory Driven Methods mu 1.5.4 Chronology 24, 15.5 Levels of Analysis 25 1.5.6 Chapter Prerequisites 26 1.6 Summary a 2 Social Network Data 2B 2.1 Introduction: What Are Network Data? 2B 2.11 Structural and Composition Variables 2» &x Contents 2.1.2 Modes 2.1.3 Affiliation Varlables 22 Boundary Specification and Sampling 2.2.1 What Is Your Population’? 2.2.2 Sampling 23 Types of Networks 23.1 One-Mode Networks 2.3.2 Two-Mode Networks 2.3.3 Bgo-centered and Special Dyadic Networks 24 Network Data, Measurement and Collection 24.1. Measurement 2.42 Collection 2.43 Longitudinal Data Collection 2.44 Measurement Validity, Reliability, Accuracy, Error 2.5 Data Sets Found in These Pages 25.1 Krackhardt’s High-tech Managers 2.5.2 Padgett’s Florentine Families 2.5.3 Freeman's EES Network 2.5.4 Countries Trade Data 2.5.5. Galaskiewicz’s CHOs and Clubs Network 2.5.6 Other Data Part Il; Mathematical Representations of Social Networks 3 Notation for Social Network Data 3.1 Graph Theoretic Notation 3.1.1 A Single Relation 3.1.2 OMultiple Relations 3.13 Summary 3.2 Sociomettic Notation 3.2.1 Single Relation 3.2.2 Multiple Relations 32.3 Summary 3.3 OAlgebraic Notation 3.4 OTwo Sets of Actors 34.1 @Dilerent Types of Pairs 3.4.2. OSociometric Notation 3.5 Putting It All Together 29 30 a 33 33 36 39 41 43 43 45 RAGS 67 Ti 7 B 5 TI 9 81 33 84 85 86 87 89 Contents 4. Graphs and Matrices 4.1 Why Graphs? 4.2 Graphs 4.2.1 Subgraphs, Dyads, and Triads 4.2.2 Nodal Degree 4.2.3 Density of Graphs and Subgraphs 424 Example: Padgett’s Florentine Families 4.2.5 Walks, Trails, and Paths 42.6 Connected Graphs and Components 4.2.7 Geodesics, Distance, and Diameter 42.8 Connectivity of Graphs 429 Isomorghic Graphs and Subgraphs 4.2.10 OSpecial Kinds of Graphs 43 Directed Graphs 4.3.1 Subgraphs - Dyads 4.3.2 Nodal Indegree and Outdegree 4.3.3 Density of a Directed Graph 4.3.4 An Example 5 Directed Walks, Paths, Semipaths 6 Reachability and Connectivity in Digraphs .7 Geodesics, Distance and Diameter 8 OSpecial Kinds of Directed Grephs 3.9 Summary 44 Signed Graphs and Signed Directed Graphs 4.4.1 Signed Graph 44.2 Signed Directed Graphs 4.5 Valued Graphs and Valued Directed Graphs 4.5.1 Nodes and Dyads 4.52 Density in a Valued Graph 45.3 OPaths in Valued Graphs 4.6 Multigraphs 4.7 @Hypergraphs 48 Relations 48.1 Definition 48.2 Properties of Relations 49 Matrices 49.1 Matrices for Graphs 49.2 Matrices for Digraphs 493 Matrices for Valued Graphs 49.4 Matrices for Two-Mode Networks 4. 4 4 4 4 xi 92 93 o4 a7 100 101 103 105 109 110 112 147 119 121 124. 125 129 129 129 432. 134 134 136 136 137. 138 140 142 143 143 145 152 153 154xii Contents 49.5 ©Matrices for Hypergraphs 496 Basic Matrix Operations 49.7 Computing Simple Network Properties 498 Summary 4.10 Properties 4.10.1 Reflexivity 4.10.2 Symmetry 4.10.3 Transitivity 4.11 Summary Part III: Structural and Locational Properties 5 Centrality and Prestige 5.1 Prominence: Centrality and Prestige S41 Actor Centrality 5.82 Actor Prestige 4.1.3 Group Contralization and Group Prestige 5.2 Nonditectional Relations 52.1 Degree Centrality 52.2 Closeness Centrality 52.3 Betweenness Centrality 524 @lnformation Centrality 5.3 Directional Relations 5.3.1 Centrality 5.3.2 Prestige 53.3 A Different Example 54 Comparisons and Extensions 6 Structural Balance and ‘Transitivity 6.1 Structural Balance 6.1.1 Signed Nondirectional Relations 6.1.2. Signed Directional Relations 6.1.3 OChecking for Balance 6.14 An Index for Balance 6415 Summary 62 Clusterability 62.1 The Clustering Theorems 622 Summary 63 Generalizations of Clusterability 154 159 164 164 164 165 165 167 169 in 173 174 175 17 178 183 188 192 198 199 202 210 215 222 223 228 230 232 232 233 235 238 239 ‘Contents 6.3.1 Empirical Evidence 632 ORanked Clusterability 633 Summary 64 Transitivity 65 Conclusion 7 Cohesive Subgroups 7A Background 7.1.1 Sooial Group and Subgroup 7.12 Notation 7.2 Subgroups Based on Complete Mutuality 7.2.4 Definition of a Clique 7.22 An Example 72.3 Considerations 7.3 Reachability and Diameter 3A wecliques 7.32 An Example 733 Considerations 734 n-clans and r-clubs 735 Summary 7.4 Subgroups Based on Nodal Degree TAA kepiexes 74.2 kecores 75 Comparing Within to Outside Subgroup Ties 751 LS Sets 75.2 Lambda Sets 7.6 Measures of Subgroup Cohesion 77 Directional Relations 7.74 Cliques Based on Reciprocated Ties 7.72. Connectivity in Directional Relations 773 n-cliques in Directional Relations 78 Valued Relations 78.1. Cliques, n-cliques, and k-plexes 7.8.2 Other Approaches for Valued Relations 79 Interpretation of Cohesive Subgroups 740 Other Approaches 7.40.1 Matrix Permutation Approaches 7.10.2 Multidimensional Sealing 7.103 OFactor Analysis 7.11 Summary 27 249 250 250 252 253 254 254 256 287 258 259 260 260 262. 263 265 266 287 268 269 270 273 273 274 275 277 278 282 283 284 284 287 290 290xiv Contents 8 Affiliations and Overlapping Subgroups 81 Affiliation Networks 8.2 Background 821 Theory 82.2 Concepts 8.23 Applications and Rationale 8.3 Representing Affiliation Networks 83.1 Thé Affiliation Network Matrix 8.3.2 Bipartite Graph 8.3.3 Hypergraph 8.3.4 OSimplices and Simplicial Complexes 83.5 Summary 8.3.6 An example: Galaskiewica's CBOs and Clubs 84 Onc-mode Networks 8.41 Definition 84.2 Examples &5 Properties of Affiliation Networks 8.5.1 Properties of Actors and Events 8.5.2 Properties of One-mode Networks 3.5.3 Taking Account of Subgroup Siza 8.5.4 Interpretation 86 ®@Analysis of Actors and Events 8.6.1 @Galois Lattices 3.6.2 Correspondence Analysis 87 Summary Part IV: Roles and Positions 9 Structural Equivalence 9.1 Background 9.1.1 Social Roles and Positions 9.1.2 An Overview of Positional and Role Analysis 9.1.3 A Brief History 92 Definition of Structural Equivalence 92.1 Definition 922 An Example 9.23 Somo Issues in Defining Structural Equivalence 93 Positional Analysis 9.3.1 Simplification of Multirelational Networks 291 291 292 292 294 295 298 298 299 303 306 306 307 307 309 312 312 314 322 324 326 326 334 342 345 347 348 348 351 354 356 356 357 359 361 361 t i { : Contents 9.3.2 Tasks in a Positional Analysis 9.4 Measuring Structural Equivalence 94.1 Euclidean Distance as a Measure of Structural Equivalence 9.42 Correlation as a Measure of Structural Equivalence 94,3 Some Considerations in Measuring Structural Equivalence 9.5 Representation of Network Positions 9.5.1 Partitioning Actors 9.5.2 Spatial Representations of Actor Equivalences 9.5.3 Ties Between and Within Positions 9.6 Summary 10 Blockmodels 10.1 Definition 102 Building Blocks 10.2.1 Perfect Fit (Fat Fit) 10.2.2 Zeroblock (Lean Fit) Criterion 10.2.3 Oneblock Criterion 1024 a Density Criterion 10.2.5 Comparison of Criteria 10.2.6 Examples 102.7 Valued Relations 103 Interpretation 103.1 Actor Attributes 103.2 Describing Individual Positions 10.33 Image Matrices 104 Summary 11 Relational Algebras LL Background 11.2 Notation and Algebraic Operations 11.2.1 Composition and Compound Relations 11.22 Properties of Composition and Compound Relations 11.3 Multiplication Tables for Relations 11.3.1 Multiplication Tables and Relational Structures 11.3.2 An Example 114 Simplification of Role Tables 11.4.1 Sizuplification by Comparing Images 367 368 370 375 375 385 391 304 395 397 398 399 401 401 406 408 408 411 417 423 425 426, 428 429 432 433 435 439 442 443xvi Contents Contents vii 11.4.2 @Homomorphic Reduction Ms Part V: Dyadic and ‘Triadic Methods 503 HLS @Comparing Role Structures 449 11.5.1 Joint Homomorphic Reduction 4st B eee aw a 11.5.2 The Common Structure Semigroup 452 13.2 An Example and Some Definitions 508 11.53 An Example 453 133 Dyads 510 11.5.4 Measuring the Similarity of Role Structures 487 13.3.1 The Dyad Census 512 116 Summary 460 . 13.3.2 The Example and Its Dyad Census 513. 13.3.3 An Index for Mutuality 514 12 Network Positions and Roles 461 13.3.4 @A Second Index for Mutuality 518 12.1 Background 462 133.5 OSubgraph Analysis, in General 520 12.4.1 Theoretical Definitions of Roles and Positions 462 134 Simple Distbatons rution — A Review a 12.1.2 Levels of Role Analysis in Social Networks 464 13.42 Simple Distributions. on Digraphs 506 12.1.3 Equivalences in Networks 466 . 13.5 Statistical Analysis of the Number of Arcs 528 12.2 Structural Equivalence, Revisited 468 : 13.5.1 Testing 529 12.3 Automorphic and [somorphic Equivalence 469 13.5.2 Estimation 533 123.1 Definition 470 13.6 @Conditional Uniform Distributions 535 1232 Example an 13.6.1 Uniform Distribution, Conditional on the Number 12:33 Measuring Automorphie Equivalence n 1362 Union Distribution, Conditional on the “ 12.4 Regular Equivalence 473 Ontdegrees ’ sx 12.41 Definition of Regular Equivalence 474 13.7 Statistical Analysis of the Number of Mutuals 539 12.4.2 Regular Equivalence for Nondirectional Relations 475 13.71 Estimation 540 12.4.3 Regular Equivatence Blockmodels 476 : 13.72 Testing 342 12.44 QA Measure of Regular Equivalence 479 13.7.3 Examples 543 1245 An Example 431 13.8 @Other Conditional Uniform Distributions 544 12.5 “Types” of Ties 483 13.8.1 Uniform ‘Distribution, Conditional on the Indegrees 545 1251 An Brample 8s 138.2 The UIMAN Distribution 547 13.8.3 More Complex Distributions 350 126 Local Role Equivalence 487 139 Other Research 552 126.1 Measuring Local Role Dissimilarity 488 : 13.10 Conclusion 555 12.62 Examples 491 12.7 @Ego Algebras 494 , 14 Triads . 556 12.7.1 Definition of Ego Algebras 496 ta Random Models and Substantive Hypotheses $88 19.7.2 Equivalence of Ego Algebras 497 14241 ‘The Triad Census 564 12.7.3 Measuring Bgo Algebra Similarity or 142.2 The Example and Its Triad Census 374 42.74 Examples 499 14.3 Distribution of a Triad Census 575 12.8 Discussion 502 14.3.1 @Mean and Variance of a k-subgraph Census 516xviii 14. & 14.5, 14.6 Contents 14.3.2 Mean and Variance of a Triad Census 14.33 Retumn to the Example 143.4 Mean and Variance of Linear Combinations of a ‘Triad Census 14.35 A Brief Review ‘Testing Structural Hypotheses 144.1 Configurations 144.2 From Configurations to Weighting Vectors 1443 From Weighting Vectors to Test Statistics 1444 An Example 1445 Another Example — Testing for Transitivity Generalizations and Conclusions Summary Part VI: Statistical Dyadic Interaction Models 15 Statistical Analysis of Single Relational Networks 15.1 15.2, 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Single Directional Relations 15.1.1 The Yearray 15.1.2 Modeling the Y-array 45.1.3 Parameters 15.14 @ls p; a Random Directed Graph Diswibution? 15.1.5 Summary Attribute Variables 152.1 Introduction 152.2 The W-array 15.2.3 The Basic Model with Attribute Variables 15.2.4 Examples: Using Attribute Vasiables Related Models for Further Aggregated Data 15.3.1 Strict Relational Analysis — The V-artay 15.3.2 Oxéinal Relational Data ONondizectional Relations 15.4.1 A Model 1342 An Example @Recent Generalizations of ps @Single Relations and Two Sets of Actors 156.1 Introduction 15.6.2 The Basic Model 15.6.3 Aggregating Dyads for Two-mode Networks 379 581 582 584 585 585 590 592 595 596 598 601 603 605 OT 608 612 619 633 634 635 636 637 649 651 654 656 656 657 658 662 662 663 664 15.7 158 Contents Computing for Logslinear Models 15.7.1 Computing Packages 15.7.2 From Printouts to Parameters Summary 16 Stochastic Blockmodels and Goodness-of-Fit Indices 16.1 16.2 16.3 Evaluating Blockmodels 16.1.1 Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for Blockraodels 16.1.2 Structurally Based Blockmodels and Permutation Tests 16.4.3 An Example Stochastic Blockmodels 16.2.1 Definition of a Stochastic Blockmode! 16.2.2 Definition of Stochastic Equivalence 16.2.3 Application to Special Probability Functions 16.2.4 Goodness-of-Fit Indices far Stochastic Blockmodels 16.2.5 OStochastic a posterior! Blockmodels 16.2.6 Measures of Stochastic Equivalence 16.2.7 Stochastic Blockmodel Representations 16.2.8 The Example Continued Summary: Generalizations and Extensions 163.1 Statistical Analysis of Multiple Relational Networks 16.3.2 Statistical Analysis of Longitudinal Relations Part VII: Epilogue 17 Future Directions Wd 17.2 Statistical Models Generalizing to New Kinds of Data 17.2.1 Multiple Relations 17.2.2 Dynamic and Longitudinal Network Models 17.2.3 Bgo-centered Networks 17.3 Data Collection 17.4 Sampling 17.5 Genezal Propositions about Structure 116 177 Computer Technology Networks ané Standard Social and Behavioral Science 666 671 673 615 678 679 688 689 692 696 697 706 708 12 19 mH 725 727 Ry 729 TO 730 7B. TA 732 732 733 733,Xx Contents Appendix A Computer Programs Appendix B Data References Name Index Subject Index List of Notation 735 738 756 802 Bil 819 List of Tables 3. Sociomatrices for the six actors and three relations of Figure 3.2 3.2 The sociomatrix for the relation “is a student of” defined for heterogeneous pairs from AW” and .#f 4.1 Nodal degree and density for friendships among Krack- hardt’s high-tech managers 42 Example of a sociomatrix: “lives near” relation for six children 43 Example of an incidence matrix: “lives neat” relation for six children 44 Example of a sociomatrix for 2 directed graph: friendship at the beginning of the year for six children 4.5 Rxample of matrix permutation 4.6 Transpose of a sociomairix for # directed relation: friendship at the beginsing of the year for six children 4.7 Powers of a sociomatrix for a directed graph S.L Centrality indices for Padgett’s Florentine families 5.2 Centrality for the countries trade network 5.3 Prestige indices for the countries trade network 6.1 Powers of a sociomatrix of a signed graph, to demonstrate cycle signs, and hence, balance 8.1 Cliques in the actor co-membership relation for Galaskie- wicz’s CEOs and clubs network &2 Cliques in the event overlap relation for Galaskiewicz’s CEOs and clubs network 8.3 Correspondence analysis scores for CEOs and clubs 10.1 Mean age and tenure of actors im positions for Kxack- hardt’s high-tech managers (standard deviations in parentheses) 82 88 130 151 152 153 156 1s7 162 183 2 213 231 321 321 Mi 410xxii List of Tables 10.2 Means of variables within positions for countries trade example 10.3 Typology of positions (adapted from Burt (1976)) 104 Typology of positions for Krackhardt's high-tech managers 14.1 Some sociomatrices for three triad isomorphism classes 142 Weighting vectors for statistics and hypothosis concerning the triad census 143 Trindic analysis of Krackhardt's friendship relation 144 Covariance matrix for triadic analysis of Krackhardt's friendship relation 145 Configuration types for Mazur's proposition 15.1 Sociomatrix for the second-grade children 152 y for the second-grade chifdren 15.3 Constraints on the {ay} parameters in model (15.3) 154 p; parameter estimates for the second-graders 15.5 y fitted values for p; fit to the second-grade children 136 p, parameters, models, and associated margins 157 Tests of significance for parameters in medel (15.3) 158 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the fabricated network 15,9 Goodness-of-fit statistics for Krackhardt’s network 15.10 Parameter estimates for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 15.11 The W-array for the second-graders using friendship and age (the first subset consists of the 7-year-old children, Eliot, Keith, and Sarah, and the second subset consists of the 8-year-old children, Allison, Dzew, and Ross.) 15.12 The W-atrays for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers, using tenure, and age and fenure 15.13 Parameters, models, and associated margins for models for attribute variables 15.14 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the fabricated network, using attribute variables 15.15 Parameter estimates for children’s friendship and age 15.16 Goodness-of-fit statistics for Krackhardt’s managers and the advice relation, with attribute variables 15.17 Goodness-of-fit statistics for Krackhardt’s managers and the friendship relation, with attribute variables 15.18 The V-array constructed from the Y-array for the second- graders and friendship 13.19 Parameter estimates for Padgett’s Florentine families 16.1 Comparison of density matrices to target blockmodels — countries trade example 16.2 Comparison of ties to target sociomatrices — countries trade example 412 4i4 AG 564 373 582 583 593 610 6lL 617 618 623 630 631 63h 632 640 641 647 648 649 652 658 690 List of Tables 163 Fit statistics for py and special cases 164 Fit statistics for p, stochastic blockmedels 16.5 Predicted density matrix B. Advice relation between managers of Krackhardt’s high tech company B2 Friendship relation between managers of Krackherdr’s high-tech company B3 “Reports to” relation between managers of Krackhardt’s high-tech company Bt Attributes for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers B.S Business relation between Florentine families B6 Marita! relation between Florentine families B7 Attributes for Padgett's Florentine families BA Acquaintanceship at time 1 between Freeman's LES researchers BS Acquaintanceship at time 2 between Freeman’s EIES researchers B.10 Messages sent between Freeman's E/ES researchers B.1l Attributes for Freeman's EfES researchers B.i2 Trade of basic manufactured goods between countries B.i3 Trade of food and live animals between countries B.14 Trade of crude materials, excluding food. B.15 Trade of minerals, fuels, and other petroleum products between countries B.16 Exchange of diplomats between countries B.17 Attributes for countries trade network B.18 CEOs and clubs affiliation network matrix 740 7aL 742 743 743 744 45 746 1a 748, 79 750 751 752 753 154 755List of Illustrations LI How to read this book 311 The six actors and the directed lines between them — a sociogram 3.2 The six actors and the three sets of directed lines — a multivariate directed graph 4.1 Graph of “lives near” relation for six children 4.2 Subgraphs of a graph 4.3 Four possible triadic states in a graph 4.4 Complete ind empty graphs 4.5 Graph and nodal degrees for Padgett’s Florentine families, marriage relation 4.6 Walks, trails, and paths in a graph 4.7 Closed walks and cycles in a-graph 4.8. A connected graph and a graph with components 49 Graph showing geodesics and diameter 4.10 Example of a cutpoint in a graph 4.11 Example of a bridge in a graph 4.12 Connectivity in a graph 4.13 Isomozphic graphs 4.14 Cyclic and acyclic graphs 4.15 Bipartite graphs 4.16 Friendship at the beginning of the year for six children 4.7 Dyads from the graph of friendship among six children at the beginning of the year 4.E8 Directed walks, paths, semipaths, and. semicycles 4.19 Different kinds of connectivity in a directed graph 4.20 Converse and complement of a directed graph 4.21 Example of a signed graph 422 Example of a signed directed graph 423 Example of a valued directed geaph xxiv, 27 ai 96 98 100 102, 104 106. 108 109 wd 113 na U6 18 Aig 123 125 131 133 135 138 139 142, | List of Mustrations 4.24 Paths in a valued graph 425 Example of a hypergraph 426 Example of matrix multiplication 3.1 Three illustrative networks for the study of centrality and prestige 6.1 The eight possible P-O-X triples 62 An unbalanced signed graph 63 A balanced signed graph 64 An unbalanced signed digraph 6.5. A clusterable signed graph (with no unique clustering) 646 The sixteen possible triads for ranked clusterability in a complete signed graph 6.7 The sixteen possible triads for transitivity in a digraph 68 The type 16 triad, and all six triples of actors 7.1 A graph and its cliques 72. Graph illustrating n-cliques, n-clans, and n-clubs, 73 A vulncrable 2-clique 74 A valued relation and derived graphs 75 A hypothetical example showing a permuted sociomatrix 7 Multidimensional scaling of path distances on the marriage relation for Padgett’s Florentine families (Pucci family omitted) 8.1 Affiiation network matrix for the example of six children and three birthday parties 22 Bipartite graph of affiliation network of six children and three parties 83 Sociomstrix for the bipartite graph of six children and theee parties 84 Hypergraph and dual hypergraph for example of six children and three parties 85 Actor co-membership matrix for the six children 86 Event overlap matrix for the three parties 87 Co-membeiship matrix for CEOs from Galaskicwica’s CBOs and clubs network 84 Event overlap matrix for clubs from Galaskiewicz’s CEOs and clubs data 89 Relationships among birthday parties as subsets of children 8.10 Relationships among children as subsets of birthday parties 8.11 Galois lattice of children and birthday parties 11 145 147 158 171 224 227 228 229 236 241 255 259 264 281 286 289 299 301 WS 310 310 3 313 329 330 333xxvii List of Hlustrations 8.12 Plot of correspondence analysis scores for CEOs and clubs example — CEOs in principal coordinates clubs in standard coordinates 9.1 An overview of positional and role analysis 9.2 Sociomatrix and directed graph illustrating structural equivalence 9.3 Example simplifying a network using structural equiva- lence 9.4 Euclidean distances computed on advice relation for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 9.5 Correlations calculated on the advice relation for Krack- hardt's high-tech managers 9.6 Dendrogram of positions from CONCOR of the advies relation for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 9.7 Dendrogram for complete link hierarchical clustering of Euclidean distances on the advice relation for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 9.8 Dendrogram for complete link hierarchical clustering of correlation coefficients on the advice relation for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 9.9 Multidimensional scaling of correlation coefficients on the advice relation for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 9.10 Advice sociomatrix for Krackhardt’s high-tech man- agers permuted according to positions from hierarchical clustering of correlations 9.11 Density table for the advice relation from Krackhardt's high-tech managers, positions identified by hierarchical clustering of correlations 9.12 Image matrix for the advice relation from Krackhardt’'s high-tech managers, positions identified by hierarchical clusteting of correlations 9.13 Reduced graph for the advice relation from Krackhardt's ‘high-(ech managers, positions identified by hierarchical clustering of correlations 10.1 Density tables for advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 10.2 Blockmodel image matrices for advice and friendship telations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 10.3 Reduced graphs for advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt's high-tech managers 10.4 Density tables for manufactured goods, raw materials, and diplomatic ties’ 340 352 358 364 372 390 390 g & 8 405 List of Mustrations 10.5 Image matrices for three relations in the countries trade example 10.6 Frequency of ties within and between positions for advice and friendship 10.7 Ten possible image matrices for a two-position blockmedel 10.8 Ideal images for blockmodels with mote than. two positions 11.1 Example of compound relations 11.2 Composition graph table for a hypothetical network 11.3 Multiplication table for a hypothetical network 11d Equivalence classes for a hypothetical multiplication table 113 Multiplication table for advice and friendship, expressed as compound relations 116 Image matrices for five distinct words formed from advice and friendship images 11.7 Equivalence classes for multiplication role table of advice and friendship 118 Multiplication table for advice and friendship 11.9 Inclusion ordering for the images from role structure of advice and friendship 11.10 Permuted and partitioned multiplication table for advice an€ friendship 1111 Homomorphic reduction of the role table for advice and friendship 1112 A second permuted and partitioned multiplication table for advice and friendship 11.13 A second homornorphic reduction of the role table for advice and friendship 11.14 Multiplication table for helpiag (A) and friendship (F) for the Bank Wiring room network 1115 Permnpted and partitioned multiplication table for helping aad friendship for the Bank Wiring room network 12. Graph to illustrate equivalences 122 Greph to demonstrate regular equivalence 123 Blocked sociomatrix and image matrix for regular equivalence blockmodel 124 Regular equivalences computed using REGE on advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 12.5 Hierarchical clustering of regular ‘equivalences on advice and friendship for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 12.6 A hypothetical graph for two relations 12.7 Local roles xvii 406 416 421 423 431 436 438 438 455 456 468 4AT6 478 482 483 486 ARTxavili List of ittustrations 12.8 Role equivalences for hypothetical example of two relations 12.9 Role equivalences for advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 12.10 Hierarchical clustering of role equivalences on advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 12.11 Ego algebras for the example of two relations 12.12 Distances between ego algebras for a hypothetical example of two relations: 12.13 Distances between ogo algebras computed on advice and friendship relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 12.14 Hlierarchical clustering of distances between ego algebras on the two relations for Krackhardt’s high-tech managers 13.1 The three dyadic isomorphism classes or states 13.2 The digraphs with the specified sets of outdegrees and indegrees 14.1 Sociogram of friendship at the beginning of the school year for the hypothetical children network 142 Mutual/cyclic asymmetric triad involving children Allison {n), Drew (a2), and Eliot (13) 143 The six realizations of the single are triad 14.4 The triad isomorphism classes (with standard MAN labeling) 145 ‘Transitive configurations 16.1 Plot of 8 versas fi 16.2 Reduced graph based on predicted probabilities > 0.30 492 493 497 499 SOL Sul 551 560 562 563 366, 588 713 n8 | ' Preface ‘Our goal for this book is to present a review of network analysis metheds, a reference work for researchers interested in analyzing relational data, and a text for novice sacial networkers looking for an overview of the field. ‘Our hope is that this book will help researchers to become aware of the very wide range of social network methods, to understand the theoretical motivations behind these approaches, to appreciate the wealth of social network applications, und to find some guidance in selecting the most appropriate methods for a given research application. The last decade has seen the publication of several books and edited volumes dealing with aspects of social network theory, application, and method. However, none of these books presents a comprehensive discus- sion of social network methodology. We hope that this book will fill this gap. The theoretical basis for the network perspective has been exten- sively outlined in books by Berkowitz (1982) and Burt (1982), Because these provide good theoretical overviews, we will not dwell on theoretical advances in social network research, except as they pertain directly to network methods. In addition, there are several collections of papers that apply network ideas to substantive research problems (Leinhardt 1977; Holland and Loinhardt 1979; Marsden and Lin 1982; Wellman and Berkowitz 1988; Breiger 1990a; Hiramatsu 1990; Weesic and Flap 1990; Wasserman and Galaskiewicz 1994), These collections include foundational works in network analysis and examples of applications from 2 range of disciplines. Finally, some books have presented collections of readings on special topics in network methods (for example, Burt and Minor 1983), papers on current methodological advances (for example, Freeman, White and Romney 1989), or elementary discussions of basic topics in network analysis (for example, Knoke and Kuklinski 1982; Scott 1992). And there xxixxxx Preface are a number of monographs and articles teviewing network methodology (Northway 1952; Lindzey and Borgata 1954; Mitchell 1974; Roistacher 1974; Freeman 1976; Burt 1978b; Feger, Hummell, Papi, Sodeur, and Ziegler 1978; Klovdahl 1979; Niesmoller and Schijf 1980; Burt 1980; Alba 1981; Frank 1981; Wellman 1983; Rice and Richards 1985; Scott 1988; Wellman 19884; Wellman and Berkowitz 1988; Marsden 1990b), Very recently, a number of books have begun to appear, discussing advanced methodological topics. Hage and Hurary (1983) is a good cxample from this genre; Boyd (1990), Breiger (1991), and Pattison (1993) introduce the reader to other specialized topics. However, the researcher seeking to understand network analysis is left with a void between the elementary discussions and sophisticated analytic presentations since none of these books provides a unified discussion of network methodology. As mentioned, we intend this book to fill that void by presenting a broad, comprehensive, and, we hope, complete discussion of network analysis methodology. ‘There are many people to thank for their help in making this book a reality, Mark Granovetter, the editor of this series for Cambridge University Press, was a source of enconragement througuout the many years that we spent revising the manuscript. Lin Freeman, Ron Breiger, and Peter Marsden reviewed earlier versions of the book for Cambridge, and made many, many suggestions for improvement. Alaina Michaelson deserves much gratitude for actually reading the entire manuscript during the 1990-1991 academic year, Sue Freeman, Joe Galaskiewicz, Nigel Hopkins, Larry Hubert, Pip Pattison, Kim Romney, and Tom Snijders tead various chapters, and had many helpful comments. Colleagues at the University of South Carolina Department of Sociology (John Skvoretz, Pat Nolan, Dave Willer, Shelley Smith, Jimy Sanders, Lala Steelman, and Steve Borgatti} were a source of inspiration, as were Phipps Arabic, Frank Romo, and Harrison White. Dave Krackhardt, John Padgett, Russ Bernard, Lin Freeman, and Joe Galaskiewicz shared data with us, Our students Carolyn Anderson, Mike Walker, Diane Payne, Laura Koshly, Shannon Morrison, and Melissa Abboushi were wonderful assistants, Jill Grace provided library assistance. We also thank the authors of the computer programs we used to help analyze the data in the book — Karel Sprenger and Frans Stokman (GRADAP), Ron Breiger (ROLE), ‘Noah Friedkin (SNAPS), Ron Burt (STRUCTURE), and Lin Freeman, Steve Borgatti, and Martin Everett (UCINET). And, of course, we are extremely grateful to Allison, Drew, Eliot, Keith, Ross, and Sarah for their notoriety! Preface xaxi Emily Loose, our first editor at Cambridge, was always helpful in finding ways to speed up the process of getting this book into print. Elizabeth Neal and Pautine Ireland at Cambridge helped us during the last stages of production. Hank Heitowit, of the Interuniversity Con- sortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) made it possible for us to teach a course, Social Network Analysis, for the last seven years in their Summer Program in Quant tative Methods. The students at ICPSR, as well as the many students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of South Cazolina, American University, and various workshops we haye given deserve special recognition. And iastly, we thank Murray Abor, Jim Blackman, Sally Nerlove, and Cheryl Eavey at the National Science Foundation for financial support over the years (most recently, via NSF Grant #SBR93-10184 to the University of Illinois), We dedicate this book to Sarah Wasscrman, and to Don Faust and Margaret Faust, without whom it would not have been possible. Stanley Wasserman Grand Rivers, Kentucky Katherine Faust Shaver Lake, California August, 1993Part I Networks, Relations, and Structure: : i i 1 Social Network Analysis in the Social and Behavioral Sciences The notion of a social network and the methods of social network analy- sis have attracted considerable interest and curiosity from the social and behavioral science community in recent decades. Much of this interest can be attributed to the appealing focus of social network analysis on relationships araong social entities, and on the patterns and implications of these relationships. Many researchers have realized that the network perspective allows mew leverage for answering standard social and be- havioral science research questions by giving precise formal definition to aspects of thé political, economic, or social structural environment, From the view of social network analysis, the social environment can be expressed as patterns or regularities in relationships among interacting units, We will refer to the presence of regular patterns in relationship as structure. Throughout this book, we will refer to quantities that measure structure as structural variables, As the reader will see from the diversity of examples that we discuss, the relationships may be of many sorts: economic, political, interactional, or affective, to name but a few. The focus on relations, and the patterns of relations, requires a set of methods and analytic concepts that are distinct from the methods of traditional statistics and data analysis. The concepts, methods, and applications of social network analysis arc the topic of this book. ‘The focus of this book és on methods and models for analyzing social network data. To an extent perhaps unequaled in most other social science disciplines, social network methods have developed over the past fifty years as an integral part of advances in social theory, empirical research, and formal mathematics and statistics. Many of the key struc- tural measures and notions of social network analysis grew out of keen insights of researchers seeking to describe empirical phenomena and are motivated by central concepts in social theory. In addition, methods have 3( 4 Social Network Anclysis in the Sociat and Behavioral Sciences Seveloped to test specific hypotheves about network structural properties arising in the course of substantive research and model testing Tae result of this symbiotic relationship between theory and method is a Strong grounding of network analytic techniques in both application ane theory. In the following sections we review the history and thoo-y of social network analysis from the tive of sia perspective of the development of Sinee our goal in this book is to provide a compendium of methods ‘ind applications for both veteran social network analysts, and for naive but curious people from diverse research traditions, it is worth taking Some time at the outset to lay the foundations for the social network 1 The Social Networks Perspective In this section we introduce social network ist ection analysis a3 a distinct research Perspective within the social and behavioral sciences; distinct bevauise Social network analysis is based on jon-of the importance of relationships among interacting unike The social etworh Perspective en- Compasses theories, models, and applicallons Mhacare €ipressed in terms wea hal gonsepts or processes. That ig relations \letined by Linkages ~ mnt vork theories. Along” increased use of network analysis has com: @ consensus about the central principles underlying the network pen spective, These principles distinguish social network analysis from other research approaches (see Wellman 1988a, for example). In addition to {be use of telational concepts, we note the following as Being important, Ve Actors and their acti i their actions are viewed as interdependent ra ; ther than independent, autonomous units ~e Relational ties (linkages) between actors are channels for transfer or “flow” of resources (cither material or nonmaterial) . Detwork ‘Models focusing on individuals view the network struc- ‘ural environment as providing opportunities fi i pel environment for or constraints ‘Network modelé conceptualize stqygture (social, economic, polit e ical, and so forth) ).a8 lesting patterns of relations among actors In this section we discuss these pris 2 how is principles further and illustrate how the social network perspective differs from alternative Perspectives in Practice, Of critical importance for the development of methods for attr ec ee nena 1.4 The Sactal Networks Perspective 5 social network analysis is the fact that the unit of analysis in network ‘analysis is not the individual, but an entity consisting. of a collection of individuals and the linkages among them. Network methods focus on dyads (two actors and their ties), triads (three actors and their ties}, or larger systems (subgroups of individuals, or entire networks). Therefore, apoeial methods are necessary. Formal Descriptions. Network analysis enters into the process of mode] development, specification, and testing in a number of ways: to express relationally defined thcorctical concepts by providing formal definitions, measures and descriptions, to evaluate models and theories in which key concepts and propositions are expressed as relational processes or structural outcomes, or fo provide statistical analyses of multirelational systems. In this first, descriptive context, network analysis provides a vocabulary and set of formal definitions for expressing theoretical concepts and properties. Examples.of theoretical concepts (properties) for which network analysis provides explicit definitions will be discussed shortly. Model and Theory Evaluation and Testing. Alternatively, net- work models may be used t0 test theories about relational processes or structures, Such theories posit specific structural outcomes which may then be evaluated against observed network data. For example, suppose one posits that tendencies toward reciprocation of support or exchange of materials between families in a community should arise frequently. Such a supposition can be tested by adopting a statistical model, and studying how frequently such tendencies arise empirically. “The key feature of social network theories or propositions is that they require concepts, definitions and processes in which social units are linked to one another by various relations. Both statistical and descriptive “uses of network analysis are distinct from more standard social science analysis and require concepts and analytic procedures that are different from traditional statistics and data analysis. Le Some Background and Examples. The network perspective has proved fruitful in a wide range of social and behavioral science disciplines. Many topics that have traditionally interested social scientists can be thought of in relational or social network analytic terms. Some of the topics that have been studied by network analysts are: Occupational mobility (Breiger 1981c, 1990a)Sola! Network Analysis in the Social and Behavioral Sciences aia impact of urbanization on individual well-being (Fischer ) # Tho world political and economic system (Snyder and Kick 1979; Nemeth and Smith 1985) + Community clite decision making (Laumann, Marsden, and Ga- _Jaskiowicz 1977; Laumann and Pappi 1973) ¢)Social support (Gottlieb 1981; Lin, Woelfel, and Light 1986; Kedushin 1966; Wellman, Carrington, and Hall 1988; Wellman and Wortley 1990) © Community (Weliman 1979) © Group problem solving (Bavelas 1950; Bavelas and Barrett 1951: Leavitt 1951) , “k¢ Diffusion and adoption of innovations (Coleman, Katz, and Menzel 1957, 1966; Rogers 1979) * Corporate interlocking (Levine 1972; Mintz and Schwartz 1981a, 1981b; Mizruchi and Schwartz, 1987, and references) © Belisf systems (Erickson 1988) * Cognition eo: social perception (Krackhardt 1987a; Freeman, Romney, and Freeman 1987) + Markels (Berkowitz 1988; Burt 1988b; White L981, 1988; Leifer and White 1987) + Sociology of science (Mullins 1973; Mullins, Hargens, Hecht, and Kick 1977; Crane 1972; Burt 1978/79a; Michaelson 1990, 1991; Doreian and Fararo 1985) * Exchange and power (Cook and Emerson 1978; Cook, Emerson, Gillmore, and Yamagishi 1983; Cook 1987; Markovsky, Willer, and Patton 1988) 4 (2 Consens ‘and social influence (Friedkin 1986; Friedkin and ~ \Cook 1990; Dozeian 1981; Marsden 1990a) . Coalition formation (Kapferer 1969; Thurman 1980; Zachary ‘7 ‘The fundamental difference between a social network explanation and a non-network explanation of a process is the inclusion of concepts and information on relationships among units in a study, Theoretical concepts are relatiGhal, pertinent data are relational, and critical tests use disiributions of relational properties. Whether the model smpk 3 i 11 The Social Networks Perspective 7 interactions give rise to structures, “Standard” social science perspectives usually ignore the relational information. Let us explore a couple of examples. Suppose we are interested in corporate behavior in a large, metropolitan area, for example, the level and types of monetary support given to local non-profit and charitable organizations (see, for example, Galaskiewicz 1985), Standard social and economic science approaches would first define a population of relevant units (corporations), take a random sample of them (if the population is quite large), and then measure a variety of characteristics (such as size, industry, profitability, level of support for local charities or other non-profit organizations, and so forth), The key assumption here is that the behavior of a specific unit does not influence any other units. However, network theorists take exception to this assumption. It does not take much insight to realize that there are many ways that corporations decide to do the things they do {such a8 support non-profits with donations). Corporations (and other such actors} tend to look at the behaviors of other actors, and even attempt to mimic cach other, In order to get a complete description of this behavior, we must look at corporate to corporate relationships, such as membership on each others’ boards of directors, acquaintanceships of corperate officers, joint business dealings, and other relational variables. In brief, one needs a network perspective to fully understand and model this phenomenon. ‘As another example, consider a social psychologist studying how groups make decisions and reach consensus (Hastie, Penrod, and Pen- aington 1983; Friedkin and Cook 1990; Davis 1973). The group might be a jury trying to reach 2 verdict, of a committee trying to allocate funds. Focusing just, on the outcome of this decision, as many researchers do, is quite limiting, One réally should look how members influence each other in order to make a dccision or fail to reach consensus. A network approach to this study would look at interactions among group members in order to better understand the decision-making process. The infinenees a group member has on his/her fellow members are quite important to the process. Ignoring these influences gives an incomplete picture.

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