MAEDM111: METHODS OF RESEARCH

SAMPLING

Romeo C. Layones, M.A.T.

POPULATION VS. SAMPLE
Target Population

Accessible Population

Sample

Target population – the population that the researcher would ideally like to
generalize.
Accessible Population – the population that the researcher can realistically
select from
Sample – subset of the population
Example:
Target Population: All Filipinos of legal age
Accessible Population: All registered voters in the Philippines
Sample: Randomly selected voters from the NCR
REASONS FOR SAMPLING
(Singh, 2006)

 The study of the total population is not possible.

 The study of the total population is impracticable.

LAWS OF SAMPLING
(Singh, 2006)

1. Law of Statistical Regularity: A sample may be a good

representative of the population if the elements of the
sample are randomly selected.
2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers: A larger sample is
more stable or a better representative of the population
than a smaller sample.
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
(Kumar, 2011)

1. In a majority of cases, where sampling is done, there will

be a difference between the sample statistics and the true
population mean, which is attributable to the selection of
the units in the sample.
 The difference is called sampling error.

2. The greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the
estimate of the true population mean.

3. The greater the difference in the variable under study in a

population, for a given sample size, the greater will be the
difference between the sample statistics.
AIMS IN SELECTING A SAMPLE
to achieve maximum precision in your estimates within a
given sample size
to avoid bias in the selection of the sample

SAMPLING ERROR VS. SAMPLING BIAS

Sampling Error
 Difference/deviation between the sample and population
due to random processes
 Due mainly on random sampling; beyond the control of the
researcher
Note: No sample will have a composition precisely identical to
that of the population.
Sampling Bias
 results mainly due to the use of nonrandom sampling and
is generally the fault of the researcher
BIAS IN SELECTION OCCURS IF
 sampling is done by nonrandom method
 the sampling frame(list, index or other population records
which serves as the basis of selection) does not cover the
sampling population accurately and completely.
 a section of a sampling population is impossible to find or
refuses to cooperate.
SAMPLE SIZE FOR ESTIMATING THE PROPORTION
 A) Cochran’s (1977) Formula:
no z p 1  p 
2
n where no 
no e2
1
N
where n = sample size
no = sample based on infinite population
N = finite population size
z = standard normal variate based on the
confidence coefficient
p = population proportion
e = specified margin of error/level of precision

Sample size calculator is available online

www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample-size-calculator/#
SAMPLE SIZE FOR ESTIMATING THE PROPORTION
 Deriving a simpler formula:
no z p 1  p 
2
n where no 
no e2
1
N
2 0.50.5  1
2

At 95% confidence level, z ≈ 2: no  2

Since p is unknown, use p = 0.5 e 2 e
1 1 2 1 
Ne  2 
e 2
e 2
  e   N
n 
1 1 2 1  1  Ne 2
1 2 Ne 1  2 
 Ne 
2
1 e Ne
N
SAMPLE SIZE FOR ESTIMATING THE PROPORTION
 B) Yamane’s (1967) Derived Formula:
N
n
1  Ne 2

where n = sample size

N = population size
e = specified margin of error/level of precision

Notes:
 A conventional sampling strategy will be to use a 95 per
cent confidence level and a 3 per cent level of precision.
(Cohen et al., 2007)
 In determining the sample size, always round up to the next
whole number. (Bluman, 2013)
Example: A researcher will be conducting a survey to
determine whether or not students in a university of 11,000
students are in favor of the new school policy. What must
be the size of the sample if the margin of error is set at
3%? (Use Yamane’s derived formula.)

Given : N  11,000 e  3%  0.03

Find n :
N 11,000 11,000
n 2  
1  Ne 1  11,0000.03 1  9.9
2

11,000

10.9
n  1,009.17  1,010
Problem 1: A survey will be conducted to determine the
proportion of students in a university who surf the Internet
in a day. Calculate the sample size if the student population
size is 9,500 and the level of precision is set at 5%. (Use
Yamane’s derived formula.)
Given : N  9,500 e  5%  0.05
Find n :
N 9,500 9,500
n  
1  Ne 1  9,5000.05 1  23.75
2 2

9,500

24.75
n  383.84  384
SAMPLE SIZE FOR ESTIMATING THE PROPORTION
 C) Calmorin’s (2016) Formula:

n

NV  Se  (1  p)
2


NSe  V p1  p 
2

where n = sample size
N = population size
V = standard value (2.58) at 1% level of probability
with 99% reliability
Se = sampling error (0.01)
p = largest possible proportion (0.50)
Example: A researcher will be conducting a survey to
determine whether or not students in a university of 11,000
students are in favor of the new school policy. What must
be the size of the sample? (Use Calmorin’s formula.)
Given : N  11,000 Se  0.01
V  2.58 p  0 .5

n

NV  Se  (1  p )
2


NSe  V 2 p 1  p  
n

110002.58  0.01 (1  0.5)
2


110000.01  2.58 0.51  0.5
2

28380  0.0001(0.5)
n
110  6.65640.50.5
28380.00005
n  254.16  255
111.6641
Problem 1: A survey will be conducted to determine the
proportion of students in a university who surf the Internet
in a day. Calculate the sample size if the student population
size is 9,500.(Use Calmorin’s formula.)
Given : N  9,500 Se  0.01
V  2.58 p  0 .5

n

NV  Se  (1  p )
2


NSe  V 2 p 1  p  
n

95002.58  0.01 (1  0.5)
2


95000.01  2.58 0.51  0.5
2

24510  0.0001(0.5)
n
95  6.65640.50.5
24510.00005
n  253.56  254
96.6641
SAMPLE SIZE FOR ESTIMATING THE PROPORTION
 D) Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula:

 NP(1  P)
2
n 2
d N  1   2 P(1  P)
where n = sample size
X2 = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of
freedom at the desired confidence level
N = population size
P = the population proportion (assumed to be 0.5
since this would provide the maximum sample
size)
d = degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion
Source: Research Methods for Education by Cohen et al. (2007)
SAMPLE SIZE BASED ON TYPE OF RESEARCH
Suggested minimum acceptable sample size
SAMPLE SIZE
TYPE OF Fraenkel and Wallen Gay (1976) as cited by Borg and Gall
RESEARCH (2007) Sevilla et al. (1992) (1979) as cited by
Cohen et al. (2000)
Descriptive 100 respondents 10% of the population; 100 cases
studies for smaller population,
20% may be required.
Correlational 50 respondents 30 subjects 30 cases
studies
Causal- 30 individuals per 15 subjects per group 15 cases
comparative group
studies
Experimental 30 individuals per 15 subjects per group. 15 cases
studies group. 15 Other authorities
individuals in each believe that 30
group can be individuals per group
defended if they are should be the
tightly controlled. minimum
SAMPLE SIZE BASED ON THE STATISTICAL TEST USED
 MULTIPLE REGRESSION:
Stevens (1996): 15 subjects per predictor
Tabachnich and Fidell (2001): n > 50 + 8m
(m = number of independent variables)
 STEPWISE REGRESSION: 40 cases for every independent
variable
 FACTOR ANALYSIS:
Tabachnich and Fidell (2001): 300 cases
Nunnally (1978): 10 cases for each item to be factor
analyzed
Tabachnich and Fidell (2001): 5 cases for each item to be
factor analyzed
 MANOVA: no. of cases per cell = no. of dependent variables
 CHI-SQUARE:
● Lowest expected frequency for each cell = 5 or
● At least 80% of cells have expected frequency of at
least 5.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
 PROBABILITY (RANDOM) SAMPLING – method of
selecting a sample size (n) from the population (N) such
that each member in the population has an
equal and independent chance of being included in the
sample.
 NONPROBABILITY (NONRANDOM) SAMPLING – not all
members of the population are given equal chances to be
chosen.

Note:
Generally, probability sampling is used for quantitative
research.
Nonprobability sampling is used for qualitative research.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING
(Saunders et al., 2009; Kumar, 2011)

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

SAMPLING
QUOTA SAMPLING
STRATIFIED RANDOM
SAMPLING SELF-SELECTION SAMPLING
PROPORTIONATE SNOWBALL SAMPLING

DISPROPORTIONATE PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

EXTREME CASE
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
HETEROGENEOUS
CLUSTER SAMPLING
HOMOGENEOUS
SINGLE STAGE CRITICAL CASE

MULTI-STAGE TYPICAL CASE

PROBABILITY/RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS:

METHODS OF DRAWING A RANDOM SAMPLE

 The Fishbowl Draw – numbers are assigned to each member of the
population. These numbers written on a piece of paper are placed in
a box, then the elements in the samples are picked.
 Computer programs
 A Table of Random Numbers – a list of randomly generated
numbers may be used in the selection of the sample.

SYSTEMS OF DRAWING A RANDOM SAMPLE

Sampling without replacement – the element chosen is no longer
included in the process of selecting the other elements in the sample
Sampling with replacement – the element chosen is still included in the
process of selecting the other elements in the sample
TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
 Simple Random Sampling (SRS) – a procedure of selecting
a sample of size n from a population of size N where each
element in the population has an equal chance of being chosen in
the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling – a procedure that
consists of stratifying or dividing the population into a
number of non-overlapping subpopulations, or strata, and then
taking a sample from each stratum. The number of samples
from each stratum should be proportionally allocated.
 Systematic (Quasi-random) Sampling – sampling which
selects every kth element of the population for the sample,
with the starting point determined at random from the first k
elements.
 Cluster Sampling – the total population is divided into a
number of relatively small subdivisions, and some of these
subdivisions or clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the
over all sample.
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
Steps:
1. Identify all elements or sampling units in the sampling population.
2. Decide upon the different strata (k) into which you want to stratify
the population.
3. Place each element into the appropriate stratum.
4. Number every element in each stratum separately.
5. Decide the total sample size(n).
6. Determine the proportion of each stratum in the study population.
Number of elements in each stratum
p
Population size

7. Determine the number of elements to be selected from each

stratum which is equal to p times sample size.
8. Select the required number of elements from each stratum with
SRS technique.
Example of Stratified Random Sampling
Population: College students enrolled in College Algebra for
school year 2016 – 2017 (N = 500)
Sample: n = 223 (Yamane’s Formula with e = 5%)

Colleges Population Proportion No. of

Distribution Samples
Arts and Sciences
50 0.1 22
Business and Accountancy 57
125 0.25

Engineering
0.48 107
240
Nursing
85 0.17 38
Total
500 224
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Steps:
1. Prepare a list of all elements in the study population (N).
2. Decide on the sample size(n).
3. Determine the width of the interval which is equal to total
population divided by the sample size.
4. Using the SRS, select an element from the first interval (nth
order).
5. Select the same order element from each subsequent
interval.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
 a type of random sample that uses multiple stages and is
often used to cover wide geographic areas in which
aggregated units are randomly selected and then samples
are drawn from the sampled aggregated units or clusters
(Neuman, 2014)
 sampling used to address two problems
a) lack of good sampling frame for a dispersed
population
b) high cost to reach the sampled element
Note:
A cluster is a unit that contains final sampling elements but
can be treated temporarily as sampling element itself.
Example of Cluster Sampling
Goal: Draw a random sample of 100 people in Camarines Sur
Step 1: Cam. Sur has 5 districts. Randomly select 2 districts.
Step 2: Randomly select 5 towns from each district.
Step 3: Randomly select 2 barangays from each town.
Step 4: Randomly select 5 households from each barangay.
Step 5: Select a respondent from each household.

Summary of cluster sampling:

1 person randomly selected per household.
5 households randomly selected per barangay.
2 barangays randomly selected per town.
5 towns randomly selected per district.
2 districts randomly selected from the province.
 1 x 5 x 2 x 5 x 2 = 100 people in the sample
TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS
Source: Saunders et al., 2009
SUMMARY OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS
TYPES OF NONRANDOM SAMPLING
Convenience (Accidental/Haphazard/Opportunity) Sampling
– sampling wherein the researcher gets cases/respondents in any
manner that is convenient
Quota Sampling –sampling wherein the researcher
nonrandomly/haphazardly select a preset number of cases in each of
several predetermined categories reflecting the diversity of the
population
Self-selection – sampling wherein the researcher allows each
case/individual to identify their desire to take part in the research
Snowball Sampling – process of selecting a sample using networks. In
this type, a few individuals in a group or organization are selected and
the required information is collected from them. They are then asked to
identify other people in the group or organization, and the people
selected by them become a part of the sample.
Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling – an element of the
population judged by the researcher as someone who can provide the
best information is included in the sample
TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Extreme Case (Deviant) Sampling – sampling wherein the
researcher focuses on the unusual or special cases
Heterogeneous (Extreme Variation) Sampling – sampling
that enables the researcher to collect data and explain the key
themes that can be observed
Homogeneous Sampling – sampling wherein the researcher
focuses on one particular subgroup in which all the sample
members are similar
Critical Case Sampling – sampling wherein the researcher select
critical cases in order to understand what is happening in each
case so that logical generalizations can be made
Typical Case Sampling – sampling used as part of a research
project to provide an illustrative profile using a representative
case
Source: Saunders et al., 2009
“Judgment and choice usually
show bias, while chance is
impartial. That is why
probability methods work
better than judgment.”
- Freedman
SUBJECT REQUIREMENT

Discuss the sampling design of your study (in not

more than five sentences).