INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE ET

STRATEGIQUE DE L’ESTUAIRE

ESTUARY ACADEMIC AND

STRATEGIC INSTITUTE
(IUEs / INSAM)

DEPARTMENT: INTERNATIONAL TRADE

LEVEL: II

COURSE:: CHIOCE OF FOREIGN MARKET

COURSE FACILITATOR: MR.TAMEUKONG ROMARIO

 COURSE GENERAL OBEJECTIVES
Students have to understand how to

 To protect the product from damages. ...

 Facilitates storage of products till they are used.
  Provides information about the product. ...
 Used it for positioning of products. ...
 Promotes the product.

CHAPTER 1: THE INTEREST OF PICTOGRAMS

Chapter objectives
 This chapter is to enable us to understand what are pictograms and how they being used
in our day to world

Introduction

The term pictogram is a collective term used to describe both ‘symbols’ - considered to
be abstract representations whose meaning must be learnt - and ‘pictorials’ - more
representative pictures depicting messages (Mayer and Laux, 1989). For the purposes
of this report a safety pictogram is a diagrammatic representation using pictures rather
than words to convey a hazard warning or safety message, but which can include text or
alphanumeric information.
A number of terms are used to describe what ostensibly could be considered a
pictogram, depending on the industry and application in which it is used:

graphic - any image used to convey a visual message, can include lines, shapes,
shading and stylised letters

symbol - a graphic combined with form, colour, shape and size to produce a symbol
representing a specific referent whose meaning must be learnt

icon - used within the computer and related industries to refer to a graphical
representation of a function

logo - a symbol used to represent a corporate name

mark - a symbol used to represent a collective group such as trade associations

pictograph - can be used interchangeably with pictogram

pictorial - a representative image, often showing relationships such as movement or

time

sign a combination of symbol and other graphic or text

message
 Pictograms are found on products, in or on product packaging, on safety instructions
supplied with the product and in/on publicity material provided with the product. They are also
used to display information on signs and on equipment. Pictograms can be used alone as
hazard/safety warnings or alongside complementary measures. It appears that current trends
may be to rely on pictogram usage to solve the problems of the internationalisation of markets
and work forces to avoid the need to display information in several different languages on
product packaging and signs

Pictogram design

The following is a discussion of the components of pictogram design which are

commonly used to improve comprehension:
■ colour
■ shape
■ negation signs
■ signal words
■ explicitness
■ order
■ alternative forms

Classification of pictograms

A number of attempts have been made to provide classification guidelines for pictograms.
Dreyfuss (1972) collected and reviewed twenty thousand graphic symbols and
developed three categories: representational, abstract and arbitrary. People encounter a
variety of safety-related information as part of their everyday lives. Lehto (1992a)
divided this information into four categories:

■ safety markings (e.g. colouring emergency stops red or highlighting the edges of
steps)
■ safety signs and labels (which display textual and/or pictorial safety information)
■ safety instructions and training
■ safety propaganda (methods of persuading people to behave in particular ways).
 It can therefore be seen that safety information may play a number of roles; warnings
however, have a particular function, which has been described as: “...to reduce
the risk of personal or property damage by inducing certain patterns of
behaviour and discouraging or prohibiting certain other patterns of behaviour”
(Dorris and Purswell, 1978 - in Lehto, 1992b, page 116).
A great deal of work has been published on warning design in general. This section
reviews some of the issues associated with consumer safety information and, in
particular the use of pictograms in warning signs and labelling.

Standards related to pictograms

Standards related to the design and use of pictograms in the UK, Europe, USA and
elsewhere are listed in Appendix B. There are few standards governing the use of
pictograms in the UK specifically for consumer product safety, the exception being the
new toy safety pictogram and the labelling of dangerous substance

Effective use of pictograms

There are a number of guidelines to be followed when developing or applying a

pictogram to consumer safety information:
■ There are no strict rules on what makes a good pictogram. It depends on the product, the
hazard, and the consumer audience, and must be fully consumer tested.
■ There is evidence to suggest that it is more difficult to design pictograms to convey complex
safetymessages. Care should be taken particularly with the use of pictograms to describe
complex prescriptive or proscriptive messages.
■ There may be two possible functions for pictograms: as a reminder/attention grabber for an
established message, or to stand alone to convey a message. These different functions require
different treatment.
■ No pictogram will be instantly effective. The longer a pictogram is in circulation the better
known it will be.
■ Needless differences in the design of pictograms will work only to undermine their
effectiveness.
■ Consumer testing is of utmost importance in the development of any pictogram. Testing
should be:
• contextual (putting the pictogram in context with the product or environment in which it is
to be used)
• carried out using qualitative and quantitative techniques • based on a representative sample
of consumers
• performed across cultures if appropriate.
■ Research has shown that visual material is readily learned and there may be advantages in
selecting pictograms on the basis of how easily they can be learned rather than on how well
they are comprehended when first seen. This however requires investment in consumer
education.

Advantages and drawbacks of pictograms

There are a number of recognized advantages of pictograms:

■ Pictograms can make warnings more noticeable or “attention grabbing”.
■ They can serve as “instant reminders” of a hazard or an established message.
■ They may improve warning comprehension for those with visual or literacy
difficulties.
■ They have the potential to be interpreted more accurately and more quickly than
words.
■ They can sometimes be recognised and recalled far better than words.
■ They can improve the legibility of a warning.1
■ Pictograms or brief textual information may be better when undertaking familiar or routine
tasks(although the opposite will apply for novel or highly complex tasks).

However there are a number of disadvantages of relying on pictograms:

■ Very few pictograms are universally understood.
■ Even well understood pictograms will not be interpreted correctly by all groups of consumers
and across all cultures, and it always takes many years for any pictogram to reach maximum
effectiveness.
■ There is the potential for critical confusion (interpreting the opposite or often undesired
meaning) which can create an additional safety hazard.
■ Any advantages in noticeability will be affected by size, positioning and clutter on the
packaging, issues which are not currently addressed by standards.

1 Pictograms can be read more easily at a distance compared to textual information although a
distinction is made between abstract symbols and pictographs - described as more detailed
and therefore likely to remain less legible (Jacobs, 1975).
■ The majority of studies seem to suggest that while pictograms may have some role in safety
information they are not a guaranteed solution to improving the effectiveness of text only
messages.
■ Safety pictograms must be used judiciously to preserve their effectiveness

The effectiveness of pictograms for different groups of consumers

In one of the largest UK investigations into safety labelling of consumer products,

Easterby and Hakiel (1981) investigated differences in comprehension of
pictograms according to age, sex, number of children and working status. A range
of signs for five hazards (fire, poison, caustic, electrical and general hazard) were
tested for comprehension performance using a structured random sample of four
thousand respondents.
The results suggested that, firstly, familiarity with the sign improved comprehension.
Secondly, comprehension of signs was higher for males than females. Age was
also found to affect sign comprehension, with the older age group (fifty-five
years and over) performing poorly. Finally, looking at household composition,
respondents having young children (under six years) in their household
comprehended signs better than those without young children.
Based on the results of their study the authors defined young or middle aged people
who are working and have young children at home as the group of people most
likely to correctly comprehend a symbolically coded sign. Elderly people who are
 not working or do not have young children in their household, are least likely to
comprehend pictograms.
Other studies have found that female students were more likely to look for warnings
than their male counterparts (Godfrey at al, 1983). Also, females have been found
to be more likely to feel that a product should have a warning and are more
willing to read a warning, regardless of the perceived level of danger of the
product. Perceived level of danger and familiarity with the product are important
for male consumers. They tend to read warnings only when they perceive the
product to be dangerous, unfamiliar or in need of a warning (LaRue and Cohen,
1987). Other ongoing work by the DTI on related areas such as safety labelling
and instructions also supports these findings.

Comprehension of pictograms across different countries and cultures

Few studies have examined comprehension of pictograms across users from different
countries.
Akerboom (1993) found differences in comprehension of pictogram elements (to
indicate a choking hazard with toys with small parts) across the Netherlands,
France, Italy, Sweden, Greece and the United Kingdom. The resultant pictogram
(later to become the toy safety pictogram incorporated into BS EN 71-6: 1995 -
see Appendix B) was correctly comprehended by seventy-seven percent or more
of the respondent population in all countries except France and Greece. The
author argued that the relatively low comprehension levels for these two
countries meant that the pictogram should be supplemented by a written message
or specialised training.
In Australia, Carney and Sless, (1979) investigated the comprehension of occupational
safety symbols according to cultural background and literary levels: migrants of
European origin, recent immigrants from Vietnam, and Australians attending
adult literacy classes. The symbols were tested twice, once to examine initial
recognition and then a week later to test recall (to identify how easily they are
learned). The groups varied in how well they could recognise particular symbols
and how well they were learnt; for instance, some symbols were clearly
 misunderstood by the Vietnamese immigrant population compared with subjects
with a European background. However a consistent pattern of results were found
across all the ethnic groups for the relative effectiveness of the different signs.

Factors influencing the effectiveness of consumer safety warnings

- The effectiveness of pictograms cannot be reviewed in isolation from the wider

issues surrounding warning effectiveness in general.
- It cannot be assumed that simply because a warning is provided, people will modify
their behaviour accordingly (Ayres et al, 1989). Studies have shown that there are a
number of factors which contribute towards the effectiveness of a warning message,
namely: the users’ perceptions of the risk associated with a product, user familiarity
with it and how much effort is needed to carry out the required behaviour.
According to a number of authors including Trommelen (1994) and Vaubel and Young
(1992), perceived hazard level breaks down into two principal sub-components:
(i) the perceived severity of injury (ii) the perceived likelihood of injury. Various
studies have suggested that one or the other of these factors is primary, but
findings have not been consistent.
The issue of familiarity is important as it appears to influence how hazardous people are
likely to perceive products to be. The most obvious trend in the research literature
suggests that the more familiar someone is with a product the less likely they are
to see it as hazardous (Wogalter et al (1986); Godfrey et al (1983) - although
LaRue and Cohen (1987) have argued that this relationship is true for women but
not for men).
As to how these factors affect willingness to read warnings, Wogalter et al (1986)
found perceived hazard level to be the primary factor in whether or not a warning
is likely to be read. Their study also found a significant negative correlation
between familiarity with a product and the likelihood of reading a warning.
The literature in this area is highly complicated and, in many places, contradictory.
Nevertheless, one reasonable, albeit speculative, conclusion is that perceived
severity of injury is the primary factor in getting users to look for or at a warning,
 whilst perceived likelihood of injury appears to be more influential when it
comes to effectiveness.
The cost (or effort) of complying with warnings has also been looked at in a number of
studies (e.g. Wogalter et al, 1987b). Dingus et al (1991) found that including
protective equipment in the packaging of consumer products substantially
increased warning effectiveness. Not only was the effort of complying reduced
(because the protective equipment necessary was immediately to hand) but the
presence of protective equipment also increased subject’s perceptions of the
hazard level of the product (something which was not affected by the several
different designs of warnings tested).
So is it worthwhile including a warning at all? According to the likes of Dejoy (1989)
and Friedmann (1988) it is, although Dejoy points out that this view is based on
fairly limited data (see, for example, Wogalter et al, 1987b and Otsubo,1988).
There is certainly a ‘drop-off’ effect for warnings. A number of studies have shown that
of those who notice a warning, only some will read it, and even less will take the
precautions recommended (Friedman, 1988 - see also Otsubo, 1988 and
Strawbridge, 1986).

When should warnings be applied

McCarthy et al (1995) argue that warnings should be used judiciously with priority
given to those that involve the most serious risks and where there is a reasonable
chance of changing users’ behaviour, and that warnings concerning unavoidable
risks and obvious hazards should be omitted.
Lehto (1992b) has commented that the drive to provide warning labels is often provided
by the legal profession and the concern to explicitly warn against all hazards.
This is despite research which indicates that warnings applied in this way are
likely to lose their effectiveness (Lehto and Miller, 1986). McCarthy et al related
the number of warnings a person encounters to the effort of ‘processing’ this
information, arguing that the likelihood of reading and complying with warnings
will decrease as the effort rises. The authors comment, however, that no research
 presently exists to identify what is a reasonable number of warnings and, equally,
when too many have been provided.
Questions for revision:
1. List the various design a pictogram may have
2. How can classified the varicose pictograms you have around you?
3. How can pictograms be effectively used?

Answers for questions for revision

1. The following is a discussion of the components of pictogram design which are

commonly used to improve comprehension:
■ colour
■ shape
■ negation signs
■ signal words
■ explicitness
■ order
■ alternative forms
2. People encounter a variety of safety-related information as part of their everyday
lives. this informationis divided into four categories:

■ safety markings (e.g. colouring emergency stops red or highlighting the edges of
steps)
■ safety signs and labels (which display textual and/or pictorial safety information)
■ safety instructions and training
■ safety propaganda (methods of persuading people to behave in particular ways
3. In one of the largest UK investigations into safety labelling of consumer products,
investigated differences in comprehension of pictograms according to age, sex,
number of children and working status. A range of signs for five hazards (fire,
poison, caustic, electrical and general hazard) were tested for comprehension
performance using a structured random sample of four thousand respondents.
The results suggested that, firstly, familiarity with the sign improved comprehension.
Secondly, comprehension of signs was higher for males than females. Age was
also found to affect sign comprehension, with the older age group (fifty-five
years and over) performing poorly. Finally, looking at household composition,
respondents having young children (under six years) in their household
comprehended signs better than those without young children.
 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING

2.0 Chapter Objectives:

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to;

• Define what is packaging from different perspectives

• Explain the origins of packaging

• Describe how the industrial revolution affected packaging

• Assess packaging and modern society complexities

2.1 Brief Introduction:

Physical products require packaging to protect them from damage and to present both
the product and its brand attractively to a target group of consumers. Packaging
provides a surface upon which to communicate information about the product and
the brand, and as such, it is an essential element of product branding. Through the
use of text, images and other communication devices, packaging can articulate
the attributes and benefits of a product to consumers. Packaging also works to
convey the brand characteristics that will position it within the minds of
consumers and that will ultimately differentiate it from its competitors.
Packaging is often the first point of contact that a consumer has with a brand, so it is
hugely important that it initially draws their attention and also quickly conveys
the messages that both present and support the brand. Communicating a brand
message extends beyond the information and visual content of packaging. The
physical materials used for packaging products also importantly contribute to the
overall brand statement projected. A brand cannot be positioned as a high quality
or luxury product if its packaging is fragile and low quality. There has to be a
direct correlation between the packaging’s physical attributes and the messages
that the brand seeks to project. But what is packaging? How best can we
understand its evolution from man’s primitive time to present modern day? This
chapter will explore some general concepts and describe the evolution of
packaging.
2.2 Definition of Key Terms

(a) Packaging: Packaging is a coordinated system made up of any materials of any

nature, to be used for preparing goods for containment, protection, transport,
handling, distribution, delivery and presentation.
(b)Brand: A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes
an organization or product from its rivals in the eyes of the customer. Brands are
used in business, marketing, and advertising. Name brands are sometimes
distinguished from generic or store brands.
(c)Label: A label (as distinct from signage) is a piece of paper, plastic film, cloth,
metal, or other material affixed to a container or product, on which is written or
printed information or symbols about the product or item. Information printed
directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling. 1.3 Main
Content
2.3.1 What is Packaging
Packaging is best described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport,
distribution, storage, retailing, and use of the goods. It is a complex, dynamic,
scientific, artistic, and controversial business function. Fundamental function of
packaging: contain, protects/preserves transports informs/sells. Packaging
functions range from technical ones to marketing oriented ones. Technical
Functions include; contain, measure, protect, dispense, preserve and store.
Marketing Functions on the other hand include; communicate, promote, display,
sell, inform and motivate. However, while technical packaging professionals
need science and engineering skills, marketing professionals will need artistic and
motivational understanding.
Packaging is not a recent phenomenon. Packaging is an activity closely associated with
the evolution of society and, can be traced back to human beginnings. The nature,
degree, and amount of packaging at any stage of a society’s growth reflect the
needs, cultural patterns, material availability and technology of that society. A
study of packaging’s changing roles and forms over the centuries is a study of the
growth of civilization. Social changes are inevitably reflected in the way we
package, deliver and consume goods. It is important to know that, until the 1950s,
 motor oil was delivered in bulk to service stations, which was in turn measured
into 1-quart glass jars; premeasured oil in metal cans. Now, milk delivery is done
from glass bottles to a variety of plain and aseptic paper cartons, plastic bottles
and flexible bags. Tomorrow, how oil or milk will be delivered, we don’t know
yet. But environmentally acceptable packaging (minimal waste) will surely be
highly encourage. Choices of petrochemicals, wood pulp, and metal will
governed the way we buy and consume oil or milk. Also milk could be delivered
in refillable aluminum cans?
2.3.2 The origins of packaging
We don’t know what the first package was, but we can certainly speculate. Primitive
humans: nomadic hunter/gatherers, lived off the land and social groupings was
restricted to family units. Definitely, they would have been subject to the
geographical migrations of animals and the seasonal availability of plant food.
Such an extreme nomadic existence does not encourage property accumulation
beyond what can be carried on one’s back or head. Primitive people needed
containment and carrying devices, and out of this need came the first “package”;
a wrap of leaves, an animal skin, the shell of a nut or gourd, a naturally hollow
piece of wood, the fire-bearer and the “packaging” of fire.
Since 5000 B.C., man demonstrated his ability to domesticate plants and animals. There
was a reasonable food supply in a given vicinity; this evolutionary stage
supported larger social groups, gave birth to small tribal villages. As such storage
and transport containers were needed for milk, honey, seed grains, nuts, and dried
meat. Villages with access to different resources traded with their neighbors,
requiring transport containers. About 250 B.C., the Greek city-state period,
enacted law that affected packaging. By this time, early packaging materials
consisted of fabricated sacks, baskets, and bags, made from materials of plant or
animal origin, a clay bowl, the fire-dried clay pots. Wood boxes replaced hollow
logs. The discovery of glass by 2500 B.C., brought about a hard inert substance
in the fire’s remains. About 1500 B.C., the earliest hollow glass objects appeared
in Mesopotamia (Today’s Iraq) and Egypt.
Many societal changes led to the corresponding changes in packaging: mostly the
quality and quantity of existing packaging practices. Firstly, the invention of the
glass blowpipe and wood barrels came to existence. The Romans invented the
glass blowpipe in about 50 B.C. The blowpipe’s invention brought glass out of
noble households and temples. The first wooden barrel appeared possibly in the
Alpine regions of Europe and was one of the most common packaging forms for
many centuries. In China, Ts’ai Lun is credited with making the first true paper
from the inner bark of mulberry trees. The name “paper” given to the Chinese
invention was made of matted plant fibers. Ancient printing was first seen in 768
with the oldest existing printed objects (Japanese Buddhist charms). In 868, the
oldest existing book (the Diamond Sutra) was printed in Turkistan. With the
advent of the Industrial revolution which started in England in about 1700, the
concept spread rapidly through Europe and North America. The Industrial
Revolution was or is a concept of change that transforms a people with peasant
occupations and local markets into an industrial society with world-wide
connections. This new type of society makes great use of machinery and
manufactures goods on a large scale for general consumption. The changes
increased the demand for barrels, boxes, kegs, baskets, and bags to transport the
new consumer commodities and to bring great quantities of food into the cities.
The fledgling packaging industry itself had to mechanize. It became necessary to
devise ways of preserving food beyond its natural biological life.
During the industrial revolution, the evolution of selling and informing had vital
packaging roles. Bulk packaging was the rule, with the barrel being the
workhorse of the packaging industry. Flour, apples, biscuits, molasses,
gunpowder, whiskey and whale oil were transported in barrels. Packaging served
primarily to contain and protect. By this time individual packaging was of little
importance until the Industrial Revolution spurred the growth of cities. The first
packaged retail products were Medicines, cosmetics, teas, liquors and other
expensive products; “a paper of pins”. 1.3.3 Early Brands and Packaging
The first brand names were inevitably those of the maker; Yardley in (1770), this one
of the oldest firms in the world to specialize in cosmetics, fragrances and related
 toiletry products; Schweppes (1792), Schweppes is a Swiss beverage brand that
is sold around the world; Perrier (1863), Perrier is a French brand of natural
bottled mineral water; Smith Brothers (1866), Smith Brothers Farms is a dairy
and home delivery service based in Kent, Washington, United States; and
Colgate (1873), Colgate is an umbrella brand principally used to purchase oral
hygiene products such as toothpastes, toothbrushes, mouthwashes and dental
floss.
The evolving printing and decorating arts applied to “upscale” packages, many early
decorations was based on works of art or national symbols or images. Early
labels included pictures of pastoral life, barnyards, fruit, and the gold medals. A
packaging milestone in 1877, brought about the concept of “persona”. The
Quaker personage, or “persona”, gave a description of the package or product as
if it were a person. Between 1890 and about 1920, decoration followed the art
nouveau style, this being followed by a period of art deco graphics and designs.
The first packaging made of plastic (based on cellulose), was created in 1856.
The package from time immemorial had motivational and informational roles. The
package had to inform the purchaser as well as the package had to sell the
product. Demographics which is considered, the study of population structure and
trends, universally became an important factor in designing products and
packages. Soon the packaging industry discovered that another criteria was Fast
food and other institutional markets. Fast-food appeared and created a demand
for disposable single-service packaging. This introduced, two factors to influence
packaging: public health care and a rapidly growing trend toward eating out
rather than at home. More concern was given to the HRI (hospital, restaurant, and
institutional) market as well as Petroleum-derived plastics which was now added
to the package designer’s selection of packaging materials.

a. Legislated changes
In the 1970s and early 1980s, many aspects in packaging were legislated: - Child-
resistance closures mandated for some products; - Tamper-evident closures; -
Labeling laws required listing of ingredients; - International agreements signed to
 phase out the use of CFCs; - Standards for the acceptance of new packaging
materials raised b. Changing Needs and New Roles.
All historical changes have had an impact on the way products are bought, consumed
and packaged. The packaging professionals must always turn their attention to
the needs, markets, and conditions of tomorrow. It has been observed that most of
goods, not essential to survival, constitute “the good life”. In the second half of
the 20th century, the proliferation of goods was so high that packaging was
forced into an entirely new role: providing the major purchase motivation rather
than presenting the goods itself; the only method of differentiating was the
package itself. The trend toward more intensive marketing gave marketers the
objective to aim at lifestyles, emotional values, subliminal images, features, and
advantages beyond the basic product itself. Today the package has become the
product, and occasionally packaging has become entertainment.
Globalization and the provision of increased tonnages of high-quality food to massive
city at affordable prices challenges packagers. A new concern is the removal of
the debris generated by a consumer society and the impact that these
consumption rates have on the planet’s ecology
2.3.4 Packaging and the Modern Industrial Society
Why is packaging important to our food supply? Food is organic in nature (an animal or
plant source). One characteristic of such organic matter is that it has a limited
natural biological life. Packaging brings about freedom from geographical and
seasonal food production this is because most food is geographically and
seasonally specific. In a world without packaging, we would need to live at the
point of harvest to enjoy these products, and our enjoyment of them would be
restricted to the natural biological life span of each. Thus, it is by proper storage,
packaging and transport techniques that we are able to deliver and enjoy fresh
potatoes and Apples derived from them, throughout the year and throughout the
country. We are no longer restricted in our choice of where to live. Man is
therefore free of the natural cycles of feast and famine that are typical of societies
dependent on natural regional food-producing cycles. All these comes from the
art of organizing a central processing and the prepackaged concept.
 The advantages of a central processing and prepackaged food concept are varied and
include the following; - Central processing allows value recovery from what
would normally be wasted. - Byproducts of the processed-food industry form the
basis of other sub-industries

a. World Packaging
Humankind’s global progress is such that virtually every stage in the development of
society, packaging is present somewhere in it.

1. Packaging in developed countries

Nations in this category are not just interested on the product but are equally
preoccupied with packages and graphics. To agonize over choice of package
type, hire expensive marketing groups to develop images to entice the targeted
buyer and spend lavishly on graphics.

2. Packaging in less-developed countries

At the extreme, consumers will bring their own packages or will consume food on the
spot, just as they did 2,000 years ago. Packagers from the more-developed
countries sometimes have difficulty working with less developed nations. Firstly
they fail to understand that their respective and packaging priorities are
completely different. Secondly developing nations trying to sell goods to North
American markets cannot understand their preoccupation with package and
graphics.

3. The United Nations and packaging.

The less-developed countries do not have adequate land to raise enough food. Food
goes beyond its natural biological life span. Food is lost, or is infested with
insects or eaten by rodents, gets wet in the rain, leaks away or goes uneaten for
numerous reasons, all of which sound packaging principles can prevent.
- Packaging is perceived to be a weapon against world hunger.

4. Packaging and Environmental Issues- The sources of waste material

A discussion of packaging today means eventually turning to environmental issues. A
general perception is that, if only the packaging industry would stop doing
 something or, conversely, start doing something, all our landfill and pollution
problems would go away. Ample evidence suggests that good packaging reduces
waste. The consumer sees packaging as that part of the shopping trip that gets
thrown away. Hence, packaging is garbage after product purchase.
The percentage of waste that is packaging can be derived from a university report. The

Industrial waste: 29.3% , Commercial waste: 27.3% , other sources: 6.0%

University of Tennessee provides the following breakdown of total landfill waste;

Residential waste: 37.4%,

i. The four Rs hierarchy and what it means

Reduce: use the minimum amount of material consistent with fulfilling its basic
function.
Reuse: containers or packaging components should be reused.
Recycle: packaging should be collected and the materials recycled for further use.
Recover: to possibly recover other value from the waste before consigning packaging
to a landfill.  The public myths:
 ii. The Challenges of Recycling Waste Packages

1. Placing material in a blue box (garbage bin) constitutes recycling. This is not true.
Recycling does not occur until someone uses the material collected. The
following issues call for immediate concern;
a) PCR (polymerase chain reaction) materials in immediate contact with food need to be
extensively investigated.

b) In the instance of pharmaceutical packaging, such use is simply not allowed.

c) Another impediment is a guarantee of consistent and reliable supply of the recovered

material.

2. Recycled material should be economical. This is another fallacy. In many instances,

recycled material is more costly, and its use needs to be supported in some
special way.
a) The cost of landfilling MSW (municipal solid waste) is still less than recycling in most areas.

b)Revenues generated from the sale of recyclable materials do not always recover collecting
and recycling costs.

c) The process of recycling cannot ignore market economics.

d)Environmentalists maintain that recycling is an issue of the environment, not of economics.

Money expended to recycle a material represents an investment in fuel, water and other basic
resources. When the resources invested (cost of investment) to recover a material exceeds the
value of the material recovered, then the harm to the environment is greater, not less. This is
economics!
e) The process of collecting and regenerating a packaging material for further use is a complex
one for most materials. This is because it involves significant investment in sophisticated
equipment.
seventh While
code which glassto is
is unknown apparently
many readily identifiable, individual glass compositions as
(Figure 1.3).
well as different colors make it difficult to get uncontaminated feedstock. Also, Paper fiber
quality deteriorates with every recycling, and so paper cannot be recycled indefinitely.
Finally, Plastic materials pose a number of serious recycling problems. The plastic industry
developed a code for identifying the six most commonly used packaging plastics; it includes
an “other” selection as a
 3. One or another of the many materials used for packaging is more env ironmentally friendly.
There is no magic material. Laminate constructions are, in fact, environmentally
friendly.
2.3.5 The Modern Packaging Industry
The modern packaging industry plays a host to several emerging actors who influence
the packaging industry in one or the other. It is in this modern age, that we use
concepts such as converters in the packaging industry. Other concept worth
noting include package users and suppliers.
“Converters and users” This is a new division in the packaging industry. Its objective
is to take various raw materials and convert them into useful packaging materials
or physical packages (cans, bottles, wraps). To this point, packaging becomes a
materials application science. The company forming the physical package will
also print or decorate the package.
Package “users”, is a concept that describes the fact that, the firms that package
products, are also regarded as part of the packaging industry, divided into a
number of categories and each of these can be further subdivided.
The “supplier”, manufacturers of machines for the user sector and the suppliers of
ancillary services, such as marketing, consumer testing and graphic design, are
also important sectors of the packaging industry.

a. Professional packaging associations

There are a number of professional packaging associations whose objective is to design
policies and regulate the nature, structure and composition of materials for
packaging products in different countries across the globe. Some of them are;
IoPP: Institute of Packaging Professionals
PAC: Packaging Association of Canada
PMMI: Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute
FPA: Flexible Packaging Association
WPO: World Packaging Organization
Other organizations having a major impact on packaging activities are
ISO: International Organization for Standards
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
 TAPPI: Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
ISTA: International Safe Transit Associatio n

2.4 Conclusion

Concern over the health implications of packaging materials is on the rise. The latest
fears cropped up after Swiss scientists revealed a potential health risk in the
mineral oils found in European recycled paperboard; exposure to such oils has
been linked to inflammation of internal organs and cancer. While the researchers
stress that exposure to such chemicals would have to occur over many years
before health risks came to bear, UK cereal brand Jordan’s has stopped using
recycled board, and Kellogg (an American multinational food-manufacturing
company) says it is working to minimize the mineral oil levels in its European
packaging. Mineral oils are not a problem in US recycled board, according to
Deborah White of the Recycled Paperboard Technical Association, who says the
FDA’s (Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act) regulations control for the impurities that
were of concern in the European studies. Regardless, material health — a guiding
principle of sustainable packaging — is cropping up as one of the latest
packaging hot buttons in developed economies. However this concept is yet to
crop in to emerging markets and other developing countries.

2.5 Summary
 Packaging is an essential part of the human history. Its operations has a devastating
effect on both the present and future. Thus the need for sustainable packaging.
The criteria for a sustainable package will therefore include; recycled/ renewable
materials, compostable/ biodegradable, reusable format, source optimized, source
reduced and consumer education. Sustainable packaging describes the following
Remove, Reduce, Recycle, Renew, Re-use. These are five of the original 7 R's of
Sustainable Packaging revealed by Wal-Mart when it introduced its Packaging
Scorecard. Sustainable packaging is the development and use of packaging which
results in improved sustainability. This involves increased use of life cycle
inventory (LCI) and life cycle assessment (LCA) to help guide the use of
packaging which reduces the environmental impact and ecological footprint.

2.6 Review Questions

1. State and explain the following concepts with reference to both local and international
examples a. Packaging

b. Branding
c. Labels

2. Describe the evolutions or origin of packaging from the primitive era to present modern day

3. All historical changes have had an impact on the way products are bought, consumed and
packaged. Explain these changing needs and roles with respect to packaging 4. Packaging and
the Modern Industrial Society. Discuss
 CHAPTER 3: TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING

3.0 Chapter Objectives

By the end of this session, students should be able to:

• Identify the different types/levels of packaging
• Outline the characteristics of packaging materials
• Categorize the materials used in packaging
• Bring out the functions of packaging

3.1 Brief Introduction:

Physical products require packaging to protect them from damage and to present both
the product and its brand attractively to a target group of consumers. Packaging
provides a surface upon which to communicate information about the product and
the brand, and as such, it is an essential element of product branding. Through the
use of text, images and other communication devices, packaging can articulate
the attributes and benefits of a product to consumers. Packaging also works to
convey the brand characteristics that will position it within the minds of
consumers and that will ultimately differentiate it from its competitors.
Packaging is often the first point of contact that a consumer has with a brand, so it is
hugely important that it initially draws their attention and also quickly conveys
the messages that both present and support the brand. Communicating a brand
message extends beyond the information and visual content of packaging. The
physical materials used for packaging products also importantly contribute to the
overall brand statement projected. A brand cannot be positioned as a high quality
or luxury product if its packaging is fragile and low quality. There has to be a
direct correlation between the packaging’s physical attributes and the messages
that the brand seeks to project. 32.2 Definition of Key Terms
(a) Primary Package: Primary packaging is the term used to designate the layer of
packaging in immediate contact with the product; in other words, it is the first packaging layer
in which the product is contained. As such, primary packaging is constructed both with the
product itself and any existing secondary layers of packaging in mind.
(b) Secondary Package: Secondary packaging is intended to protect not only the product,
but also the primary packaging, which often is the packaging most visible to the consumer in
retail displays. The most common examples of secondary packaging include cardboard cartons,
cardboard boxes and cardboard/plastic crates.
(c) Tertiary Packaging: Tertiary packaging is the type which is typically not seen by
consumers since it is usually removed by retailers before products are displayed for sale.
Examples of tertiary packaging might include brown cardboard boxes, wood pallets and shrink
wrap.

3.3 Main Content

As a reminder, Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting

products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the
process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be
described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing,
logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports,
informs, and sells. In many countries it is fully integrated into government,
business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. In this chapter we shall be
looking in details the various types of packaging, the characteristics of packaging,
the materials used in packaging and the functions of packaging.
3.3.1 Types of Packaging
Have you ever wondered why popular companies such as Apple or Nike spend a lot of
money on just the packaging of your product or why everything is done so
efficiently that it is almost like playing a game of "I spy" to find one single flaw?
The answer is simple. It takes money to make money, and that is something not
all industries comprehend the same way as others do. Different products
command different packaging types.
The purpose of product packaging is to protect the product from damage. Packaging not
only protects the product during transit from the manufacturer to the retailer, but
it also prevents damage while the product sits on retail shelves. Most products
have some form of packaging. For example, cometics must have a container and
 package while apples may have packaging for transport but not to sell the product
from the produce department of the local grocery store.
When considering the nature of packaging, it must be kept in mind that there may be
different packaging classifications or types. However there exist four principal
types of packaging which consist of primary packaging, secondary packaging,
tertiary packaging and the unit load. The are described below in details.
2.3.1.1 Primary packaging or sales packaging:
Primary packaging is the term used to designate the layer of packaging in immediate
contact with the product; in other words, it is the first packaging layer in which
the product is contained. As such, primary packaging is constructed both with the
product itself and any existing secondary layers of packaging in mind. For
example, a beverage can, a paper envelope for a tea bag, an inner bag in a cereal
box and an individual candy wrap in a pouch are primary packages, and their
main function is to contain and preserve the product. Beyond this packaging lies
the product itself.
Primary packages must be compatible with the product
Therefore it is said to be the packaging that wraps the product when being sold to the
end consumer. It contains the packaging that is in direct contact with the product
and the other packaging components (e.g. cap and label) that are needed to
complete the sales unit.
2.3.1.2 Secondary packaging or group packaging:
Secondary packaging is intended to protect not only the product, but also the primary
packaging, which often is the packaging most visible to the consumer in retail
displays. The most common examples of secondary packaging include cardboard
cartons, cardboard boxes and cardboard/plastic crates.
It could be said to be the packaging used for gathering the sales units in order to allow
for easy handling practices in the sales environment. This process can be
performed by grouping the products in order to sell them to the consumer (e.g.
shrink film and corrugated cardboard box).
The secondary package contains two or more primary packages and protects the
primary packages from damage during distribution and storage. Its main aim is
 branding display and logistical purposes as well as protecting and collating
individual units during storage. Secondary packaging is often used by the
beverage, food and cosmetic sectors for displaying primary packs on shelves
therefore it is often referred to as display packaging.
2.3.1.3 Tertiary packaging or transport packaging:
Tertiary packaging is the type which is typically not seen by consumers since it is
usually removed by retailers before products are displayed for sale. Examples of
tertiary packaging might include brown cardboard boxes, wood pallets and shrink
wrap.
It is used to facilitate the handling/ transportation of a series of sales units or secondary
packaging in order to prevent the physical damage that may occur during
handling/transportation (e.g. corrugated cardboard box).
The tertiary package typically contains a number of the primary or secondary packages.
Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling warehouse storage and transport
shipping therefore it is also called as “distribution package”. It facilitates the
protection, handling and transportation of a series of sales units or secondary
packaging in order to group everything into unit loads during transit.
This type of packaging is rarely seen by the consumer.
2.3.1.4 Unit load:
 Unit load is the group of packaging in which more than one delivery packaging are

Figure 2 .1: Types of Packaging

Generally there are two dimensions of the various types of packages. Whether primary or
brought together for loading/unloading work (e.g. unit which is repacked on the
palette using stretch film). secondary or tertiary every packaged product is either
a consumer packaging or an industrial packaging.
Consumer packaging: The packaging that starts from a commercial sales point and
arrives at the consumer as a sales unit.
Industrial packaging: The packaging that is used to deliver goods from producer to
consumer. Industrial packaging is, not always but generally, used to transfer
goods to the next point of production.

3.3.2 Packaging Materials

Packaging is not supposed to be an obstacle to people buying the products. Anyone
who’s purchased anything from Apple in the last decade knows how beautiful an
experience unboxing their products is. Not only is this an exciting process but
there’s an aura of intrigue that makes the product something greater. Be it plastic,
iron, wood or glass, a product ought to be packaged in the most appropriate way
to portray its beauty as well as preserve its content. But what are the
characteristics of these various packaging materials?
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of Packaging Materials
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States regulates the safety of
substances added to food. It also regulates how most food is processed, packaged,
and labeled. FDA maintains educational information, databases and listings
related to food allergens, ingredients, food additives, color additives and other
substances. It accesses program information, inventories, and databases related to
food packaging and other substances that come in contact with food. FDA
provides regulatory and scientific information about irradiated food and
packaging. Irradiation may be used to increase shelf-life and reduce harmful
bacteria in meat, poultry, vegetables and other foods. FDA assesses the
environmental impact of its regulatory actions. Therefore, manufacturers must
include an environmental assessment with their petitions and notifications, unless
exempt.
According to the FDA, figure 2.2 describes the characteristics of packaging materials
Figure 2 .2 Characteristics of Packaging Materials
2.3.2.2 Materials used in Packaging
Annual Packaging costs for products bought and sold throughout the world are several
billions of dollars. It is estimated that 10% of the overall cost of all retail products
is packaging costs. Companies spend millions of dollars using packaging as a
form of marketing to attract customers while products are on the shelf.
There are a large variety of materials and containers that are used for packaging.
Packaging will only vary in every industry depending on how the product will be
marketed. Different industries will definitely use different types of packaging but
the objective will still remain constant. As most businessmen would always say
packaging can be the difference in successfully shipping a product to the market
in one piece or in pieces. The right packaging material can be the difference
between successfully shipping a fragile item or having it arrive in pieces. Some
factors that should be considered when choosing a packaging material include the

Figure 2.3 Basic Packaging Materials

 strength of the item being packed, its weight, the value of the item, and whether
the package will be subjected to moisture or other adverse conditions. If you are
unsure how much protection your item needs, choose the stronger packaging
material, just in case. Figure 2.3 illustrates the different kinds of basic materials
used for packaging:

3.3.3The Functions of Packaging

There are different functions of packaging. Brands should always be aware of all these
kinds of purpose to have a well done plan when they start to create and design
package for their products.
The complexity of packaging has increased during the last years. Today, no company
can manage this process without the right technology and the right workflow
plan. A well organize program can simplify the packing process and ensure
everything runs efficiently. Basically there are four functions of packaging which
are containment, protection, convenience and communication.
3.3.3.1 Containment
This function of packaging is so obvious as to be overlooked by many, but it is
probably the basic function of packaging. With the exception of large, discrete
products, all other products must be contained before they can be moved from
one place to another. The "package", whether it be a milk bottle or a bulk cement
rail wagon, must contain the product to function successfully. Without
containment, pollution could become widespread.
The containment function of packaging makes a huge contribution to protecting the
environment from the myriad of products, which are moved from one place to
another on numerous occasions each day in any modern society. Faulty
packaging (or under packaging) could result in major pollution of the
environment.
A study of packaging systems in China (Packaging Today – Australia 1979) found that:
• 17.5% of the country’s cement is lost in transit
• 50% of grain is lost in transit
• 20% of all glass is damaged before it can be used
• 40% of microscopes are broken before reaching the buyer.
While in North America, Northern Europe and Australasia only 2% - 3% of food is lost
through spoilage, in developing countries food spoilage and damage is estimated
to be between 30 to 50% of production. This is supported by information from
Russia from the 1970s and 1980s, where a lack of packaging, distribution and
storage facilities resulted in annual losses of:
• 45% of fresh vegetables
• 55% of fresh fruit
• 70% of potatoes
• 50% of grain
• One million tons of meat
• One and a half million ton of fish
A study by Harvey Alter of US Chamber of Commerce provides strong evidence that
packaging saves waste. It shows that there is a strong relationship between the
amount of packaging waste and the amount of food waste in municipal solid
waste (MSW) worldwide: as the amount of packaging increased, the amount of
food waste is decreased. Note this could also be partly accounted for by the high
use of refrigerators in the countries that have high packaging waste figures.
3.3.3.2 Protection
This is often regarded as the primary function of the package: to protect its contents
from outside environmental effects, be they water, moisture vapour, gases,
odours, microorganisms, dust, shocks, vibrations, compressive forces, etc., and to
protect the environment from the product. This is especially important for those
products such as toxic chemicals which may seriously damage the environment.
In the case of the majority of food products, the protection afforded by the package is
an essential part of the preservation process. For example, aseptically packaged
milk and fruit juices in cartons only remain aseptic for as long as the package
provides protection; vacuum-packaged meat will not achieve its desired shelf life
if the package permits oxygen to enter. In general, once the integrity of the
package is breached, the product is no longer preserved.
Packaging also protects or conserves much of the energy expended during the
production and processing of the product. For example, to produce, transport, sell
and store 1 kg of bread requires 15.8 mega joules (MJ) of energy. This energy is
required in the form of transport fuel, heat, power and refrigeration in farming
and milling the wheat, baking and retailing the bread, and in distributing both the
raw materials and the finished product. To produce the polyethylene bag to
package a 1 kg loaf of bread requires 1.4 MJ of energy. This means that each unit
of energy in the packaging protects eleven units of energy in the product. While
eliminating the packaging might save 1.4 MJ of energy, it would also lead to
spoilage of the bread and a consequent loss of 15.8 MJ of energy.
Since the 1980's consumer demand for tamper-evident packaging has increased. In
1982 six people died from cyanide in the US following the malicious tampering
of Tylenol painkiller capsules. The UK baby food market suffered a dramatic
downturn in 1990 after a series of tampering incidents involving glass
deliberately added to the baby food containers. Along with requirements for
childresistant closures on pharmaceutical and house hold chemicals, the need for
tamper-evident features is necessarily increasing the complexity of packaging and
hence its protection features.
3.3.3.3 Convenience
Modern industrialized societies have brought about tremendous changes in life styles
and the packaging industry has had to respond to those changes. One of the major
changes has been in the nature of the family and the role of women. Now an ever-
increasing number of households are single-person; many couples either delay
having children or opt not to at all; there is a greater percentage than ever before
of women in the work force.
All these changes, as well as other factors such as the trend towards "grazing" (i.e.
eating snack type meals frequently but on-the-run rather than regular meals), the
demand for a wide variety of food and drink at outdoor functions such as sports
events, and increased leisure time, have created a demand for greater convenience
in household products: foods which are pre-prepared and can be cooked or
reheated in a very short time, preferably without removing them from their
 primary package; condiments that can be applied simply through aerosol or pump
action packages; dispensers for sauces or dressings which minimize mess, etc.
Thus packaging plays an important role in allowing products to be used
conveniently.
Two other aspects of convenience are important in package design. One of these can
best be described as the apportionment function of packaging. In this context, the
package functions by reducing the output from industrial production to a
manageable, desirable "consumer" size. Thus a vat of wine is "apportioned" by
filling into bottles; a churn of butter is "apportioned" by packaging into 10 gram
minipats and minitubs; a batch of ice cream is "apportioned" by filling into 2 litre
plastic tubs. Put simply, the large scale production of products which
characterizes a modern society could not succeed without the apportionment
function of packaging. The relative cheapness of consumer products is largely
because of their production on an enormous scale and the associated savings
which result. But as the scale of production has increased, so too has the need for
effective methods of apportioning the product into consumer-sized dimensions.
An associated aspect is the shape (relative proportions) of the primary package in
relation to convenience in use by consumers (e.g. easy to hold, open and pour as
appropriate) and efficiency in building into secondary and tertiary packages. In
the movement of packaged goods in interstate and international trade, it is clearly
inefficient to handle each primary package individually. Here packaging plays
another very important role in permitting primary packages to be unitized into
secondary packages (e.g. placed inside a corrugated case) and then for these
secondary packages to be unitized into a tertiary package (e.g. a stretch-wrapped
pallet). This unitizing activity can be carried a further stage to produce a
quaternary package (e.g. a container which is loaded with several pallets). If the
dimensions of the primary and secondary packages are optimal, then the
maximum space available on the pallet can be used. As a consequence of this
unitizing function, materials handling is optimized since only a minimal number
of discrete packages or loads need to be handled.
 3.3.3.4 Communication
There is an old saying that "a package must protect what it sells and sell what it
protects". It may be old, but it is still true; a package functions as a "silent
salesman". The modern methods of consumer marketing would fail were it not
for the messages communicated by the package. The ability of consumers to
instantly recognize products through distinctive branding and labelling enables
supermarkets to function on a self-service basis. Without this communication
function (i.e. if there were only plain packs and standard package sizes), the
weekly shopping expedition to the supermarket would become a lengthy,
frustrating nightmare as consumers attempted to make purchasing decisions
without the numerous clues provided by the graphics and the distinctive shapes of
the packaging.
Other communication functions of the package are equally important. Today the
widespread use of modern scanning equipment at retail checkouts relies on all
packages displaying a Universal Product Code (UPC) that can be read accurately
and rapidly. Nutritional information on the outside of food packages has becomes
mandatory in many countries.
But it is not only in the supermarket that the communication function of packaging is
important. Warehouses and distribution centres would (and sometimes do)
become very inefficient and uncontrolled if secondary and tertiary packages
lacked labels or carried incomplete details. UPCs are also frequently used in
warehouses where hand-held barcode readers linked to a computer make stock-
taking quick and efficient. When international trade is involved and different
languages are spoken, the use of unambiguous, readily understood symbols on
the package is imperative.
When items of high value are transported the secondary and tertiary packaging may
contain deliberate misinformation with only the UPC providing the correct
information. The cosmetic industry use this regularly, where there is not even an
easily recognized company name, in an attempt to reduce pilfering.

3.4 Conclusion
 In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances and
protects the goods we buy, from processing and manufacturing through handling
and storage to the final consumer. Without packaging, materials handling would
be a messy, inefficient and costly exercise, and modern consumer marketing
would be virtually impossible.

3.5 Summary

Packaging lies at the very heart of the modern industry, and successful packaging
technologists must bring to their professional duties a wide-ranging background
drawn from a multitude of disciplines. Efficient packaging is a necessity for
almost every type of product whether it is mined, grown, hunted, extracted or
manufactured. It is an essential link between the product makers and their
customers. Unless the packaging operation is performed correctly, the reputation
of the product will suffer and the goodwill of the customer will be lost. All the
skill, quality and reliability built into the product during development and
production will be wasted, unless care is taken to see that it reaches the user in
the correct condition. Properly designed packaging is the main way of ensuring
safe delivery to the final user in good condition at an economical cost.
When considering the nature of packaging, it must be kept in mind that there may be
different packaging classifications or types. However there exist four principal
types of packaging which consist of primary packaging, secondary packaging,
tertiary packaging and the unit load. Whether primary or secondary or tertiary
every packaged product is either a consumer packaging or an industrial
packaging.
Moreover, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States regulates the
safety of substances added to food. It also regulates how most food is processed,
packaged, and labeled.
Furthermore, there are a large variety of materials and containers that are used for
packaging. Some factors that should be considered when choosing a packaging
material include the strength of the item being packed, its weight, the value of the
 item, and whether the package will be subjected to
moisture or other adverse conditions.
Finally, there are different functions of packaging. Brands
should always be aware of all these kinds of purpose to have a well done plan
when they start to create and design package for their products. Basically there
are four functions of packaging which are containment, protection, convenience
and communication.

3.6 Review Questions

i. Investigate and compare the functions of packaging with regard to packaging of

a canned product with a fruit like apples
ii. With the aid of a diagram describe the various materials used for packaging. iii.
What are the characteristics of packaging materials according to the FDA?
iv. State and explain with the aid of example the four principal types of packaging
v. Packaging saves waste. Discuss
vi. In modern packaging practice today, packaging is seen as the silent sales man. Discuss
vii. Rice, sugar and coffee are ubiquitous products that we see everywhere. How can a
producer package such products apart, while maintaining their value or their quality?