Professional Documents
Culture Documents
English Grammar
English Grammar
English Grammar
by KNUT GJERSET
Language: English
Copyright © 20, All Rights Reserved Worldwide by World Public Library, www.WorldLibrary.net
World Public Library
This file was produced as part of the "eBook Campaign" to promote literacy,
accessibility, and enhanced reading. Authors, publishers, librariDQV and technologists
uniteG to expand reading with eBooks.
Copyright © 20, All Rights Reserved Worldwide by World Public Library, www.WorldLibrary.net
www.worldlibrary.net
This book is copyrighted by the World Public Library. With permission copies
may be distributed so long as such copies (1) are for your or others personal use only,
and (2) are not distributed or used commercially. Prohibited distribution includes any
service that offers this file for download or commercial distribution in any form, (See
complete disclaimer http://WorldLibrary.net/Copyrights.html).
Copyright © 20, All Rights Reserved Worldwide by World Public Library, www.WorldLibrary.net
II_~I - I? c.;)
. -
· ~nglish Grammar.
......
,.,4
BY
.
.
•
.
KNUT GJERSET, Ph. D ..
,..
"
,.~
, " ,
DECORAH, IOWA.
LUTHERAN PUBLlSH~NG HOUSE.
1908,',
I! '. J', .
INTRODUCTION.
T
H~S book is written primarily for beginners, the purpose
being to give young pupils a th_orough drill in the ele-
ments of English grammar. The scope of the book, however,
is sufficiently comprehensive to constitute an ordinary academy
or high-school course in the subj ect.
It should be noticed that the work is constructive, that
through a gradual and systematic development of the sentence
the pupil is to become acquainted with all its parts from its
simplest to its more complex forms. Under the guidance of
the teacher the pupil is to learn to build the English sentence,
and in this work he is introduced to new elements only as
they are required in the enl,argement of the structure. No
forward step should be taken until the pupil has a thorough
knowledge of the ground already covered; he is not only to
build, but he is to understand every step in the constructive
process.
The pupils should write their exercises with pen and ink
in their copy-books, and great care should be taken to secure
neatness and accuracy in this work. Correct spelling and
systematic arrangement of analysis should be insisted upon.
In the analysis abbreviations of terms and statements should
not be tolerated. Every statement should constitute a sentence;
thus,
This word is a noun.
It is used as the subject of the sentence.
•
To better facilitate a systematic and orderly analysis
models are given in the text. It should not be forgotten that
the study of grammar has a practical as well as theoretical
side, that it is a training in the use of language as well as a
study of its structure. The pupils should be required to use
correctly punctuation marks and capital letters, rules for
which are given in the foot-notes of the book.
In the analysis unnecessary repetitions should be avoided.
The pu,pil should not be asked to constantly repeat what he
already knows, as this occasions loss of time and tends to de-
stroy interest in the work, but at intervals he may with benefit
state even that which he feels sure that he knows, lest' he
forget it. Don't repeat merely for the sake of going through
a formula, but for the sake of testing and strengthening the
pupil's know ledge.
In the appendix is found material for analytic work,
which should be begun as soon as the text is completed.
Luther College, January 2, 190ft
6
tXERCISE.
Model for Analysis.
Fire burns.
This group of words is a sentence, because it
expresses a thought. Of this sentence the word
fire is the subject, because it is that which we
talk about. The word burns is the predicate,
because it is that which is said about the. subject.
. Frogs croak. Study pays. Thunder rolls. Soldiers
march. Wood burns. Winds howl. Birds fly. Light
shines. Cocks crow. Ducks swim. Mary studies.
John plays. Children sleep. Rover barks. Flower~
bloom. Trees bud. . Winter .passes. Snow melts.
Rivers flow.
(The pupil should be required to write and analyze
simila'r sentences. )
Classes of Words.
Fire burns.
John works.
Horses run.
the
If w.e look at subjects and predicates of these
sentences, we see that the subjects, fire, John, horses,
are names of persons or things, but that the predicates,
vl.trnS, works, run, are not. These words, then, are
different in character, and' express ideas different in
kind. Because words differ in character, we divide
them into groups or classes. These groups or classes,
of words are generally called parts of speech, because
each group or class is a part of our spoken or written
language or speech. All the words in the English
language are divided into eight classes or parts of .
speech.
7.
CLASS OF WORDS - I.
Nouns.
A noun is the nalne of something.
Examples: horse, city, man, fire, dog;
New York, Smith, Rover.
We notice that some nouns are the names of
particular persons, places, or things. Such nouns are
called proper nouns.
Examples: John, Boston, Rover, the, Civil War, the
Reformation, the Middle Ages, Sunday.
Some nouns designate, not particular individuals,
but classes of individuals. These are called common
nouns, because they are common to, Qr apply to all
individuals of that class.
E'xamples: man, boy, sword, dog, city, day, war.
When used as subject of the'sentence, the noun
is called ~he subject noun.
ExERCISE.
Model for Analysis.
John studies.
This 'group of words is a sentence. (State the
reason.) Of. this sentence the word John is the
subj ect. (State the reason.) The word studies
is the predicate. (State the reason.) The word
] ohn is a proper noun, because it is the name of
a particular person. It is used as the subject of
the sentence. I
,
Ships .float. Kites fly. Knives cut. Summer comes.
Wheels tum. Man works. Women sew. Children
play. Mary sings. Walter' talks. Monday comes.,
Ru~~ FOR 'CAPI'l'ALS. - Every proper noun should be
capitalized.
,
,"
8
.
Chicago grows. Trains run. Wheat grows. Balls
roll. Years pass. Webster spoke. Armies march.
Kings rule.
I
Construction.
The relation in which a word stands to other words I
in the sentence is called its construction. Three things
should be established whenever a word is parsed: I
what kind of word it is, what form of the word it is,
and the construction of the word, or, in other words, I
* It
should be noticed that the verb often consists of
several words; as, for example, has been working. But these
words together constitute a form of the verb, and the whole
group is treated as a single verb. _See also Phrases, page 43.
•
10
Fire burns. Rover barks. Day dawns. Time flies.
Winter comes. Summer· goes. February passes.
Sunday begins. Light s~ines. Snow melts. 1\fay
comes. Grass grows. Water runs. Storms gather.
Twilight falls. Tempests rage. Kings die. Palaces
crumble. Empires decay. Washington conquered.
~XF:RCISE.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Analysis of the Subject.
Good men labor.
good men.
This group of words is the subj ect of the
sentence.
The word men is the subject noun. (Parse it.)
. The word good is an adj ective used to modify
the subj ect noun men.
Warm winds blow. Strong men labor. Pure water
sparkles. Br.ight little stars shi·ne. 014 John rests.
Little Alice cries. Cold winter comes. Beautiful day
dawns. Many little boys study~ Big, ugly, black
hawk's scream. Five little blue-eyed girls run. Many
big, strong boys play. Kind-hearted old John laughs.
Several little red roses bloom. Young little .birds peep.
Cold, bleak' November comes.
RUL~ FOR PUNCTUATION. - Place a comma between words
or terms occurring in a series (Ex. ~ood, honest, diligent men)
if and could be used between them, otherwise not.
Examples: "Good, honest, diligent men work." But,
"Five blue-eyed little girls study."
16
Kinds of Adjectives.
Some -adjectives express a quality or characteristic.
These are called descriptive adjectives.
Examples: good, white, sore, old, honest, beautiful. ,
Some adjectives expr~ss quantity.
These are called adjectives of quantity.
Examples: much, little, some, any, no, considerable.
Some adjectives indicate place.
These are called demonstrative adjectives.
Examples: yonder, this, that, nest, firs}, second, near.
Some adjectives express exact number.
These are called numeral adjectives.
Examples: two, fifteen, forty-five.
Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns.
These are called proper adjectives.
Examples : Spanish, Roman, Swedish, Christian, J effer-
sonian, Platonic, A merican, Lutheran.
The articles: a (or an) and the.
~XERCIS~.
txtRCIS~.
EXERCISE.
The older brother died. Less rain falls. The outer
wall fell. Utter* ignorance prevailed. Later reports
followed. The best soldiers perish. The next steamer
comes. The worst disorder prevails. The last faint
hope vanished. A louder cry came. The most alarming
news came. The smaller army conquered.
21
CLASS OF WORDS - IV.
Adverbs.
The kind of words most frequently used to modify
a verb is the adverb. An adverb is a word used to
modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Examples: The Adverb Modifying a Verb:
Mary sings u:e II.
The Adverb Modifying an Adjective:
Very little rain falls.
The Adverb Modifying a11 Adverb:
John works very hard.
E:XE:RCISE.
22
Kinds of Adverbs.
Adverbs of Manner. These adverbs answer the
question "How?"
Examples: beautifully, speedily, kindly, fast.
Adverbs of Time. These adverbs answer the
question "When?" .
Examples: now, then, early, late, formerly, soon.
Adverbs of Place. . These adverbs answer the
question "Where?"
Examples: behind, after, there, here, everywhere.
Adverbs of Degree. These adverbs answer the
question "To what extent?"
Examples: much, very, more, little, not, scarcely.
Modal Adverbs. See below.
Modal Adverbs.
These adverbs show the nature of the statement
made as either certain or doubtful. Usually they are
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas
and have no direct grammatical connection with any
word in the sentence. They modify the whole sentence
by introducing the idea. of certainty, doubt, reason, etc.
Examples: surely, not, indeed, perhaps, certainly, possibly,
probably, hence, therefore, accordingly, maybe,
wherefore.
~X~RCISF:.
Comparison of Adverbs •
.
Some adverbs are compared and, like adjectives,
they have a positive, comparative, and superlative
degree.
Examples: fast, faster, fastest; soon, sooner, soonest;
quickly, more quickly, most quickly.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Adverb.
If the adverb can be compared, state its degree of
comparison.
The old horse ran faster. The smallest pupils came
earliest. The most virtuous men live longest. Snlaller
boys read better. Anna reads very well. Rover runs
fast. These children went away later. This ball went
farthest. Some people act most foolishly. The Hawk
sailed last. The Falcon arrived later. I The teachers
assembled later.
RUL~ FOR PUNC'l'UA1'ION. - Place commas before and after
a modal adverb, if it stands in the middle of a sentence. If
it stands at the end of the sentence, no ~omma is used.
•
24
works John
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Verb.
The boy turns the wheel.
•
turns.
This word is a verb, transitive, because it ex-
presses an action directed by the subj ect against
an object. It is in the singular number to agree
with the subj ect noun boy.
25
wheel.
This word is a common noun, because it denotes
a class of things. It is in the singular number,
because it denotes only one. It is in the neuter
gender, because it denotes a thing which is
neither male nor female. I t is used as the obj ect
of the transitive verb turns.
The smallest boy hit the little girl. Rudolph saw
the ship. . The dog barks very loud. The two boys
plowed a very large field. The minister prayed very
fervently. Beatrice studies her lessons well. Sam·
catches many fish. The boy broke the slate. A big
black dog lately bit Rover. The Boers love inde-
pendence. Very many people arrived. The teacher
punished the bad boy. Adversity fiattereth no man.
The first vessel struck a reef.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Pronoun.
He saw the bird.
he.
This word is a pronoun, because it is used instead
of a noun. I t is used as the subj ect of the
sentence.
John saw him afterward. They returned early.
The ship crossed the ocean. You went away late. A
French artist painted the picture. James hurt himself.
All brought the same amount. The ship suffered great
injury. One followed him closely. These came last.
They defended themselves well. Both returned early.
. Neither had much money. We saw many. She bought
a new hat. We speak German. He met them.
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing nouns and pronouns state in what person
they are.
The Indians killed the settlers. The soldiers drove
them away. I finished the work. No man knew him.
He recited one lesson. James meets them daily. She
lifts the heavy burde~. We planted a garden very
early. John Clark saw them. The Spaniards lost the
battle.
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Verb.
He loves them.
loves.
This word" is a verb, transitive, because it ex-
presses an action directed by the subj ect against
an obj ect. It is in the third person and singular
number to agree with the subject pronoun he.
We study Longfellow's poems. Leonora's youngest
sister reads French fluently. He foun'd the lost treasure.
We like good neighbors. He pays all servants alike.
We study arithmetic. They plow their fields very
early. Lena studies music. The early bird catches the
RULlt FOR CAPITALS. - Street, river, mountain, lak~, etc.,
are usually capitalized when they are used in connection with
proper nouns.
30
Kinds of Pronouns.
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Some pronouns by changing their form are able
to indicate more clearly than any other substantives *
whether the person or thi~g denoted is the speaker,
the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
These pronouns are called personal pronouns. The
personal pronouns have person, 1~umber, gender, and
case very clearly represented by different forms.
DECLENSION.
Possessive
Obj~ive
,-C>"Ii::~ a.re able
s."\3..~S~~'-;"'les •
,-"", tbe speaker, ParsitiK
'\...n'\.."O.'g. ~VO'&.~ of.
In parsing thh"::~:;~
1.:''''' o.",ouns. The JIIyeitll ,nsolll ~
J g e'nod.e:r. and in the sentence'
forms. The Spaniards
his household. He
the settlers. The
IS to give a\\ ;,ts pJanm:J a garden
and case, or as 'b=. The 'hbo,'j
possesses. • good
it. No man knows'
PRot'ouN. We olten pitied
JaW' you first.
S~co~"'O pasOfo/·V\u~,·
quietly away.
yoU ward ~nely she
y"", Waste makes
or yoUT yours
or yours retMmbered the
>""
RUiM &'OK
EXERCISE.
Parsing of Pronominal Adjectives and Possessive
Pronouns.
My horse runs fast.
my.
This word is the possessive form of the personal
pronoun I. It is used as a pronominal adjective
to modify the noun horse.
~ine are large.
mIne.
This. word is the possessive form of the personal
pronoun I used as a possessive pronoun. It is
in the plural number. It is used as the subject
of the sentence.
He soon found them. Mine grew very well. Ethel
left hers. She wore her mother's hat. They sent him
away. John studies his books. She took her sister
along. The little star throws its beams far. Yours
faded at once. Philip's sister left theirs. They spend
, 33
EXERCISE.
Parsing of Compound Personal Pronouns.
In parsing the compound personal pronoun give its
person, number, and gender, and state whether it is used with
a noun or pronoun for the sake of emphasis, or is a reflexive
pronoun used as object.
A beautiful green ivy covered the stone wall. A
lady bought some oranges. She brought them alo11g.
The poor little children warmed their hands. The
American colonies defended themselves bravely. We
have no suitable furniture. The little boys. amused
them'selves. The spider wove its web. General Lee
himself took command. Gertrude always makes her
own dresses. Each star has its own place. You your-
self saw it. I made it myself. The inhabitants fired
their own houses. We saw Red Cloud himself.
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing the demonstrative state whether it is a demon-
strative pronoun or a demonstrative adjective. If a demon-
strativi pronoun, give its number and case and tell how it is
used in the sentence.
Two little boys hurt themselves. Your child hurt
its foot. Pochahontas saved Captain John Smith.
These people came here lately. This thrives best.
Such books please him well. Mr. St. Johns bought
the latter. The troops marched almost constantly.
Ruu FOR CAPItALS. - Titles, such as general, captain, king,
president, Mr., Mrs., Miss, Madam, etc., are capitalized when
used in a formal way in connection with a person's name.
They may be regarded as a part of the name.
* These expressions will be explained later.
86
The most. beau~iful building burned ·down. The one
struck the other. The same army saw greater battles
later." That lady met Mrs. Lucinda Crawford after-
ward.
EXERCISE.
Interrogative Adverbs.
The adverbs where, when, whence} whither, ho'U'}
and why are used' as interrogative adverbs in asking
questions which can not be answered by yes or no.
Examples: When did you come?
Where did you see him?
How far is it?
Whither art thou going?
~X~RCIS~.
Parsing.
In parsing interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs
state to what class of words they belong, and in the case of
an interrogative pronoun to what it refers. Otherwise parse
as usual.
I
EXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Verb.
The boxs sang a song.
sang.
This word is the predicate verb, transitive. ( Give
the reason.) It is a strong verb. ~Why?) It is
in the preterite tense, because it denotes past time.
It is in the third person and plural number to
agree with the subject boys.
I finished my meal. John Milton wrote "Paradise
Lost." He carried his father's sword. Her attendants
followed her. _ They work very diligently. Holy
thoughts consoled her. The ladies' husbands came.
We have some fine roses. Kindness conquers the
rudest heart. Mice ran about everywhere. Sadly we
laid him down. He noticed it himself. Everybody
sought a. safe place. The biggest dog bit the man.
Phrases.
Instead of using a simple adjective or adverb con-
sisting of a single word we may use a group of words
as adjective or adverbial modifier:
Examples: A man of wealth wears fine clothes.
The carpenter came ih the evening.
The group of words of wealth is used as an adjec-
tive modifier of the noun man. The group of words
RUL! FOR PUNCTUATION. - Titles of books, essays, etc.,
when mentioned. in a sentence, are usually enclosed in
quotation marks, unless they are printed in italics. If the
author's name preceeds the title of the book, quotation marks
are not used.
44
!XERCISE.
People from below came to our village. Many
people crawled from under the ruins of the building.
A loud voice came from on high. Three blind mice
ran .after a farmer's wife. The children follow us.
Lavish nature paints the purple year. They bought
cotton in large, quantities.
* Notice that the prepositional phrase may modify adj ee-
tives and adverbs as well as nouns and pronouns.
48
Phrase Prepositions.
Sometimes two prepositions are used together, or
are combined with other words to show a compound
relation.
Examples: out of~ because of~ off of~ in front of, instead
of~ in lieu of, by means of, by dint 0 f~ by
virtue of, by force" of~ on account of, for the
sake of, as to, as for~ fr()m within, according
to, contrary to, over against~ along side, in
,·esPfct to, in order to, in regard to, agree-
ably to~ in place of~ in view of~ by way of~
in spite of, in consideration of, in defiance of,
on this side of, on that side, from out, from
beyond.
These and similar phrases may be parsed as phrase
prepositions.
The prepositions for and of. are sometimes joined to
adjectives.
E~amples: unheard-of, unthought-of, "ncared-for.
Place a hyphen (-) between the adjective and the
preposition and parse both together as an adjective.
tXERCISE.
Indirect ObjeOct.
The object of °a transitive verb is that upon which
the subject acts. This is also called the direct object.
But the transitive verb sometimes requires, besides the
direct Qbject, another object showing for the sake of
who~ the action takes place. This object is called
the indirect object.
Examples : John gave me the book.
We told them the truth.
The noun or pronoun used as indirect object is in
the objective case.
'4
50
ltXERCISE.
Model for the Parsing of the Pronoun.
Mary gave him a present.
him.
This word is a personal pronoun, third person,
singular number, masculine gender. It is in the
obj ective case, because it is used as the indirect
object of the transitive verb gave.
Mary's father gave her a fine horse on her birthday.
John's cousin sends him a letter from across the sea.
The chief gave every. man a trumpet of brass. We
forgive our friends their faults. They did us no harm.
. In the end the discovery of gold has .great results for
good. The old general gave his men new uniforms.
He
The predicate complement always modifies the sub-
ject. It completes the predicate, but does not modify
the predicate verb.
The predicate complement may be a noun~ The
noun is then called the predicate noun. The noun used
as predicate noun is in the nominative case, because
it denotes the same person or thing as the subject.
The predicate complement may be a pronoun.
A pronoun used as predicate complement is in the
nominative case.
Examples: It is I. It is he.
The predicate complement may be an adjective.
The adjective used as predicate complement is called
the 'predicate adjective.
The predicate complement may be an adjective
phrase.
Examples: They are at home. He is in town.
The incomplete intransitive verbs most frequently
used are: is, was, am, are, 'ivere, and all other forms
of the verb be; become, seem; and grow, turn, wax,
get when they mean to become. Also remain, stay,
continue, look, smell, go, sit, feel, appear, prove, are
often used as incomplete intransitive verbs.
52
EX~RCIS~.
!X~RCISE.
•
56
EXERCISE.
There are many kinds of birds. At last we stood
at our mother's knee. There is a pleasure in the
pathless woods. There is a rapture on the lonely shore.
Many a bird froze to- death.* My barometer now
denoted an immense height. I seemed a monarch.
Every eye was upon me. The cheers of the multitude
reached me on the breeze. A taste of the rarer atmos-
phere elevated my spirits into ecstacy. T.here was
pride in the thought. Increased stillness attended my
way. The free wind was on my cheek. There are
vast herds of cattle in the pampas.
EXERCISE.
What sorrow is mine! Strike for your native land!
Who is there? Saddle my horses! Call my train
together! How his full heart labors! He found Inany
of his former cronies. Rip Van Winkle was his name.
She had a chubby child in her arms. The gods defend
RULE 10R THE USE OF EXCLAMATION POINT. - The exclama-
tory sentence should be followed by an exclamation point (!)
if it is - an indicative or imperative sentence; by a question
mark· if it is an interrogative sentence.
62
her! Are you our daughter? I am your fatier!
Where is your mother? . Who comes hither? Does
nobody know poor Rip Van Winkle?* What is your
father's name? What street is this? The far-off hills
swell ~heir white purity against the pure blue of the
heavens ..
\
63
be parsed as some other part of speech used as an
exclamation.
Examples: help! murder' Lear, Lear, Lear! a'Way! stoP!
seel Cordelia! dead I
The interjection has no grammatical connection
with the sentence or phrase in which it occurs. In
parsing such a word it is sufficient to state that it is
an interjection. If an other part of speech is used
as an exclamation state what part of speech. it is.
Interjectional Phrases.
The interjections are sometimes used in connection
with other words to form interjectional or exclamatory
phrases.
Examples: 0 ye hea'l,'eus! A las for Ine! A lack the day!
o poor Gloster! as it were, you know, to be
sure, by your leave, so to speak.
Any phrase may become exclamatory when used to
express strong emotion.
Examples: A bitter fooll Filial ingratitude I To shut
me out I Detested kite!
EXERCISE.
What a martyr a well":dressed man is to his hat.
o myoid heart, is cracked. Alas, are you here?
Alack, alack, I like not this unnatural dealing. Hum!
go to thy bed. The United States army consists of a
RULI: FOR PUNCTUATION. - An interj ection is usually fol-
lowed by an exclamation point, but if the interj ection is closely
·connected with what follows a comma is used. After ok, eh,
and hey the comma is used instead of the exclamation point.
After 0 no comma is used if the connection with what follows
is a close one, otherwise a comma is used.
64
EXERCISE •
•
Beneath the tyrant's yoke the people languish. The
vine still clings to the mouldering wall. He seems a
man of cheerful yesterdays. She sang a few notes out
of tune. Many of the high peaks of the Andes are
volcanoes. Restore to God his due in tithes. The
knight looked troubled to the last degree. This is
sufficient for the destined bride. The deep-blue sky
gets a lighter color.
Ruu: POR THE USE OF THg HYPHEN. - When two or more
words are joined together to form a compound word hyphens
( -) are placed between them.
Examples: brother-in-law, dinner-time, deep-blue.
When words are divideg into syllables as in spelling
exercises, etc., hyphens are placed between the syllables.
When a word for want of space must be divided at the
end of a line place a hyphen at the end of the line to show
that the word is continued on the next line. "
It should be noticed that a word consists of syllables and
can be divided only at the end of a syllable. Example: es-
am-i-na-tion.
65
Numerals.
Words used to express number are called numerals.
They may be divided into several classes. \
Words answering the question, "How many?" are
called cardinal numerals.
Examples: one, two, twenty-five.
Words used to express which one of a series is
meant are called ordinal numerals.
Examples: first, second, twenty-first.
Words expressing how many fold are called multi-
plicative numerals.
Examples: single, double, tenfold.
Words used to express what part of a whole is
meant are called fractional numerals.
Examples: a third, half, six hundredths.
Cardinal numerals may be used as adjectives.
Example: A week has seven days.
When so used they are called numeral adjectives.
(See page 16.)
Cardinal numerals may also be used as nouns.
Examples: Fifty of them were killed.
A th,ousal1,d shall fall at thy side.
When used as nouns the cardinal numerals may
take a plural ending.
Examples: thousands, millions, hu,ndreds.
The ordinal numerals are used as adjectives. When
so used they are called numeral adjectives. (See
page 16.)
Example: The first ship arrived at noon.
The ordinal numerals are also used as adverbs.
Example: He came first.
5
66
EXERqS~.
cities.
Seek ye first the kingdom of God. I
j
67
EXERCISE.
Parsing.
In parsing a noun used as an adjective or as an advetb
state that it is a noun used as an adj ective, or a noun used
as an adverb, and point out what it nlodifies. '
John's brother came home yesterday.
He left San Francisco Monday afternoon.
The ladies' convention lasted three days.
He rained a shower of kicks and blows upon Gun-
powder.
There lived an 'honest fisherman.
The spectre started full jump with him.
* One is here a noun.
68
Cunning is a kind of short-sightedness.
His dark path becomes a way of .light to heaven.
Thus Death made way for Liberty f
God in heaven! Where slept thy thunderbolts?
EXERCISE.
She has a buxom arm, John.
Fly from the town, sweet child!
Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide.
God! thou art merciful.
Hang the lanter~ aloft in the belfry arch of the
North Church tower.
Beneath, in the church-yard, lay the dead.
Wamba, the son of Witless, is the thrall of Cedric
of Rotherwood.
The Tenses .
.The tenses of the verb are:
present
preterite
. future
present perfect
past perfect
future perfect
How the Tenses are Formed.
The preterite is formed both in strong and weak
verbs by changi~g the present form, as we have already·
seen.
The future is formed by placing the auxiliary verb
shall or will before the present infinitive of the verb.
Examples: I shall gee He will return.
The present perfect s~ands in relation to the present
and represents the act as being completed before the
present time. It i~ formed by placing the present form
of the verb have before the past participle of the verb.
Example: I have worked.
•
74 •
EXERCISE.
·Construct the different tenses, 1st person, singular of any
given verb.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I talk we talk
you talk
• you talk
2nd person { (thou talkest) (ye talk)
3d person he talks they talk
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
talk you talk you
(ta~k thou) (talk ye)
76
Infinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to talk to have talked
•
Participle.
Present. Past. Perfect.
talking talked ha ving talked
Gerund.
Present.. Perfect.
talking ha ving talked
~XERCISE.
~XERCISE.
INDI~ATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I am we are
you are you are
2nd person { (thou art) ye are
3d person he, she, it is they are
Preterite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I was we were
you were you were
2nd person { ye were
(thou wast)
3d person he, she, it was they were
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I have been we have been
you have been you have been
2nd person { (ye have been)
(thou hast b~en)
3d person he, she, it has been they have been
79
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I had been we had been
you had been you had been
2nd person {
. (thou hadst been) (ye had been)
3d person he, she, it had been they had been
Fftture Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall be we shall be
YOU will be you will be
2nd person {
(thou wilt be) (ye will be)
3d person he, she, it will be they will be
Future Perfect Te'lJse.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall have been we shall have been
2nd person {YOU will have been you will have been .
(thou wi·It have been) (ye w~ll have been)
3d person he, she, it will have been they will have been
IMPERA'fIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
2nd person be you (be thou) be you (be ye)
Infinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to be to have been •
Participle.
Present. Past. Perfect.
being been having been
Gerf4nd.
Present. Perfect.
being having been
EXERCISE.
These tablets were in common use throughout
Europe. He has not been at home since yesterday.
80
Be still. We have· been very diligent. He had once
been very wealthy. He had tasted the cup of fashion-
•
able life. We shall be more industrious henceforth.
They will have seen him before that time. You will
be at the banquet Friday. In the United States there
can not be found sufficient * of this beautiful material.
- ..
The boy shot the rabbit.
ACTIV! VOIC! . .
The active voice of a transitive verb is conjugated
like the verb talk. (See page 74.)
P ASSIV! VOIC!.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I am seen we are seen
you are seen you are seen
2nd person {
(thou art seen) (ye are seen)
3d person he, she, it is seen they are seen
jJreterite Tense.
Singular. PI ural.
1st person I was seen we were seen
you were seen you were seen
2n d person {
(thou wert seen) . (ye were seen)
3d person he, she, it was seen they were seen
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I have been seen we have been seen
you have been seen you have been seen
2n d person { (thou hast been seen)
(ye have been seen)
3d person he, she, it has been seen they have been seen
Past Perfect .Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I had been seen we had been seen
You had been seen you had been seen
2nd person {
(thou hadst been seen) (ye had been seen)
3d person he, she, it had been seen they had been ~een
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I shall be seen we shall be seen
you ~ill be seen you will be seen
. 2nd person {
(thou wilt be seen) (ye will be .seen)
3d person he, she, it will be seen' they will be seen
83
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. - _
1st person I shall have been seen
2nd person You will have been seen
{ (thou wilt have been seen)
3d person he, she, it will have been seen
Plural.
1st person we shall have been seen
YOU will have been seen
2nd person { (ye will ha ve been seen)
3d person they will have been seen
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
be you seen be you seen
(be thou seen) (be ye seen)
I nlinitive.
Present. Perfect.
to be seen to have been seen
Participle.
Present. Past. Perfect.
being seen seen having been seen
Gerund.
Present. Perfect.
being seen having been seen
EXERCISE.
Change the following sentences from the active to the
passive and from the passive to the active form-:
The Germans conquered the French i~ 1870. Thirty
thousand people were killed by the eruption of Mount
Pelee. The trumpeter saluted Christian. The poor
children found no shelter. Lord Mithuen was captured
by the Boers. Small leaks sink great ships. He taught
them a valuable lesson. They harvested ~en acres of
84
EXERCISE •
.LYodel for Parsing the Passive Verb-Phrase.
U do was assassinated by the Saxons.
was assassinated.
This is the passive verb-phrase of the transitive
verb assassinate. It is in the' indicative mood
and preterite tense.' It is in the third person and
singular number to agree with the subj ect noun
Udo.
The streets were paved with gold. The Indiaris
were led by OsceQla, a celebrated chief. Many states
had borrowed large sums of money. Will he try me
above my strength? America had already produced
Ruu: rOR THE USE or THE DASH (-). The dash is used
to point out an element in the sentence, upon which special
emphasis is laid.
85
five eminent painters-West, Copley, Stuart, Trumbull,
and Allston. A regular litie of steamships was estab-
lished between Liverpool and Boston in 1840.. The
Anti-slavery party at the North strongly opposed the
annexation of Texas. Few of the colonists were rich.
In New England all matters of public interest were
openly and fearlessly discussed in the town-meeting.
~1atters now looked serious. In Europe the French
and the English had long been enemies. Baron
Steuben, a Prussian military engineer, joined the
Americans. General Nathaniel Greene of Rhode Island
had been placed in command at the South. Arnold
died in London twenty years later. Mrs. I.,ofty keeps
a carriage. She had been dead two days. There is a
pleasure in the pathless woods. The next morning w~
were again visited by Mr. Burchell. Every cottager
in China has his litt~e tea-garden. ,The Tartar camel
has two humps. The wealth of some of the 'fartar
tri~s of Thibet consists in the yak. The long hair
of the y.ak is made ,into tent-cloth. The Tartars use
the yak instead of a horse. Troops of camels \vander
about in the steppes of Tartary. The skin of the camel
is u,sed for a great many purposes. A few years later
ten very important amendments were added to t~e
constitution. They were called a "Bill of Rights."
Vi'cksburg was held by' a strong Confederate force
under General Pemberton. Lafayette visited everyone
of the twenty-fou'r states. Congress gratefully voted
him two hundred thousand dollars. Chicago bade'
President McKinley farewell shortly after eleven
RULE FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. - N ames of political
parties should be capitalized.
86
o'clock * last night. 'Neath a tyrant's yoke the people
languish. The wise man is always ready for t~e ups **
and downs of life.
INDICATIVP: MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st person I am teaching
you are teaching
2nd person { (thou art teaching)
3d perSOR he, she, it is teaching
Plural.
1st person we are teaching
you are teaching
2nd person { (ye are teaching)
3d person they are teaching
Preterite 7"e1lse.
Singular.
1st person I was teaching
you were teaching
2nd person { (thou wert teaching)
3d person he, she, it was teaching
Plural.
1st person we were teaching
2nd person
5you were teaching
.1 (ye were teaching)
3d person they were teaching
•
89
Past Perfect Tense.
Sin~ular.
1st person I had been teaching
2nd person
S you had been teaching
1 (thou hadst been teaching)
3d person he, she, it had be~n teaching
Plural.
1st person we had been teaching
2nd person
j you had been teaching
1 (ye had been teaching)
3d person they had been teaching
Future Tense.
Singular.
1st person I shall be teaching
~ you will be teaching
2nd person
1 (thou wilt be teaching)
3d person he, she, it will be teaching
Plural.
1st person we shall be teaching
2nd person
j you will be teaching
t (ye' will be teaching)
3d person· they will be teaching
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1st person I shall have been teaching
2nd person
5 you will have been teaching
1 (thou wilt have been teaching)
3d person he, she, it will have been teaching
Plural.
1st person we shall have been teaching
2nd person
j you will have been teaching
1 (ye will have been teaching)
3d person they will have been teaching
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
be you teaching be you teaching
(be thou teaching) (be ye teaching)
90
I nfj".itive.
Present. Perfect.
to be teaching to have been teaching
Participle.
Present. Perfect.
(being teaching) having been teaching
Gerund.
Present. Perfect.
(being teaching) having been teaching
,
Progressive Forms of the Verb TEACH, Passive Voice.
/ INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st p~rson I am being taught
. 2nd person j you are being taught
( (thou art being taught)
3d person he, she, it is being taught
Plural.
1st person we are being taught
2nd person
5 you are being taught
( (ye are being taught)
3d person they are being taught
Preterite Tense.
Sin~ular.
1st person I was being taught
you were being taught
2nd perso~
{ (thou wert being taught)
3d person he, she, it was being taught
Plural.
1st person we were being taught
2nd person {YOU were being taught
(ye were being taught)
3d person they were being taught
The passive progressive verb-phrases are found
only in these two tenses.
91
EXE:RCISlt ...
Preterite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1st person I did think we did think
you did think you did think
2nd person { (thou didst think) (ye did think)
3d person he, she, it did think they did think
IMPERATIVt MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
. do (you) think do (you) think
2nd person { (do thou think) (do ye think)
The emphatic verb-phrases are also used as inter-
rogative verb-phrases in interrogative sentences.
Examples: Did you work?'
Do you work?
EXERCISE.
Model for Parsing.
Do you labor?
do labor.
This is the interrogative verb-phrase of the in-
transitive verb labor. It is in the indicative mood
and present tense. It is in the second person
and plural number to agree with the subject
pronoun you.
95
We do labor.
do labor.
This is the emphatic verb-phrase of the in-
transitive verb labor. It is in the indicative mood
and present tense. I t is in the first person and
plural number to agree with the subject pronoun
we.
Once I did sail my boat on a little river. You
will get your pretty dress very soon, dear Emma.
Did Mary's g~andma give her this pretty doll? Do
you think she will cry? She did not cry yesterday.
Is your mama at home, John? "Hurrah, Hurrah!"
the American cried.* "Coal!" echoed Richard.
Potential Verb-Phrases.
The potential verb-phrases are forlned by joining
the. infinitive of the principal verb to some auxiliary
verb. The infinitive sign to is omitted when the
auxiliary verb -stands before the infinitive.
Examples: I can work.
We must work.
After the auxiliaries ought and have the infinitive
sign is retained.
Examples : We ought to work.
We have to go.
The auxiliaries enlployed in constructing potential
verb-phrases are: may, can, mu,st, w0f41d, should,
might, ought, need, could, have.
RULIt FOR QUOTATION MARKS (" "). - Quotation marks
are placed before and after a direct quotation.
* H """ah is not the obj ect of the verb cried, as an inter-
jection has no grammatical connection with ~ the sentence in
which it occurs. The verb cried is intransitive.
,
96
Potential Verb-Phrases of the Verb BRING.
Principal Parts:
Present. Preterite. Present Participle. Past Participle.
bring . brought bringing brought
Present Infinitive. Perfect Infi nitive.
to bring to have brought
Present Tense.
ACTIVE.
Singular.
1st person I may bring
2nd person
j you may bring
1 (thou mayest bring)
3d person he, she, it may bring
Plural.
1st person we may bring
2nd person
j you may bring
1 (ye may bring)
3d person they may bring
PASSIV!.
Singular.
1st person I may be brought
j you may be brought
2nd person
1 (thou mayest be brought)
3d person he, she, it may be brought
Plural.
1st person we may be brought
j you may be brought
2nd person
1 (ye may be brought)
3d person they may be brought
Preterite Tense.
ACTIVE.
Singular.
1st person I might bring
j you might bring
2nd person
1 (thou mightest bring)
3d person he, she, it might bring
97
Plural.
1st person we might bring
2nd person
j you might bring
1 (ye might bring)
3d person they might bring
PASSmt.
Singular.
1st person I might be brought
2nd person
5you might be brought
1 (thou mightest be brought)
3d person he, she, it might be brought
Plural.
1st person we might be brought
2nd person
5you might be brought
1(ye might be brought)
3d person they might be brought
EXERCISE.
M oael for Parsing the Potential Verb-Phrase.
This disastrous defeat might have been avoided.
m'ight have been avoided.
This is the potential verb-phrase of the transitive
verb avoid. It is in the passive voice and past
• 99
perfect tense. I t is in the third person and
singular number to agree with the subject defeat.•.
A fire was still raging in the distance. It could
not have been seen. Her other son shall comfort her
old age. Often they would have bolted under any
other master. The Declaration of Independence was
signed on the fourth of J~ly, 1776.** The edifice was
composed of a basement of log~. He had been re-
commended to the favor of Judge Temple by the head
of an eminent mercantile house in N ew York. The
fly-catcher can sport among the water-lilies. A large,
bright flower would make the little fly-catcher a tent.
Nothing could be so fatal to us both. Mankind must
necessarily be diversified by various tastes. I must
tell you something about the red man. They ought
to contemplate the certain approach of age. 'They
mus't grow old. Who can do justice to a moonlight
night in such a climate? The time of action will not
always continue. He can tell the track of wild animals
by the slightest mark on the ground. Do raise the
window. He was in the thickest of the fight. The
letter will be written to-day. We do study. The Slavs
had not been seen before in that region.
• The mood of the potential verb-phrase is either indicative
or SUbjunctive. If it states a fact it is in the indicative mood.
If it expresses a condition, supposition, etc., it is in the sub-
junctive mood. As this is often somewhat difficult to deter-
mine, it may be well not to require the beginner to give the
mood of the potential verb-phrase.
•• 1776 is here a cardinal number used as a noun. It is
an abbreviation of the pregositional phrase in the year 1776~·
hence 1776 is to be considered as the name of a particular
year. It stands in apposition to the noun year understood.
409396
100 •
Progressive Forms of the Potential Verb-Phrases.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1st person I may be giving
2nd person 5you may be giving •
1(thou mayest be giving)
3d person he, she, it may be giving
~ Plural~
1st person we may be giving
2nd person
5 you may be giving
1 (ye may be giving)
3d person they may be giving
Preterite Tense.
Singular.
1st person . I might be giving
2nd person
J you might be giving
1 (thou migktest be giving)
3d person he, she, it might be giving
Plural.
1st person we might be giving
2nd person
5 you might be giving
1 (ye might be giving)
3d person they might be giving
EXERCISE.
The horses would have been driven by the boys.
They may have been staying home all day. Was
Robert Fulton the inventor of the steamboat? Mamma,
John has been pl3:ying with the kittens. You must
watch a little longer.· These plants must have been
. growing very rapidly. He may, indeed, be animated
by the consciousness of doing good. We seemed lifted
up into a purer atmosphere. The Union we reached
only by discipline of our virtues in the severe school
of adversity.. Every year of its duration has teemed
with fresh proofs of its utility. Our ships could not
sail about for a great part of the year. Without the
Gulf Stream the climate in England would be very
cold indeed. They would have become a compact
nation. I should have well deserved their gratitude.
Hostile parties would have been rallied together. The
people were daily becoming more firmly established in
the unity of principle. They might have blindly risen
in reaction against us. You must not go without per-
*A little is a phrase-adverb. See page 49.
102
.
mISSion. May I go to-morrow? The book shall
have been returned to you by nine o'clock to-morrow
morning. ~artha will have finished her dress by that
time.
EXERCISE.
Where are the great plains of the earth situated?
How much of the earth's surface is water?
- Why is the cold greatest in the frigid zones?
Ah! When shall they all meet again?
What a martyr a well-dressed man is to his hat!
That's news indeed.
0, 'tis a burden, Cromwell.
Bear lightly on their foreheads, Time!
The boys were playing some old game beneath
that same old tree.
The profane were driven from the temple of
Liberty.
The world was taken possession of by the demons .
of the air.
There is a sort of fascination in such a scene.
All this power will I give thee.
Whence come ye?
Full authority was given him by the emperor.
Which is the largest lake in the world?
Why is the greater part of Patagonia a desert? ~
I
Correlative Conjunctions.
Conjunctions sometimes occur in pairs. They are
then called correlative conjunctions .•
Examples: though - - yet
both-and
either-or
whether - - or
neither - - nor
not only--but (also)
as well--as
never--or
not--or
not--but
The members· of a compound subject may be
joined together by correlative conjunctions.
Model for the Parsing of Conjunctions.
Ice and snow covered the mountain sides.
and.
This word is a conj unction used' to connect the
two subj ect nouns ice and snow.
107
Fernando Cortez, the great Spanish explorer, re-
turned to Spain after an absence
-
of\ thirty-six years.
Down comes h~sh-a-byC!) baby, and all.
Olaf, king of Norway, and Swein, king of Den-
mark, continued their attacks upon England until the
end of the century.
He has been coasting along the African shore~
Health is happiness, and strength, and wealth.
Is arithmetic or grammar your favorite study?
N either the Saxons nor the Danes gained any
permanent and decisive victories.
Ask it either in the depth or in the height above.
Thus shall we best testify our gratitude to the
teachers and guides of our youth.
N either the sunbeams, nor the birds, nor the red
clouds gave the little tree any pleasure.
Every evening from thy feet
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat.
All too soon these feet must hide
~n the prison cells of pride.
108
. The predicate verbs or verb-phrases are connected
by conjunctions either'expressed or understood. It
should be noticed, then, that a simple sentence may
have both a compound subject and a compound predi-
cate. .
Example : John and his sister stayed at home and studied.
ExtRCIst.
John and J aines speak and read French.
He now hurried forth, and hastened to his old
resort, the village Inn.
Some large, lazy 'Sharks come even to the British
shores.
They' are quite hannless, and lie basking on the
top of the water.
Where does tea come from?
Then Theseus bent himself in good earnest to the
task, and strained every sinew with m·anly strength
and resolution. . .
The albatross flapped his strong wings and wheeled
away.
N either the wide mouth of the shark, the' brown
back of the porpoise, nor the spouting nostril of the
whale is visible.
The billows roar and bound, and lash the sides of
the trembling ship, and sweep with strange force her
decks. '
To rest the eye commas are inserted between the Rarts
of a long compound predicate.
Example: Every stratum of English society felt the
liberal impulse that caused the French Revolu-
tion, and suffered from the imperial turn
given that impulse under Napoleon.
109
From its height, the vale, the rivers, the spires,
and the towers of Granada broke gloriously upon the
view of the little band.
The world was taken pas,session of by the demons
of 'the air.
A cottontail rabbit jumped out and gave them a
great scare..
Poor little Runtie had been sickly from the first.
They took their daily dust-bath, but of late had
changed to another higher on the hill.
Their individual characters were early shown and
now developed fast.
,
110
The object of a preposition may be compound.
Examples: Opie preferred going to the quick and heart
of the matter.
It was done in perfect simplicity and honesty
of heart.
ExtRCIst.
I can neither delight with accounts of suffocating
crowds, nor brilliant drawing rooms, nor toweri~g
feathers, nor sparkling diamonds, nor immeasurable
trains.
He was of a very calm, quiet, and placid temper
of mind.
The Saxons seemed appalled and paralyzed at the
greatness of the danger. .
The French king was weak and could not conquer
Normandy.
RULts J!OR THt Ust OJ! THt COMMA. - Phrases or clauses
inserted between two important parts of a sentence, as be-
tween subj ect and predicate, or between the predicate verb
and the direct obj ect, are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
Phrases and clauses which, by inversion, are placed at the
beginning of the sentence are usually followed by commas.
If the phrase is very short, the comma may be omitted.
111
Edward had been brought up in childhood in his
father's country.
The American Indian possessed courage and forti-
tude in the highest degree.
In 1777 the American flag was seen for the first
time on European waters.
The poor heartbroken mother had come and dug
out the bedraggled bodies of her little ones.
Ships could not sail about for a great part of the
year.
Caesar came and saw and conquered.
The ravages of the Gauls left the poor plebeians
in a most pitiable condition.
Churches and abbeys, palaces and cottages, villas
and cities were given to the flames.
The basis ~f the absolute power of Louis XIV.*
was laid by Cardinal Richelieu during the reign of
Louis XIII.
Wallenstein, after numerous marches and counter
marches, attacked the Swedes in a terrible battle on
the memorable field of Liitzen in Saxony.
The Swedes won the day but lost their leader and
sovereign.
Notwithstanding the death of their great king and
commander, the Swedes did not withdraw from the
war.
ExERCISE.
Point out the subordinate clauses and tell what kind
they are.
Henry restored the laws of Edward the Confessor
8
114 '
wherever they had fallen into abeyance. The nineteen
years of Stephen's reign were filled with the strife
which usually follows a disputed succession. It is un-
doubtedly true that Charles had submitted to more
restrictions than any other recent king of England.
Parliament had neglected Ireland while the war was
raging in England. Severe punishment was inflicted
upon those who took part in this uprising. It was
determined, however, that the Scottish Highlands
should no longer be left in a condition which invited
Jacobite. in·trigues. When George III. became king,
the system of corruption gained new' force. The
colonists replied that this gr.oup of arguments was a
palpable misrepresentation of the actual facts. That
gymnastic training is good for boys, is clear. An
Eastern problem arose when Russia decided to cross
Siberia with a· railway.. That the .soul is immortal is
believed by all nations. Why he did not go is. not
known. Whether he can finish the work is doubtful.
EXERCISE.
, Relative Adverbs.*
The subordinate clause may be joined to the
principal clause by a relative adverb.
The principal relative adverbs are: where, whence,
whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, why, how,
as, before, after, till, until, since.
These adverbs are called 1'elative adverbs, because
they are used much the same way that relative pro-
nouns and adjectives are, and because the relative
adverb is generally equivalent to a prepositional phrase
containing a relative pronoun or adjective.
Examples: where == in which, to which, in what place.
when == in which, at what time.
how == in what way, which way.
The relative adverb has the function of a con-
nective, because it joins the subordinate clause to the
* The relative adverbs are also called conjunctive adverbs,
because they have the function of subordinate conjunctions.
123
principal clause. Generally the subordinate clause is
joined to some particular word or phrase in the
principal clause.
The relative adverb has also the function of an
adverb, because it modifies some word or phrase in the
subordinate clause.
Example: I remember th~ place where I was born.
He~ the relative' adverb where joins the sub-
ordinate adjective clause I was born to the noun place
of the principal clause. ,It also modifies the verb born
of 'the subordinate clause.,
The subordinate or dependent clauses may express
a variety of ideas. Divided according to the idea they
express the subordinate clauses will ~eneral1y fall into
one of the following groups:
PLACE. We stopped where the road turned. I
. remember the place 'ulhere I was born.
TIME. They came 'luhen 'their work was done.
MANN!R. They live as their fathers and fore-
fathers lived.
DEGREE. He is not as rich as they think he is.
CAUSE. He grew 'despondent, because he found
no employment. •
PURPOSE. We work in order that we may earn
our daily bread.
CONCESSION. Though the night be dark and dreary,
Darkness can not hide from Thee.
CONDITION. If he is willing, we will go.
RESULT. He was so weak that he grew alarmed.
COMPARISON. He looked as if he were frightened.
INDIRECT STATEMENT. He said that he would
come.
124
INDIRECT QUESTION. He asked when we 'UJere
going. He asked: "When are you going?"
It should be noticed that an indirect question may
lose the form of an interrogative sentence and be fol-
lowed by a period. But it may be used as a direct
quotation,* in which case it is followed by the interro-
gation point or question mark.
DIRECT QUOTATION. Any direct quotation.may be
used as a subordinate clause. .
. I
Examples: tIHe is right /" she exclaimed.
ttGo and see what it is/' she said.
liDo you know what you have to do?" he
asked.
125
Cemplex Subordinate Clause.
The subordinate clause may itself be complex.
Example: I saw the place where Mary stayed when she
was a child.
EXERCISE.
~X~RCIS~.
Co-ordinate Conjunctions.
Conjunctions which are used to connect words,·
phrases, or clauses of equal value are called coOrdinate
conjunctions. The coordinate conjunctions most fre-
quently use~ are:
and but or
for too also
nor • else then
both still yet
besides either neither
hence thus so
then further however
therefore likewise moreover
whence wherefore notwithstanding
consequ~nt1y accordingly so that
so then otherwise
The clauses of a compound sentence are usually
connected by coordinate or correlative conjunctions"
Examples: John works and Mary studies, but ] ames does
nothing.
Either the condition of peace must be ac-
cepted, or the war must continue.
Cla~ses connected by these conjunctions are called,
with reference to each other, coordinate clauses, because
they are of the same rank or value.
It should be noticed that coordinate clauses need
not always be independent clauses. Two or more sub-
ordinate clauses may be connected by coordinate or
•
138
correlative conjunctions and joined to ~ principal
clause. They are then coordinate clauses with refer-
ence to each other, but subordinate with reference to
the independent clause to which they are joined.
Example: I saw them, both when they came and when
they went.
The clauses when they' came and when they went
are correlative clauses, being of equal value and con-
struction. Both clauses are subordinate adverbial
clauses, modifying the verb saw of the principal or
independent clause.
Sometimes the coordinate independent clauses of a
compound sentence are not connected· by coordinate or
correlative conjunctions, but are seplrated by commas,
semicolons, etc.
Example: The Renaissance becomes the Reformation;
the humanist becomes the reformer.
But in this and similar
I
cases the coordinate
.
con-
junction and may be used instead of the punctuation
mark. This shows that the clauses are coordinate and
form a compound sentence.
Relative Clauses.
A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is usually
a subordinate restrictive clause used as a noun, or as
an adjective modifier. But a relative clause may be
used to express a new idea. It may then be called a
non-restrictive relative clause.
Example: I met my father, who had just returned from
Europe.
Ruu: FOR TH~ US~ OF THIt COMMA. - A non-restrictive
relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas. The restrictive relative clause is usually not separ-
ated by commas.
139
EX£RCISE.
GENERAL EXERCISlt.
If· the ballot-box be overturned, the cartridge-box
must take its place.
Recalcitrant .priests were thrown into prisons, im-
ages were plucked down from the rood-loft, and the
most valuable * of Irish relics, the staff of St. Patrick,
• was burned in the l1}arket place.
As he fanned me with his heavy wing and looked
with a human intelligence at the car, my pulse bounded
with exulting rapture.
* The noun relic must be understood aft~r the adj ective
'lIaluab Ie.
141
But the wind had passed on and had met in a lane
With a schoolboy, who panted and struggled in vain;
For it tossed him arid twirled him, then passed, and he
stood
With his hat in a pool and his shoe in the mud.
Pizarro and his little band had been soreiy. tried by
the perils they had encountered.
Their principal food was crabs and such shell-fish
as they could pick up along the shores.
If we look out upon the starry heavens by which
we are surrounded, we find them diversified in every
possible way.
Reading maketh a full man; conversation a ready
man; and writing an exact man.
He who speaks honestly and cares not, need not
care, though his words be preserved to remhtest time.
It was at this identical spot that the unfortunate
Andre was captured, and this has ever since been con-
sidered a haunted stream .
. Society demancfs that a young man shall be some-
body.
The first great lesson a young man should learn
is that he kno,!s nothing. .
Upon the death of Jovian, Valentinian was elected
. emperor by a council of the generals of the army and
the ministers of the court.
The classical revival gave to Europe, not only
faultless literary models, but large stores of valuable
knowledge_.
Ru~Jt FOR When the conjunctions are
PUNCTUA'l'ION. -
omitted the principal clauses of a compound sentence are
often separated by semicolons, but commas may also be used.
142
Julian is called the Apostate, because he abandoned
Christianity .
Notwithstanding Cr9mwell was a man of immov-
able resolution and iron spirit, he felt sorely the
burdens of his government, and was deeply troubled
by the perplexities of his position.
The petition was read in the House of Commons,
and approved, and the petitioners thanked for their
kind expressions therein; and then it was delivered by
them at the bar of the House of Peers.
The power of money was growing day by day,
and the feudal lords, who scorned to acquire wealth
by commerce or industrial pursuits, procured it by
plundering.
The third crusade, which has already been de-
scribed, was a complete failure, but it had no fatal
results for France, as had the preceding crusade.
The preaching of the apostles and their disciples
had spread the Gospel throughout the Roman world,
and as early as the third century the Christians formed
a kind of vast society in the heart of the empire.
The bishop, who had first been appointed by the
apostles and consecrated by the laying on of hands,
afterwards, when the number of conversions necessi-
tated the fonnation of a church in every city, was
chosen by the faithful, installed by the other bishops
of the province, and confirmed in his powers by the
metropolitan.
RULlts FOR PUNC'l'UA'l'ION. - Principal clauses of a com-
pound sentence which are subdivided by commas, should be
separated by semicolons.
The comma can be used wherever it aids in avoiding
ambiguity.
143
The national assemblies became nothing more than
the council of the sovereign ..
While Washington and his riflemen were engaging
the Indians, the British troops drew back.
Seven hundred soldiers lay killed on the field.
Had General Braddock listened to Washington's
advice, it might have been diff.erent.
On the second of July, 1776, they stood up before
the Congress, and what they had prepared was read
aloud.
The cannons roared, the bells pealed out their
joyful notes, the bands struck up martial music, and
all the town was in a blaze of excitement.
When the war had lasted two years or more, and
England saw that this country could not be easily con-
quered, a plan was devised by George III. which he
thought would surely be successful.
The army made altogether a splendid sh~w, and
the chief in command of this great force was one of
the finest British officers, General Burgoyne.
W.ashington spared all the men he could from his
army in New Jersey, and sent them to General Gates,
to w~om he gave command of the northern army.
I f ever thou hast felt another's pain,
If ever, when he sighed, hast sighed again,
If ever on thine eyelid stood the tear
That pity had 'engendered, drop. one here.
So may the rosy~fingered hours
Lead on the various year,
And ev'ry joy which now is yours,
Extend a larger sphere.
144
And he who will not "sign the pledge,"
And keep his promise fast,
May be, in spite of fate, a stark
Cold-water man at last!
Tell my mother that her son shall comfort her
old age.
And from that glad hour,
Followed I Him and ministered to Him;
And found myself alive, who had been dead,
And saved by love, who dwelt so lovelessly.
• •
Subjunctive Mood.
The verb-forms constituting this mood were once
quite numerous, but they have gone more and more
out of use in modern English. Subjunctive forms are
now most frequently met 'with in poetry and in solemn
style. :In modern English prose they are now rare,
in conversation almost unknown. In the copula be
the subjunctive forms are yet clearly distinguished in
the pr'esent and preterite tenses.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
If I be If we be
If you be If you be
(If thou be) (If ye be)
If he be If they be
Preteritt) Tense.
Singular. Plural.
If I were If we were
If you were If you were
(If thou wert) (If ye were)
If he were If they were
145
In other verbs the subjunctive, active voice of
transitive verbs and the sUbjunctive of intransitive
·verbs are "the same as the indicative forms, except in
the 2nd and 3d persons singular of the present tense.
•
Indicative. Subjunctive.
I find If I find
you find If you find
(thou findest) (If thou find)
he finds If he find
In the passive voice of transitive verbs the sub-
junctive verb-phrases are formed by th~' subjunctive
forms of the auxiliary verb be.
The sUbjunctive does not express action, being,
or state, as a fact, but as something supposed, hoped
for, or thought of. The subjunctive is, therefore, used'
to express:
- 1. A condition.
Example: If this be true, it is deplorable.
2. A condition contrary to fact.
Example: If I were rich, I would give money to the poor.
3. A concession or supposition.
Example: He walks with firm elastic steps, aged though
he be.
4. A wish or prayer.
Examples: Would that it were so.
o .had I the wings of a dove.
Hallowed be Thy name.
The subjunctive is usually preceded by some con-
junction like if, though, lest, supposing, although,
"except which joins the subordinate to the principal
J
tX~RCIS~.
The Infinitive.
The verb is generally used in the predicate to
assert or state something about the subject. When
. so used it is called a finite verb. But the verb may
also be used to name in a general way some action
* And must be understood here.
147
or state without referring it to any subject. When
so used it has the character of a noun and is a verb·
in form only. It is then called an infinitive or a
ve'l' bal noun.
Forms of the Infinitive.
Although a noun in character, the infinitive retains
many of the verbal characteristics as to form. The
forms of, an infinitive of a transitive verb are:
Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Present to love to be loved
Perfect to have loved to have been loved
The forms of the infinitive of an intransitive
verb are:
Present to walk
Perfect to have walked
The preposition to usually precedes the infinitive,
and is then called the sign of the infinitive.,
Object of the Infinitive.
The infinitive of a transitive verb takes an object.
Example: The law gave the master the right to punish
a serf.
\
149
Examples: We endeavored to escape this difficulty.
He tried to carry them over in a boat.
The Turkish government hastened to make
apology.
They intended to arouse the neighbori1lg
tribes.
George III. resolved to revive the enforce-
ment of the Navigation Laws.
He wished to restrict the colonial trade with
the Spanish and French West Indies.
The infinitive is used adverbially to express
pu.rpose, intention, result, etc.
Examples: They came to see us.
He left, never to return.
To speak truth we must first know the truth.
The council convened at St. Albans to con-
sider what claims should be made on the
king.
The English barons prepared to bring him
to terms.
They fired their own houses in order to·
drive the enemy from the protection of the
town.
The vessel was trimmed to meet the blast,
and we were again bounding on our way.
5. The infinitive is used with auxiliary verbs
to form verb-phrases. After an auxiliary verb the
infinitive sign is usually dropped, though not always.
He tried to carry them over, etc.; and they are so regarded
by some grammarians. But as it is very difficult to draw
the line between cases where the infinitive is a mere adverbial
modifier and where it has more distinctly the character of a
direct obj eet, it is best to treat it as a complementary infinitive
in such constructions.
* In ·order to is a phrase preposition used interchangeably
with to To drive or in order to drive. (See page 44.)
150
Examples: shall speak
may speak
can speak
ought to speak
have to. speak
is to speak
was to speak
6. The infinitive is used as objective complement.
Examples: They forced him to resign.
He told us to come.
7. The infinitive is sometimes used as object of a
preposition.
Examples: What went ye out for to see?*
He is about to go.
8. The infinitive is sometimes used as an In-
.
dependent element.
Example: To say the truth, we never anticipated this.
The ·Participle.
The participles are verb-forms which, like the in-
finitive, express action, being, or state, in a general
way without reference to a subject. These forms have,
generally, the functions of adjectives, but they retain
many of the characteristics of the verb. They are,
therefore, called verbal adjectitves.
Forms of the Participle.
Present Active driving
Perfect Active having driven
Perfect Active Progressive having been driving
Past or Passive driven
Past or Passive Progressive being driven
Perfect Passive having been driven
Like the finite forms of the verb, the participle
takes adverbial modifiers.
Examples: They found him sleeping soundly.
He sat thinking of by-gone days.
The participle of a transitive verb takes an object.
Example: The ship arrived carrying a big cargo.
The participle of an incomplete intransitive verb
!
I
•
takes a complement.
Example: A very simple arrangement sufficed for the
I "
kitchen, the ark being altogether a summer
habitation.
Nominative Absolute.*
The time of an action is often expressed by a sub-
ordinate clause.
Example: W hen the 'lV(Jr was over, Logan was alone in
the wo~ld.
A subordinate clause may also be us~d to express
the cause of an action.
Example: As the day was warm and sultry, the soldiers
were relieved from duty.
155
A subordinate clause may also express some cir-
cumstance attending the action.
Example: He spoke with great earnestness, while all the
warriors listened intently.
A clause expressing the time, cause, or circum-
stance of an action may be reduced to a phrase con-
sisting, as a rule, of a noun or pronoun and a participle.
Examples: The!tAlr being over, Logan was alone in the
world. .
The day being hot and sultry, the soldiers
were relieved from duty.
He spoke with great earnestness, all the
'Warriors listening· intently.
Such a phrase is called the absolute construction.
The noun or pronoun of the phrase is called the
nominative absolute, because the noun or pronoun is
in the nominative case, and because there is no direct
grammatical connection between this phrase and the
sentence to which it belongs.
The participle is sometimes joined to the noun
by a subordinate conjunction.
Example: Though living in retirement, he was still
inft uential.
EXERCISE.
Parsing of the Participle.
State what form it is and how it is used. If it belongs
to an incomplete intransitive verb, point out its complement;
if to a transitive verb, its obj ect.
In the Northwest dreadful scenes were being en-
acted. Float~ng fire rafts were sent down the river
RtiL~ FOR THE USE OF THE CoMMA. - The absolute COD- •
struction should be separated from the rest of the sentence
by commas.
•
156
in order to destroy the two schooners that were
anchored under the guns of the fort. Parties of
warriors were sent out in every direction to cut off
all help that -might be sent to the beleaguered garrison.
In June a vessel containing supplies and a reenforce-
ment of fifty men was captured by the Indians. He
passed down the Wabash, stopping at the French posts.
Although defeated on every hand and deserted by his
allies, Pontiac had not yet lost hope, nor was he among
those who sued for peace. Detroit being the strongest
and most important of all the posts, Pontiac had de-
cided to make it his own prey.
EXERCISE.
I have heard the zealous youth telling out his holy
secrets. Uttered out of time, or concealed in its season,
good savoreth of evil. Secrecy goeth cowled, and
Honesty demands wherefore. Love is a sweet idolatry
enslaving the soul. Volumes would not contain what
would be both instructive and interesting respecting*
the lives and works of the three great philosophers
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Upon the day appointed
he was brought out of the tower with his arms bound
behind him, having a very cheerful countenance.
When all was ready, he set his army of laborers at
work. They toiled eight years in the wilderness,
cutting down forests, excavating the earth, blasting
their way through ridges of rock, building aqueduct
bridges to carry the canal across rivers, constructing
, locks of solid masonry to carry it up the hillsides.
He came prepared to encounter the party. Having
*A preposition.
157
finished 'his business with these tribes, Croghan started
across the country to fort Chartres. As if designed
by Providence, a canoe of Indian squaws and children
was coming up to town. The Mayflower being moored
to the eastern bank of the Muskingum, the little com-
pany disembarked.
The Gerund.
The gerund has two forms, the present and the
perfect.
Present laboring
Perfect having labored
These forms are identical with the present and the
perfect participle. But while the participle is always
used as an adjective, the gerund is always used as a
noun. It is, therefore, also called a verbal noun.
Uses of the Gerund.
1. Subject.
Exampl~: Reading maketh a full man.
2. Predicate complement.
Example: Seeing is believing•
. 3. ,Obj ect of a preposition.
Example: He was engaged in trading with the natives.
4. Object of a transitive verb.
Example: We watched his playitlg.
The gerund may take an adjective modifier.
Example: The result of his reasoning will decide his fate.
It may also take an adverbial modifier.
Example: By retreating rapidly he avoided an untimely
battle.
158
It may take both adjective and adverbial modifiers
at the same time.
Example: Some time after the king's coming thither they
presented a declaration.*
The gerund takes an object if the verb to which it
belongs is transitive.
Example: He. was keen in discovering analogies.
~XltRCIS2.
Persecution.
The history of persecution is a history of en-
deavors to cheat nature, to make water run up hill, to
twist a rope of sand. It makes no difference whether
the actors be many or one, a tyrant or a mob. A
mob is a society of bodies voluntarily bereaving them-
selves of reason and traversing its work. The mob
167
is a man voluntarily descending to .the nature of the
beast. Its fit hour of activity is night. Its actions are
insane like its whole constitution. It persecutes a
principle; it would whip a right; it would tar and
feather justice, by inflicting fire and outrage upon the
houses and persons of those who have these. It
resembles the prank of boys who run with fire-engines
to put out the ruddy aurora streaming to the stars.
The invioiate spirit turns their spite against the wrong-
doers. The martyr cannot be dishonored. Every lash
inflicted is a tongue of fame; every prison a more
illustrious abode; every burned "'book or house en-
lightens the world; every suppressed or expunged
word reverberates through the earth from side to side.
Th.e minds of men are at last aroused; reason looks
out and justifies her own, and malice finds all her
work vain. It is the whipper who is whipped, and the
tyrant who is undone. -EM GSON.
Sunday at Home.
Every Sabbath morning, in the summer time, I
thrust ' back the curtain, to watch the sunrise stealing
down a steeple which stands opposite my chamber.
window. First the weathercock begins to flash; then
a fainter luster gives the spire an airy aspect; next it
encroaches on the tower, and causes the index of the
dial to glisten like gold, as it points to the guilded
figure of the hour. Now the loftiest window gleams,
and now the lower. The carved framework of the
portal is mar~ed strongly out. At length, the morning
glory, in its descent from heaven, comes down the
168
stone steps, one by one; and there stands the steeple,
glowing with fresh radiance, while the shades of
twilight still hide themselves among the nooks of the
adjacent buildings. Methinks, though the same sun
brightens it every fair morning, yet the steeple has a
peculiar robe of brightness for the Sabbath.
By dwelling near a church, a person soon contracts
an attachment for the edifice. VVe naturally personify
it, and conceive its many walls, and its dim emptiness,
to be instinct with a calm and meditative and some-
what melancholy spirit. But the steeple stands fore-
most, in our thoughts, as well as locally. It impresses
us as a giant, with a mind comprehensive and dis-
criminating enough to care for the great and small
concerns of all the town. Hourly, while it speaks a
moral to the few that think, it reminds thousands of
busy individuals of their separate and most secret
affairs. I t is the steeple, too, that flings abroad the
hurried and irregular accents of general alarm ;
neither have gladness and festivity found a better
utterance than by its tongue; and when the dead are
slowly passing to their home, the steeple has a
melancholy voice to bid them welcome. Yet, in spite
of this connection with human interests, what a moral
loneliness, on week-days, broods round about its stately
height! It has no kindred with the houses above
which it towers; it looks down into the narrow
• thoroughfare, the lonelier, because the crowd are
elbowing their passage at its base. A glance at the
body of the church deepens this impression. Within,
by the light of distant windows, amid refracted
shadows, we discern the vacant pews and empty
169
galleries, the silent organ, the voiceless pulpit, and the
clock, which tells to solitude how time is passing.
Time - where man lives not - what is it but eternity?
And in the church, we might suppose, are garnered
up, throughout the week, all thoughts and feelings
that have reference to eternity, until the holy day
comes round again, to let them forth ..
* * *
I love to spend such pleasant Sabbaths; from
morning till night, behind the curtain of my open
window. Are they spent amiss? Every spot, so near
the church as to be visited by the circling shadow of
the steeple, should be deemed consecrated ground to-
day. With stronger truth be it said that a devout
heart may consecrate a den of thieves, as an evil one
may convert a temple to the same. My heart, perhaps,
has not such holy, nor, I would fain trust, such im-
pious potency. It must suffice that, though my form
be absent, my inner man goes constantly to church,
while many, whose bodily presence fills the accustomed
seats, have left their souls at home. But I am there
even before my friend the sexton. At length he comes
- a man of kindly but sombre.> aspect, in dark grey
clothes, and hair of the same mixture - he comes and
applies his key to the wide portal. N ow my thoughts
may go in among the dusty pews, or ascend the pulpit
without sacrilege, but soon come forth again to enjoy
the music of the bell. How glad, yet solemn too!
All the steeples in town are talking together, aloft in
the sunny air, and rejoicing among themselves, while
their spires point heavenward. Meantime, here are the
children assembling to' the Sabbath-school, which is
170
kept somewhere within the church. Often, while look-
ing at the arched portal, I have been gladdened by the
sight of a score of these little girls and boys in pink,
blue, yellow, and crimson frocks, bursting suddenly
forth into the sunshine, like a swann of gay butterflies
that had been shut up in the solemn gloom. Or I
might compar~ them to cherubs haunting that holy
place.
About a· quarter of an hour before the second
ringing of the bell, individuals of the congregation
begin to appear. The earliest is invariably an old
woman in black, whose bent frame and rounded
shoulders are evidently laden with some heavy afflic-
tion which she is eager to rest upon the altar. Would
that the Sabbath came twice as often for the sake of
that sorrowful old soul.
*• * *
A few of the singing men and singing women had
lingered behind their fellows, and raised their voices
fitfully, and blew a careless note upon the organ. Yet
it lifted my soul higher than all their former strains.
They are gone - the sons and daughters of music"-
and the gray sexton is just closing· the portal. For
six days more there will be no face of man in the
pews and aisles and galleries, nor a voice in the pulpit,
nor music in the choir. Was it worth while to rear
this massive edifice to be a desert in the heart of the
town, and populous only for a few hours of each
seventh day? Oh! but the church is a symbol of
religion. May its site, which was consecrated on the
day when the first tree was felled, be kept holy forever,
a spot of solitude and peace, amid the trouble and
171
vanity of our. week-~ay world! There is a moral and
a religion too, even in the silent walls. And may the
steeple still point heavenward, and be decked with the
hallowed- sunshine of the Sabbath morn!
-NATHANIU HAWTBOaNJC.
.J
179
Punctuation,S, 15, 23, 43, 48, Still, 137.
63, 70, 141, 142. Strong verbs, 42.
Subject, 5, 14; compound, 103;
Question mark, 60. grammatical, 112; logical,
Quotation, 124. 112; simple, 103.
Quotation mark, 43, 48, 95. Subjunctive mood, 99, 144 1£.
Subordinate clauses, 112, 124 if.
Reciprocal pronouns, 37. Substantives, 30.
Reflexive pronouns, 34. Such, 35, 36.
Relative adjectives, 118; com- Such - as, 127.
pound relative adj ectives, 118. Superlative degree, 18 ;
Relative adverbs, 122 ff. strengthened and modified,
Relative clauses, 138. 140."
Relative pronouns, 115; com-
pound relative pronouns, 115; Tenses, 41, 73 fI.
number of, 116: gender of, Than, 120, 127.
116; case of, 116. That, 35, 115-117, 120
The, 17.
Same, 35. The one, 38.
Seem, 51. Then, 137.
Semicolon, 141, 142. There, 57.
Sentence, 5; complex, 111; Therefore, 137.
complex-compound, 140; 1
7 his, 35.
compound, 137; declarative, Though, 120, 145.
59; exclamatory, 61; impera- Though - yet, 104.
tive, 60; interrogative, 38, 59. Thus, 137.
Several, 36. Till, 122.
Shall, 92. Till after, 47.
Should, 95. Till now, 47.
Since, 120, 122. To there, 47.
Since over two weeks, 47. Transitive verbs, 24.
Since then, 47, 49. Turn, 51.
Singular number, 10, 12.
Sit, 51. Uncared-for, 48.
Smell, 51. Understood, 131.
So, 137. Unheard-of, 48.
So-as, 128. Unless, 120.
So that, 120, 137. Unthought-of, 48.
So then, 137. Until, 122.
Some, 36. Utter, 20.
Some one, 38.
Some one else, 38. Verbal nouns, 147, 157.
Somebody, 37, 38. Verb-phrases, 9, 76, 86 if.
Somebody else, etc., 38. Verbs, 8-9; auxiliary verbs, 73,
Something, 37. 76-77, 94, 95; conj ugation of,
South, Southern, 52. 42; incomplete intransitive,
Speech, parts of, 6. 50 ; intransitive, 24 ; person
Stay, 51. of, 28 ; predicate verb, 9 ;
180
strong verbs, 42; transitive, Whether, 39.
24; weak verbs, 42. Whether - - or, 104.
Voice, 80; active, 80-82; pas- Wliich, 39, 115-117.
sive, 80-82. Whichever, whichsoever, 115-
117.
Was 51. Whither, 40, 122.
We~ verbs, 42. Who, whose, wh~m, 39, 115-
Were, etc., 51. 117.
West, Western, 52. Whoso, whosoever, 115-117.
What, 39, 61, 115, 117. Why, 40.
Whatever, whatsoever, 115-117. Will, 77, 92.
When, 40, 122. Without, 120.
Whence, 40, 122, 137. Words, classes of, 6.
Whenever, 122. Would, 95.
Where, 40, 122.
Whereas, 120. Yet, 137.
Wherever, 122. Your oum self, 34.
Wherefore, 137.
". I
J
The End.