Student: Agustin Venezuela

Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem

ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 1

The desired probability is equal to the number of elements in S that are divisible by 11 divided by
the total number of elements in S. The latter quantity can be found by noting that any number
in S can be formed by choosing the location of the zero in 9 ways, since we must disallow the first
digit, and permuting without restriction the other nine digits in 9! ways, giving 9 · 9! = 3265920
elements in S.
9
X
Now consider any element n = ai · 10i ∈ S, where the digits a0 , a1 , . . . , a9 from right to left are
i=0
distinct, such that 11|n. We have (mod 11):

n = a9 · 109 + a8 · 108 + a7 · 107 + a6 · 106 + a5 · 105 + a4 · 104 + a3 · 103

+a2 · 102 + a1 · 101 + a0 · 100 ≡ 0
=⇒ a9 · (−1)9 + a8 · (−1)8 + a7 · (−1)7 + a6 · (−1)6 + a5 · (−1)5 + a4 · (−1)4 + a3 · (−1)3
+a2 · (−1)2 + a1 · (−1)1 + a0 · (−1)0 ≡ 0
=⇒ −a9 + a8 − a7 + a6 − a5 + a4 − a3 + a2 − a1 + a0 ≡ 0
=⇒ a0 + a2 + a4 + a6 + a8 ≡ a1 + a3 + a5 + a7 + a9 (1)

Letting A = a0 + a2 + a4 + a6 + a8 and B = a1 + a3 + a5 + a7 + a9 , we can derive two equa-

tions, one each from adding A or B to (1). Using the fact that the sum of the digits of any number
in S is equal to 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 45, these equations give:

2A ≡ 2B ≡ a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 ≡ 45 ≡ 12
=⇒ A ≡ B ≡ 6

Now since each ai is a distinct digit from zero to nine, any sum of five digits is at least 0+1+2+3+4 =
10 and at most 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 35. The only such sums congruent to 6 in this range are 17 and
28, so either A = 17, B = 28 or A = 28, B = 17. Note that, qualitatively, any partition of the set
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} into two five-element subsets with sums 17 and 28 are valid for both cases:
we need only ensure that a0 6= 0. We now list the only 11 partitions:

Page 1 of Problem 1
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 1

{0, 1, 2, 5, 9}, {3, 4, 6, 7, 8}

{0, 1, 2, 6, 8}, {3, 4, 5, 7, 9}
{0, 1, 3, 4, 9}, {2, 5, 6, 7, 8}
{0, 1, 3, 5, 8}, {2, 4, 6, 7, 9}
{0, 1, 3, 6, 7}, {2, 4, 5, 8, 9}
{0, 1, 4, 5, 7}, {2, 4, 5, 8, 9}
{0, 2, 3, 4, 8}, {1, 5, 6, 7, 9}
{0, 2, 3, 5, 7}, {1, 4, 6, 8, 9}
{0, 2, 4, 5, 6}, {1, 3, 7, 8, 9}
{1, 2, 3, 4, 7}, {0, 5, 6, 8, 9}
{1, 2, 3, 5, 6}, {0, 4, 7, 8, 9}

For each of these 11 partitions, we can have the subset containing zero be either (a0 , a2 , a4 , a6 , a8 ) or
(a1 , a3 , a5 , a7 , a9 ). In the first case, we arrange the subset containing zero by choosing the location
of zero in 4 ways and then permuting without restriction the other four digits in 4! ways. The other
subset can then be permuted without restriction in 5! ways. In the second case, we can permute
both subsets in a total of 5! · 5! ways. Thus the total number of elements n ∈ S such that 11|n is
equal to 11(4 · 4! + 5! · 5!) = 159456.

159456 1661
Our desired probability is therefore: 3265920 = 34020 . 

Page 2 of Problem 1
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 2

We first solve the general game with n stones. Interpret the game as a graph of n + 1 vertices,
each uniquely labeled with a single integer from 0 to n. A vertex labeled k represents a state of
the game in which k stones remain. Construct a directed edge from each vertex k to the vertices
k − 3, k − 4, k − 7, if they exist, representing the possible moves from any state of the game. Also
construct edges from 2 to 0 and from 1 to 0, representing the only moves not already constructed:
taking all remaining stones if only one or two remain. Players take turns moving from the current
vertex to another vertex along the directed edges. A player loses when he cannot move, representing
the player having no more stones to take. We seek to partition the vertex set into two subsets W
and L with the following three properties:

1. From any vertex in W , there exists a move into L.

2. From any vertex in L, all moves, if any exist, go into W .

3. There exists a vertex in L that must be reached from which no move can be made.

Given such a partition, any player at a state in W will always win, since he can always move his
opponent into L, who will be forced to move the initial player back to W . Eventually, the opponent
must move to the vertex from which no move can be made, and thus the opponent will lose.

We claim that the partition of the vertices into W = {k|k ≡ 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 (mod 11)}, L =
{k|k ≡ 0, 5, 6 (mod 11)} is such a partition: we prove this by showing that each of the conditions
above is met by this partition. First consider the labels of each vertex (mod 11).

:::

LEMMA ONE: From any vertex in W , there exists a move into L.

Proof:
If the vertex has a label congruent to 1 ∈ W , move to 1 − 7 ≡ 5 ∈ L, unless the label is 1 itself, in
which case move to 0 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 2 ∈ W , move to 2 − 7 ≡ 6 ∈ L, unless the label is 2 itself, in
which case move to 0 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 3 ∈ W , move to 3 − 3 ≡ 0 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 4 ∈ W , move to 4 − 4 ≡ 0 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 7 ∈ W , move to 7 − 7 ≡ 0 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 8 ∈ W , move to 8 − 3 ≡ 5 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 9 ∈ W , move to 9 − 3 ≡ 6 ∈ L.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 10 ∈ W , move to 10 − 4 ≡ 6 ∈ L. 

Page 1 of Problem 2
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 2

LEMMA TWO: From any vertex in L, all moves, if any exist, go into W .
Proof:
If the vertex has a label congruent to 0 ∈ L, the player must move to one of 0 − 3 ≡ 8 ∈ W, 0 − 4 ≡
7 ∈ W, 0 − 7 ≡ 4 ∈ W , unless the label is 0 itself, in which case no moves exist.
If the vertex has a label congruent to 5 ∈ L, the player must move to one of 5 − 3 ≡ 2 ∈ W, 5 − 4 ≡
1 ∈ W, 5 − 7 ≡ 9 ∈ W .
If the vertex has a label congruent to 6 ∈ L, the player must move to one of 6 − 3 ≡ 3 ∈ W, 6 − 4 ≡
2 ∈ W, 6 − 7 ≡ 10 ∈ W . 

LEMMA THREE: There exists a vertex in L that must be reached from which no move can be
made.
Proof: Unless the current state of the game is 0, all moves go from a vertex to another vertex with
a strictly lower label, since at each non-zero state of the game, a strictly positive number of stones
are taken. Thus all games must end on the 0 ∈ L vertex, from which no moves exist. 

:::

We have thus shown that the given partition yields a winning strategy for a player at any ver-
tex in W and also that that the opponent has a winning strategy if the player is at any vertex in
L. In the game under consideration, the first player begins on 2009 ≡ 7 ∈ W . Thus the first player
will win assuming perfect play. Indeed, his winning strategy can be summarized as follows:

At every move, take a number of stones such that the remaining number of stones is congruent
to any of {0, 5, 6} (mod 11). 

Page 2 of Problem 2
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 3

First, we denote by (a, b) the greatest common factor of a, b and by [a, b] the least common multiple
of a, b. We use similar notation for the greatest common factor and least common multiple of three
numbers. Also, we use the notation pk ||n to signify that pk |n but pk+1 6 |n, and say that k is the
highest exponent of p in n. Note that highest is not synonymous with greatest in this context, and
we will refer to least and greatest highest exponents as the smallest and largest of a set of highest
exponents.

We claim that the solution (a, b, c) that minimizes a + b + c is (60, 90, 150), which satisfies the
original equation:
[a, b] · [b, c] · [c, a] = 24300000 = abc · (a, b, c),
and yields the sum 60 + 90 + 150 = 300.

:::

LEMMA ONE: For any solution (a, b, c), the greatest highest exponent of any prime p amongst
a, b, c is twice the least highest exponent. Also, the same primes divide each of a, b, c. (That is, a
prime p divides any one of a, b, c if and only if it divides all of them.)

Proof: Consider any prime number p. Now let ea ,eb ,ec be the highest exponents of p in a, b, c, respec-
tively. Without loss of generality, let ea ≤ eb ≤ ec . (Note that if we consider another prime q and de-
fine fa , fb , fc similarly, we could no longer assume fa ≤ fb ≤ fc .) Now consider the highest exponents
of p in the LHS and RHS of the original equation. On the LHS, pmax(ea ,eb ) ||[a, b] =⇒ peb ||[a, b]. Sim-
ilarly, pec ||[b, c] and pec ||[c, a]. Thus peb +2ec ||[a, b] · [b, c] · [c, a], the LHS. On the RHS, pea +eb +ec ||abc
and pmin(ea ,eb ,ec ) ||(a, b, c) =⇒ pea ||(a, b, c). Thus p2ea +eb +ec ||abc · (a, b, c), the RHS.

Since the prime factorizations of two equal numbers are the same, we can equate the highest
exponents of p of both sides, giving eb + 2ec = 2ea + eb + ec =⇒ ec = 2ea . That is, for any prime p,
the greatest highest exponent of p amongst a, b, c must be twice the least highest exponent. A direct
corollary of this shows that if any one of a, b, c is not divisible by p, then none of them are divisible
by p, since the highest exponents of p are either all zero or all non-zero by the previous result. Thus
we have shown that the same primes (and hence the same number of primes) divide each of a, b, c. 

:::

Qualitatively, the values of the primes that divide a, b, c have no effect on the condition placed
on the exponents, so we need only consider how many primes by which a, b, c are divisible. As we
seek to minimize a + b + c, we would then choose the least such primes.

Now suppose there was a solution (a, b, c) such that a + b + c < 300. If a, b, c were divisible
by exactly one prime, we would have min(a, b, c)| max(a, b, c), which cannot be. If a, b, c were divis-
ible by exactly two primes p, q, then without loss of generality, let a have the least highest exponent
ea of p and let c have the greatest highest exponent ec = 2ea > ea of p. Now suppose a has a

Page 1 of Problem 3
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 3

highest exponent fa of q and c has a highest exponent fc of q. If fa ≤ fc , then a|c, which cannot
be, so fa > fc . Now consider the highest exponents eb , fb of p, q in b. We must have ea ≤ eb ≤ ec by
assumption. Now if fb ≤ fc , then b|c, which cannot be, so fb > fc . Similarly, if fb ≥ fa , then a|b,
which again cannot be, so fb < fa . Thus we must have fc < fb < fa = 2fc , and so fc ≥ 2. We can
make the same argument for p, except switching the roles of the ei ’s and fi ’s, and so we similarly
find ea ≥ 2. To minimize the sum a + b + c, we would have fc = 2, ea = 2 and p = 2, q = 3, giving
a = 22 · 34 = 324, b = 23 · 33 = 216, c = 24 · 32 = 144. The sum a + b + c = 324 + 216 + 144 = 684
is clearly greater than 300, and all solutions with exactly two prime factors will have sums greater
than or equal to this.

If the solution has exactly three prime factors, then we can choose these primes to be 2, 3, 5 in
order to minimize the sum a + b + c. Also, we would have the least highest exponents of 2, 3, 5 be
1 amongst a, b, c, causing the greatest highest exponents to be 2. Again, in order to minimize the
sum a + b + c, we would choose the remaining highest exponent to be equal to the least highest
exponent. This minimization is attained with the solution a = 22 · 3 · 5 = 60, b = 2 · 32 · 5 = 90,
and c = 2 · 3 · 52 = 150, which is our claimed minimal solution.

Lastly, any solution that has more than three prime factors will have a, b, c ≥ 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 = 210 =⇒
a + b + c ≥ 3 · 210 = 630 > 300. Thus 300 is, indeed, the minimum, as desired. 

Page 2 of Problem 3
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 4

We claim that the desired locus is the set of all points in P on

√ the ellipse centered at the midpoint
BC 2
of BC with semimajor axis parallel to BC with length 2 and semiminor axis perpendicular
to BC with length BC 2 , except for the two points on the ellipse that lie on the line BC extended,
which are not in the locus.

First dilate, rotate, then translate the coordinate axes in P such that B is the point (0, 0) and
C is the point (1, 0). Thus all lengths hereafter have BC as a unit length. Now let A be a point
in P with coordinates (u, v) and consider a segment from A to a point D on the opposite side of
BC, intersecting BC at X such that AX = XD and quadrilateral ABDC is cyclic. Let X have
coordinates (x, 0), x ∈ (0, 1).

By the Power of a Point Theorem, we have:

AX · DX = BX · CX

AX 2 = BX · CX
(u − x)2 + v 2 = x(1 − x)
u2 − 2ux + x2 + v 2 = x − x2
(2)x2 − (2u + 1)x + (u2 + v 2 ) = 0

This is a quadratic in x, so for a given point A, there will be exactly one point D that satis-
fies the conditions of the original problem if and only if the discriminant of the quadratic is zero:

(2u + 1)2 − 4(2)(u2 + u2 ) = 0

4u2 + 4u + 1 − 8u2 − 8v 2 = 0
−4u2 + 4u + 1 − 8v 2 = 0
4u2 − 4u − 1 + 8v 2 = 0
4u2 − 4u + 1 + 8v 2 = 2
1 2
 
2 u− + 4v 2 = 1
2

1


This is the equation of the ellipse centered at 2, 0 with semimajor axis parallel to the x-axis
√
2
with length 2 and semiminor axis parallel to the y-axis with length 21 . Thus any point A in the
desired locus must lie on this ellipse. It remains to show that any point on this ellipse except those
two that lie on the line BC are in the desired locus.

Page 1 of Problem 4
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 4

Establish the coordinate axes as above, putting B and C at (0, 0) and (1, 0), respectively. Now con-

2
sider any point (u, v) on the ellipse 2 x − 21 + 4y 2 = 1, except for those with v = 0; that is, except
for the two points that lie on the line BC extended. (Note that we must exclude these two points,
or else the quadrilateral ABDC degenerates to a line segment.) Also consider the set of points D
on the opposite side of BC from A, such that the segment AD intersects BC at X(x, 0), x ∈ (0, 1),
where AX = XD, and quadrilateral ABDC is cyclic. By the Power of a Point Theorem, we find as
above (2)x2 − (2u + 1)x + (u2 + v 2 ) = 0. We again must have the discriminant equal to zero in order
for there to exist exactly one

2 such point D that satisfies the conditions of the problem. The algebra
above again yields 2 u − 12 +4v 2 = 1 which is true by the assumption that (u, v) lies on the ellipse.

Thus the desired locus is as claimed. 

Page 2 of Problem 4
Student: Agustin Venezuela
Username: jvenezuela716 Year Round Problem
ID#: 10160 USA Mathematical Talent Search 20 3 5

Let b be any positive integer greater than 2 and a be any positive real number such that
1
a + 1b > 1. Note that if a ≤ 1, then the sequence bac, b2ac, b3ac, . . . (hereby called the spectrum
sequence of a) contains Z+ , and thus all positive integral powers of b are in the spectrum sequence
of a. Thus it remains to show that the statement holds for a > 1 =⇒ a1 < 1. If we express a1 in
base b, we have a1 = 0.c1 c2 . . . ck . . . , where each ci is a positive integer from 0 to b − 1. We consider
the following two cases:

:::

1
CASE ONE: The representation of in base b terminates.
a j k−1  Therefore
k ∃L ∈ Z+ such that ∀k ∈ Z+ ,
bk−1 b
k > L, ck = 0. For these k, a ∈ Z+ , and so a a = bbk−1 c = bk−1 is in the spectrum
sequence of a. Thus there are infinitely many integral powers of b in the spectrum sequence of a.


CASE TWO: The representation of a1 in base b does not terminate. We can therefore choose
k−1
infinitely many kjsuchkthat ck ≥ 1. For jany such
k choice, we consider b a = c1 c2 . . . ck−1 .ck . . . .
k−1 k−1 k−1 k−1
We have b a < b a + 1 and b a > b a + 1b . Note that inequality cannot be attained in
1
either case since this would necessarily imply a termination in the representation of a in base b.
Therefore:
bk−1
 k−1 
b bk−1 1
−1< < −
a a a b
We also have:
1 1 −1 1
+ > 1 =⇒ < −1
a b b a
Substituting into the previous inequality chain yields:
bk−1
 k−1 
bk−1
 
b 1
−1< < + −1
a a a a

bk−1
 k−1 
b bk−1 + 1
< +1<
a a a
 k−1  
b
bk−1 < + 1 a < bk−1 + 1
a
jj k−1 k  k
b
Therefore a + 1 a = bk−1 , is in the spectrum sequence of a. Since there are infinitely
many such k, we conclude that there are infinitely many integral powers of b in the spectrum se-
quence of a. 

:::

In either case, we can find infinitely many integral powers of b in the spectrum sequence of a,
as desired. 

Page 1 of Problem 5