Fluid Dynamics IB

Dr Natalia Berloff
§1.3 Material derivative

Consider a field F (x, t).

Rate of change with time seen by an observer moving with fluid, DF Dt , is found by using
the chain rule for differentiation (Remember: the value of x for a given fluid particle varies
with time)

DF ∂F
Material derivative: Dt ≡ ∂t + u · ∇F

Other names: Lagrangian, total, convected, or substantial derivative.

§1.4 Conservation of Mass

We assume that fluid is neither created nor destroyed, i.e., that fluid mass is con-
served. Look at what this means mathematically, for a general flow field.
Consider an arbitrary finite volume V fixed in space, bounded by surface S, with outw’d
normal n.

The total mass of fluid contained within V :

Mass inside changes because it flows accross the boundary surface.

Volume out (per unit of time)

Mass out of V through S (per unit of time):

 R
This must be equal to the rate of change of the total mass occupying V , V
ρdV , implying
that Z Z
d
ρdV = − ρu · ndS .
dt V S

Now the volume V is fixed in space, so

Use divergence theorem:

Equation holds for arbitrary V , hence, assuming that integrands are continuous functions,

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρu) = 0 , (1)
∂t
the equation of mass conservation.
We have ∇ · (ρu) = u · ∇ρ + ρ∇ · u , and so equation (1) above can be rewritten as
Dρ
+ ρ∇ · u = 0 . (2)
Dt
i.e. following a fluid parcel the rate of change of density is proportional to the divergence
of the velocity field.

§1.5 Kinematic boundary condition

We continue to assume that fluid is neither created nor destroyed, and restrict attention
to the case of an impermeable boundary: no fluid can get across it. We assume that
the fluid stays in contact with boundary.
If the boundary is stationary, then
impermeability ⇒

where n is normal to the boundary. If the boundary is moving with velocity U, then
relative to the moving boundary, the fluid velocity is

The normal component of velocity relative to the boundary, i.e. the normal component of
u − U, is zero:
u·n=U·n .

Boundary condition on free surface: (relevant to wave theory later in the course):
Let the shape of the surface be z = ζ(x, y, t).

Consider the surface F (x, y, z, t) = z − ζ(x, y, t).

Let u = (u, v, w). Notice that the surface moves with the fluid, and hence for a particle
on the surface: DF/Dt = 0.

So kinematic boundary condition is

∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ
+u +v − w = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂y

§1.6 Incompressibility

From here on, in this course, we restrict attention to fluid behaviour for which ρ can
be taken to be constant. Consider for convenience the second, D/Dt form of the mass
conservation equation derived in §1.3:

With ρ constant we have Dρ/Dt = 0 trivially, therefore

∇·u=0 . (3)

The velocity field is nondivergent, i.e. solenoidal. This expresses mass conservation for
incompressible flow.
*Notice that the assumption of constant ρ excludes sound waves: the assumption can be shown to be
consistent when fluid velocities |u|  sound speed, 340 m s−1 in air at 1 bar and 15◦ C; ∼ 1500 m s−1 in
water. Constant ρ also implies that we are excluding density-driven flows such as thermal convection.*

§1.7 Stream functions

A stream function is a useful — and frequently used — way of describing a two-dimensional

(2-D) incompressible velocity field. The velocity field, when written in terms of a stream
function, automatically satisfies the incompressibility constraint ∇ · u = 0.

This is satisfied if we use a stream function ψ(x, y, t) such that

 *We know that such a function can be found based on the following: Recall the standard result from cal-
∂P ∂Q
culus (re ‘exact differentials’ etc.) that ∃ ψ(x, y) such that dψ = P (x, y) dx+Q(x, y) dy ⇔ = .
∂y ∂x
This applies with Q = u and P = −v at any given time t, because then ∂P ∂y
− ∂Q
∂x
= −∇ · u = 0 . *

Example: u = (y, x)

Note that u = ∇ψ × k, where k = (0, 0, 1), a unit vector perpendicular to the xy plane.

Main properties:

(1) ψ(x, y) = const are stream lines, because they are tangential to u:

(2) |u| = |∇ψ|; therefore, fluid moves faster where streamlines are closer;

(3) Consider two points x0 and x1 joined by some curve C on which the line element is dl.

Then ψ(x1 ) − ψ(x0 ) =

In 2D polar coordinates (r, θ): The equation
1 ∂ 1 ∂
0=∇·u= (rur ) + (uθ )
r ∂r r ∂θ
is satisfied by ψ such that

3-D axisymmetric case with cylindrical polars (r, θ, z):

We can use the same approach for axisymmetric flow. In cylindrical polars: u = (ur , 0, uz )
the equation
1 ∂ ∂
0=∇·u= (rur ) + (uz )
r ∂r ∂z
is satisfied by ψ such that

3-D axisymmetric case with spherical polars (r, θ, ϕ):

The flow is independent of the azimuthal coordinate ϕ by definition of axisymmetry. So
the standard formula for the divergence of a vector in spherical coordinates gives, with
u = (ur , uθ , 0),
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂
0= ∇·u= 2
(r ur ) + (sin θ uθ )
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ

Stream functions for axisymmetric flow are sometimes called Stokes stream functions.
 §1.8 Motion of a material line element
A material line element is a small line element marked in the fluid, i.e., made up of fluid
parcels, with end points X1 (t) and X2 (t) moving with the flow.
We write δl(t) = X2 (t) − X1 (t). Then the rate of change of δl(t) is

In the limit of infinitesimal |δl|,

d
δl = (δl · ∇)u,
dt
or, in Cartesian tensor (suffix) notation,
 
d ∂ui
δli = δlj .
dt ∂xj