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Election

An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a

population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold
public office.[1]

Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern

representative democracy has operated since the 17th century.[1]
Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the
executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This
process is also used in many other private and business
A ballot box used in France
organizations, from clubs to voluntary associations and
corporations.[2]

The universal use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative
democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the
Elections were not used were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled
using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.[3]

Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place,
or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of results and
other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Election is the
fact of electing, or being elected.

To elect means "to select or make a decision", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as
referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United States.

Contents
History
Characteristic
Suffrage
Electorate
Nomination of candidate
Electoral systems
Scheduling
Election campaigns
Difficulties with elections
Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate
Unfair rules
Interference with campaigns
Tampering with the election mechanism
Sham election
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Examples
Countries with show elections
Current
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History
Elections were used as early in
history as ancient Greece and
ancient Rome, and throughout
the Medieval period to select
rulers such as the Holy Roman
Emperor (see imperial election)
and the pope (see papal
A British election campaign leaflet
election).[1] with an illustration of an example
ballot paper, 1880
In Vedic period of India, the
Raja (chiefs) of a gana (a tribal
organization) was apparently
elected by the gana. The Raja belonged to the noble Kshatriya varna
Roman coin depicting election
(warrior class), and was typically a son of the previous Raja.
However, the gana members had the final say in his elections.[4]
Even during the Sangam Period people elected their representatives
by casting their votes and the ballot boxes (Usually a pot) were tied by rope and sealed. After the election
the votes were taken out and counted.[5] The Pala King Gopala (ruled c. 750s–770s CE) in early medieval
Bengal was elected by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary
societies of the region.[6][7] In the Chola Empire, around 920 CE, in Uthiramerur (in present-day Tamil
Nadu), palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members. The leaves, with candidate
names written on them, were put inside a mud pot. To select the committee members, a young boy was
asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available. This was known as the Kudavolai
system.[8][9]

The first recorded popular elections of officials to public office, by majority vote, where all citizens were
eligible both to vote and to hold public office, date back to the Ephors of Sparta in 754 B.C., under the
mixed government of the Spartan Constitution.[10][11] Athenian democratic elections, where all citizens
could hold public office, were not introduced for another 247 years, until the reforms of Cleisthenes.[12]
Under the earlier Solonian Constitution (circa 574 B.C.), all Athenian citizens were eligible to vote in the
popular assemblies, on matters of law and policy, and as jurors, but only the three highest classes of
citizens could vote in elections. Nor were the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens (as defined by
the extent of their wealth and property, rather than by birth) eligible to hold public office, through the
reforms of Solon.[13][14] The Spartan election of the Ephors, therefore, also predates the reforms of Solon
in Athens by approximately 180 years.[15]

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Questions of suffrage, especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections.
Males, the dominant cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the electorate and
continue to do so in many countries.[1] Early elections in countries such as the United Kingdom and the
United States were dominated by landed or ruling class males.[1] However, by 1920 all Western
European and North American democracies had universal adult male suffrage (except Switzerland) and
many countries began to consider women's suffrage.[1] Despite legally mandated universal suffrage for
adult males, political barriers were sometimes erected to prevent fair access to elections (see civil rights
movement).[1]

Characteristic

Suffrage

The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not generally include the
entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those who are under the age of majority from
voting, all jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting.

In Australia, Aboriginal people were not given the right to vote until 1962 (see 1967 referendum entry)
and in 2010 the federal government removed the rights of prisoners serving for 3 years or more to vote
(a large proportion of which were Aboriginal Australians).

Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed.

However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and
is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required.

In some countries, voting is required by law; if an eligible voter does

not cast a vote, he or she may be subject to punitive measures such
as a fine. In Western Australia, the penalty for a first time offender
failing to vote is a $20.00 fine, which increases to $50.00 if the
offender refused to vote prior.[16]

Electorate
Campaigners working on posters in
Historically the size of eligible voters, the electorate, was small
Milan, Italy, 2004
having the size of groups or communities of privileged men like
aristocrats and men of a city (citizens).

With the growth of the number of people with bourgeois citizen rights outside of cities, expanding the
term citizen, the electorates grew to numbers beyond the thousands. Elections with an electorate in the
hundred thousands appeared in the final decades of the Roman Republic, by extending voting rights to
citizens outside of Rome with the Lex Julia of 90 BC, reaching an electorate of 910,000 and estimated
voter turnout of maximum 10% in 70 BC,[17] only again comparable in size to the first elections of the
United States. At the same time the Kingdom of Great Britain had in 1780 about 214,000 eligible voters,
3% of the whole population.[18]

Nomination of candidate

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A representative democracy requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office. In many
cases, nomination for office is mediated through preselection processes in organized political parties.[19]

Non-partisan systems tend to be different from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a direct
democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated. Although
elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman
emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of
representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century. In some systems
no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting—with some
possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement—in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is
not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible
persons, though such systems may involve indirect elections at larger geographic levels to ensure that
some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected
delegates).

As far as partisan systems, in some countries, only members of a particular party can be nominated (see
one-party state). Or, any eligible person can be nominated through a process; thus allowing him or her to
be listed.

Electoral systems

Electoral systems are the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems that convert the vote
into a political decision. The first step is to tally the votes, for which various vote counting systems and
ballot types are used. Voting systems then determine the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems
can be categorized as either proportional or majoritarian. Among the former are party-list proportional
representation and additional member system. Among the latter are First Past the Post electoral system
(relative majority) and absolute majority. Many countries have growing electoral reform movements,
which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a
Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries
where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.

While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act
of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot
is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it
limits the effectiveness of intimidation.

Scheduling

The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to
the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. For that reason most
democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States,
elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the
federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office. There is
a variety of schedules, for example presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the
President of Russia and the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years,
President of the United States every four years.

Pre-decided or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability. However, they tend
to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make dissolving the legislature (parliamentary system) more
problematic if the date should happen to fall at time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war
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breaks out). Other states (e.g., the United Kingdom) only set maximum time in office, and the executive
decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice, this means the
government remains in power for close to its full term, and choose an election date it calculates to be in
its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a motion of no-confidence). This calculation
depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority.

Election campaigns

When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing
directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns. Supporters for a campaign can be
either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising. It is common
for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via Political Forecasting methods.

The most expensive election campaign included US$7 billion spent on the 2012 United States
presidential election and is followed by the US$5 billion spent on the 2014 Indian general election.[20]

Difficulties with elections

In many of the countries with weak rule of law, the most

common reason why elections do not meet international
standards of being "free and fair" is interference from the
incumbent government. Dictators may use the powers of
the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical
implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to
remain in power despite popular opinion in favor of
removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature
may use the power of the majority or supermajority
(passing criminal laws, defining the electoral
mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries)
to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting Buenos Aires 1892 "The rival voters were kept
to a rival faction due to an election.[1] back by an armed force of police out of sight to
others. Only batches of two or three were allowed
Non-governmental entities can also interfere with to enter the polling-office at a time. Armed
elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or sentries guarded the gates and the doors."
(Godefroy Durand, The Graphic, 21 May 1892).
fraud, which can result in improper casting or counting
of votes. Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is
also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions
of free and fair elections. Problems that prevent an election from being "free and fair" take various
forms.[21]

Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate

The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press,
lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, and/or lack of access to news and
political media. Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favoring certain viewpoints or state
propaganda.

Unfair rules

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Gerrymandering, exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high
restrictions on who may be a candidate, like ballot access rules, and manipulating thresholds for
electoral success are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favor a specific
faction or candidate. It is named for Massachusetts Governor, Elbridge Gerry who signed a bill that
created a partisan district in the Boston area that was compared to the shape of a mythological
salamander.

Interference with campaigns

Those in power may arrest or assassinate candidates, suppress or even criminalize campaigning, close
campaign headquarters, harass or beat campaign workers, or intimidate voters with violence. Foreign
electoral intervention can also occur, with the United States interfering between 1946 and 2000 in 81
elections and Russia/USSR in 36.[22] In 2018 the most intense interventions, by means of false
information, were by China in Taiwan and by Russia in Latvia; the next highest levels were in Bahrain,
Qatar and Hungary.[23]

Tampering with the election mechanism

This can include falsifying voter instructions,[24]

violation of the secret ballot, ballot stuffing, tampering
with voting machines,[25] destruction of legitimately cast
ballots,[26] voter suppression, voter registration fraud,
failure to validate voter residency, fraudulent tabulation
of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation
at polling places. Other examples include persuading
candidates not to run, such as through blackmailing, Few US states check results
bribery, intimidation or physical violence.

Sham election
A sham election, or show election, is an election that is held purely for show; that is, without any
significant political choice or real impact on results of election.[27]

Sham elections are a common event in dictatorial regimes that feel the need to feign the appearance of
public legitimacy. Published results usually show nearly 100% voter turnout and high support (typically
at least 80%, and close to 100% in many cases) for the prescribed candidate(s) or for the referendum
choice that favors the political party in power. Dictatorial regimes can also organize sham elections with
results simulating those that might be achieved in democratic countries.[28]

Sometimes, only one government approved candidate is allowed to run in sham elections with no
opposition candidates allowed, or opposition candidates are arrested on false charges (or even without
any charges) before the election to prevent them from running.[29][30][31]

Ballots may contain only one "yes" option, or in the case of a simple "yes or no" question, security forces
often persecute people who pick "no", thus encouraging them to pick the "yes" option. In other cases,
those who vote receive stamps in their passport for doing so, while those who did not vote (and thus do
not receive stamps) are persecuted as enemies of the people.[32][33]

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In some cases, sham elections can backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes
they are popular enough to win without coercion or fraud. The most famous example of this was the
1990 Myanmar general election.[34]

Examples

Examples of sham elections are the 1929 and 1934 elections in

Fascist Italy, elections in Nazi Germany, the 1940 elections of the
People's Parliaments in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the 1928,
1935, 1942, 1949, 1951 and 1958 elections in Portugal, elections in
post-revolutionary Iran, the 1991 Kazakh presidential election, those
in North Korea,[35] and the 1995 and 2002 Iraq Presidential
referendums under Saddam Hussein.

In Mexico, all of the presidential elections from 1929 to 1982 are A ballot from the 1936 elections in
considered to be sham elections, as the Institutional Revolutionary Nazi Germany.
Party (PRI) and its predecessors governed the country in a de facto
single-party system without serious opposition, and won all of the
presidential alections in that period with percentages of votes well
over 70%. The first actually competitive presidential election in
modern Mexican history was that of 1988, in which for the first time
the PRI candidate faced two strong opposition candidates.

A predetermined conclusion is always established by the regime

through suppression of the opposition, coercion of voters, vote
rigging, reporting a number of votes received greater than the
number of voters, outright lying, or some combination of these.
A ballot from the 1938 elections in
In an extreme example, Charles D. B. King of Liberia was reported to Nazi Germany asking voters to
have won by 234,000 votes in the 1927 general election, a "majority" approve the new Reichstag and the
that was over fifteen times larger than the number of eligible Anschluss. The "no" box was made
voters.[36] significantly smaller than the "yes"
box.

Countries with show elections

Current
Algeria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Cambodia
People's Republic of China
Cuba
Djibouti
Iran
Kazakhstan
North Korea
Laos
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Syria
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Venezuela (under Bolivarian rule)
Vietnam
Yemen
Zimbabwe

See also
Ballot access Landslide election
Concession (politics) Meritocracy
Demarchy—"Democracy without Elections" Multi-party system
Electoral calendar Nomination rules
Electoral integrity Party system
Electoral system Pluralism (political philosophy)
Election law Political science
Election litter Polling station
Elections by country Reelection
Electronic voting Slate
Fenno's paradox Stunning elections
Full slate Two-party system
Garrat Elections Voter turnout
Gerontocracy Voting system
Issue voting

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n.nic.in/historical/Pre%20Independence.html). Tamil Nadu State Election Commission, India.
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External links
PARLINE database on national parliaments. Results for all parliamentary elections since 1966 (http://
www.ipu.org/parline-e/parlinesearch.asp)
"Psephos," archive of recent electoral data from 182 countries (http://psephos.adam-carr.net/)
ElectionGuide.org — Worldwide Coverage of National-level Elections (http://www.electionguide.org)
parties-and-elections.de: Database for all European elections since 1945 (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20191012214801/http://parties-and-elections.de/)
ACE Electoral Knowledge Network (http://www.aceproject.org) — electoral encyclopedia and related
resources from a consortium of electoral agencies and organizations.

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Angus Reid Global Monitor: Election Tracker (https://web.archive.org/web/20060108113500/http://w

ww.angus-reid.com/tracker/)
IDEA's Table of Electoral Systems Worldwide (https://web.archive.org/web/20051228015533/http://w
ww.idea.int/esd/world.cfm)
European Election Law Association (Eurela) (https://web.archive.org/web/20070427195545/http://ww
w.eurela.org/)
List of Local Elected Offices in the United States (http://www.killercampaigning.com/local-elections-lis
t-political-campaign-candidate-offices/)
Caltech/ MIT Voting Technology Project (http://www.vote.caltech.edu/)

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