Measurement of

Vertical
Distances

GE 100: General Surveying I

Lecture No. 3
Caraga State University
College of Engineering and Information Technology
 Leveling

 It is the process of directly or

indirectly measuring vertical
distances to determine the
elevation of points or their
difference in elevation.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Definition of Terms
1. Level Surface – it is a curved surface which is
at any point perpendicular to the direction of
gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line – it is a curved line in a level
surface all points of which are normal to the
direction of gravity and equidistant from the
center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – it is a plane that is
tangent to a level surface at a particular point.
It also perpendicular to the plumb line at the
same point.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Definition of Terms
4. Horizontal Line – a straight line in a
horizontal plane which is tangent to a level
line at one point. It is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity at the point of tangency.
5. Vertical Line – is a line parallel to the
direction of gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level – is an imaginary surface of
the sea which is midway between high and
low tides.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Definition of Terms
7. Datum – is any convenient level surface
coincident or parallel with mean sea level to
which elevations of a particular area are
referred.
8. Elevation – is the vertical distance above or
below mean sea level or any other selected
datum.
9. Difference in Elevation – is the vertical distance
between the two level surfaces in which the
points lie.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Relationship Between Level
Surfaces
Elevation
Diff. in Elev. Earth’ s Surface
Between A & B
B of B (+)
Le ve
l Li ne
Thru
B

Elevation
of A (+) Le ve l L
ine Thr
u A
A
SEA LEV EL
ME AN

Le ve l Li ne Th
ru C
Line
Ve rtica l

C
Vertical

Line

al
Ve rtic
Li ne
Diff. in Elev.
Elevation
Between A & C To Earth’ s of C (-)
Center

Diff. in Elev.
Between B & C

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling Methods
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling –
method of determining the
elevation of points some
distance apart by a series of set
ups of a leveling instrument
along a selected route. It is also
referred to spirit leveling since
the device used is a spirit level.
Forms of Direct Leveling
a. Differential Leveling
b. Double – Rodded Leveling
c. Three – Wire Leveling

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling Methods
2. Reciprocal Leveling – is the process of accurately determining
the difference in elevation between two inter visible points
located at a considerable distance apart and between which
points leveling could not be performed in the usual manner.
3. Profile Leveling – is used to determine difference in elevation
between points at designated short measured intervals along
an established line to provide data from which a vertical
section of the ground surface can be plotted.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling Methods
4. Trigonometric Leveling – is
employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the
difference in elevation between
two points from measurements of
its horizontal and slope distance
and the vertical angle between the
points.
5. Stadia Leveling – combines
features of direct leveling with
those of trigonometric leveling. It is
in fact a form of trigonometric
leveling.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling Methods
6. Barometric Leveling – it involves the
determination of differences in elevation
between points by measuring the variation in
atmospheric pressure at each point by means
of barometer.
7. Cross-Section Leveling – in highways or
railroad construction it is often necessary to
obtain a representation of the ground surface
on either side of the centerline.
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling – is a method of
determining the relative elevations of points in
borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of
calculating volumes of earthwork.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Types of Levels
DUMPY LEVEL TILTING LEVEL

WYE LEVEL GEODETIC LEVEL

BUILDER’S LEVEL TRANSIT AS A LEVEL

AUTOMATIC LEVEL LASER LEVEL

HAND LEVEL

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 DUMPY LEVEL
WYE LEVEL

BUILDER’S LEVEL

AUTOMATIC LEVEL

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 LASER LEVEL

TILTING AND
GEODETIC LEVEL

LASER SYSTEM
MOUNTED ON
BUILDER’S LEVEL

HAND LEVEL

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling Rods
It is a graduated rod
which is used for
measuring the vertical
distance between the
line of sight through a
leveling instrument
and the point whose
elevation is either
required or known.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Two Classification of Leveling Rod

1. Self-Reading Rod – it is the

most commonly used type of
leveling rod. It can be read
directly by the instrumentman
through the telescope by
noting the apparent
intersection of the horizontal 2. Target Rod – it is
hair on the rod. the type of rod has
a sliding target
which is set and
read by a rodman
at the position
selected by the
instrumentman.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Other Types of Rod
Philadelphia Rods
1. Rods Named
After Cities or
States
2. Rod Ribbons
3. Precise Rod
4. Geodetic Rod
5. Tape Rod

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Rod Level
• It is a device used
for fast and correct
plumbing of a
leveling rod.
• It is L-shape in
design and consists
of a small circular
spirit level fastened
the rod or to small
bracket held against
the side of the rod.
GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Targets

• It is a small device
attached to the rod
when extremely
long sights make
direct reading of
the rod difficult or
impossible.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Other Forms of Targets

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Telescope
• It is a metal tube
containing a system
of lenses which are
used to fix the
direction of the line
of sight and is
magnifying the
apparent size of the
objects in its field of
view.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Parts of Telescope

Objective Lens

Eyepiece

Cross Hairs

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Cross Hair Ring or Reticule

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Types of Telescope
1. Internal Focusing Telescope
• It has an additional auxiliary lens which moves
back and forth between the objective and the
cross hairs as the focusing screw it turned.

2. External Focusing Telescope

• It has an objective lens mounted on a sleeve
which moves back and forth in the telescope
barrel as an object is brought into focus.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Eyepiece
Auxiliary
Reticule Lens Objective Lens

dust cap

Internal Focusing Telescope

Eyepiece
Draw Tube
Reticule Objective Lens

External Focusing Telescope

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Magnification of the Telescope

• It is the ratio of the apparent size of an

object viewed through a telescope to its
size as seen by the unaided eye from the
same distance.
• It may also be taken as the amount by
which an object is increased in apparent
size.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Level Vial
• It is sealed graduated glass tube containing some
amount of liquid and a small air bubble.
• It is used to determine the direction of gravity.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Coincidence Bubble

• Type of bubble used on

most modern precise
instruments such as the
tilting and automatic
level.
• It employs an optical
Appearance of Bubbles Before Centering
device which splits the And Direction Taken in Turning the
bubble longitudinally, Leveling Screws
then turns one end
around to make it appear
adjacent to the other
end.

Appearance of bubbles
when Centered

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Tripods
• It serves as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it is
set up.
• It consists of three wooden or aluminum legs which are securely
fastened the tripod head by means of a hinged joint.

Fixed-Leg Tripod Extension Tripod

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Setting up the Level
• The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or
desired location.
• Solid ground should be selected when setting up the
instrument.
• Tripod legs are spread so that the foot plate will be
approximately horizontal and they should be pushed
firmly into the ground to make it stand stable.
• The preferable and convenient of set up is one which will
enable the instrumentman to sight through the telescope
without having to stretch or stoop.
• The legs of the tripod when setting up on hillsides or
along a slope, one leg should extend uphill and two legs
downhill.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling the Instrument
1. Instruments with Four Leveling Screws
Direction of Bubble Movement

Motion of
Left Thumb

Direction
of Bubble
Movement

Motion of Motion of
Left Thumb Right Thumb
Motion of
Right Thumb

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Leveling the Instrument
2. Instruments with Three Leveling Screws
Direction of Bubble Movement

Motion of
Left Thumb

Direction
Of Bubble
Movement

Motion of Motion of
Left Thumb Right Thumb

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Holding the Leveling Rod
• The leveling rod is held on a point by a
rodman when a sight is to be taken on it.
• The rod be held plumb when the reading
is made.
• The instrumentman checks the rod by
observing through the telescope and
noting if its is held parallel to the vertical
cross hair.
• The rod is lightly supported between the
fingers of both hands and is allowed to
balance on its own weight.
• The fingers must not cover the face of
the rod.
• The graduations of the rod are always
clearly visible and not obstructed.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Taking a Rod Reading
POSITION THE ROD

FOCUS ON THE ROD

READ THE ROD

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Determining Difference in
Elevation
Rod

Horizontal Horizontal
Line of Sight Line of Sight
A B

A
B
Difference in
Elevation between
A and B

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Length of Sight
• It is always best to take sights at moderate
lengths to attain speed and accuracy in leveling
work.
• A very short or extremely long sights should be
avoided.
• The most suitable sight lengths will depend upon
the required degree of precision, the surface of
the terrain, the type of instrument used, and upon
the distance at which the rod remains readable to
the instrumentman.
• It should not exceed 90 m where elevations to the
nearest 0.001 m are desired.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Waving the Rod

• Is used to determine whether the rod is plumb

when a reading is taken on it.
• It is accomplished by slowly waving or tilting
the top of the rod through the arc, first toward
the instrument and then away from it.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Carrying the Instruments
• The levels should always be kept in a box when it is not used.
• It should remain in its carrying case when transported to the
work site or when ot has to be moved to another distant set
up or over rough terrain.
• The level does not detached from the tripod when transferring
to another nearby station provided that it is securely fastened
to the tripod and is carried properly.
• In open spaces, the level may be carried on the shoulder in
preferably a near-vertical position.
• The spindle is clamped slightly so that the telescope does not
rotates when carried.
• In densely forested areas, the level should be cradled
between the arms and held close to one’s chest left or right
chest.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Arm and Hand Signals
Move Right or Left Plumb the Rod

Give a Sight Establish a Turning Point

All Right This is a Turning Point

This a Point Wave the Rod

Move Back Face the Rod

Pick Up Instruments Reverse the Rod

Raise or ( Lower ) Target Move Forward
Come In Use the Long Rod
GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Sources of Error in Leveling
1. Instrumental Errors
– these errors are attributed to imperfections
in the instruments either from faults in their
manufacture or from improper adjustment.
Examples:
• Instruments out of Adjustmennt
• Rod not Standard Length
• Defective Tripod

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Sources of Error in Leveling
2. Personal Errors
- occur largely due to the limitations of the senses of touch,
sight or hearing of individuals, skills, training, and teamwork
of the members of a leveling party.
Examples:
• Bubble not Centered
• Parallax
• Faulty Rod Readings
• Rod not Held Plumb
• Incorrect Setting of Target
• Unequal Backsight and Foresight

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Sources of Error in Leveling
3. Natural Errors
– errors due to natural sources and could not be
totally removed but their effects can be reduced by
applying corrections and using good judgment.
Examples:
• Curvature of the Earth
• Atmospheric Refraction
• Temperature Variations
• Wind
• Settlement of the Instrument
• Faulty Turning Points

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Common Mistakes in
Leveling
The following are some of the most
commonly made mistakes in leveling
work:
1. Misreading the Rod
2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turning Points

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Adjustment of the
Dumpy Level
The following are the three field adjustments often required
for a dumpy level:
1. Adjustment of the Cross Hair
– the reticule or the cross hair ring is adjusted to see
to it the horizontal cross hair lies in a plane
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument
2. Adjustment of the Level Vial
– is to make the axis of the level vial perpendicular to
the vertical axis of the instrument.
3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight
– the line of sight is adjusted to make it parallel to the
axis of the level vial.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 TWO-PEG TEST
Two Peg Test

d
L2
c
d’
L1 b
a b’

TDE B
A

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
where:
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up near A.
b = rod reading on B with instrument set up near A.
c = rod reading on B with instrument set up near B.
d = rod reading on A with instrument set up near B.

The computed difference in elevation for the two set ups

are:
DEa = ( a-b ) and DEb = ( d-c )
Note: If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line
of sight is in adjustment.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 TDEa = a – (b-e) and TDEb = (d-e) - c
TDEa  TDEb
TDE 
2
a (b e) (d e)c

2
a b e d ec

2
(a b) (d c)

2
If DEa is not equal to Deb, the correct rod reading at A with
the instrument still set up near B is :
( a b)  ( d c )
d '  c  TDE  c 
2
GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
ALTERNATE PROCEDURE FOR TWO-
ALTERNATE PROCEDURE FOR
PEG TEST
TWO-PEG TEST

L2 en
c’ d’
ef
c I
L1 d

a b
P

A TDE
M
B
Da (Db-Da)

Db

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
where:
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up at M.
b = rod reading on B with instrument set up at M.
c = rod reading on A with instrument set up at P.
d = rod reading on B with instrument set up at P.
c’ = correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight.
d’ = correct rod reading on B for a horizontal line of sight.
Da = horizontal distance between points A and P.
Db = horizontal distance between points B and P.
en = error in the reading on the near rod ( held at A )
ef = error in the reading on the far rod ( held at B )
I = inclination of the line of sight in the net distance.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
The true difference in elevation between the two pegs:
TDE = DEm = a – b
DEp = c – d
The inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal is:
I = DEm – DEp = ( a – b ) – ( c – d )
The error in the reading on the far rod at B can be
determined by proportion as follows:

ef Db Db
 or e f  (I )
I Db  Da Db  Da

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
The correct rod reading d’ at the far rod ( held at B ) for a horizontal
line of sight. Thus,
d’ = d – ef
Similarly, the error in the reading on the near rod at A is:

en Da Da
 or en  (I )
I Db  Da Db  Da
The correct rod reading c’ at the near (held at A) for a horizontal
line of sight. Thus,
c’ = c – en
To check the computation, we have:
( a – b ) = ( c’ – d’ )

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Example # 1:
1. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following observation
were taken:

Rod Reading Instrument Set up Instrument Set

Near A up Near B

on point A 1. 505 m. 0. 938 m.

on point B 2. 054 m. 1. 449 m.

• Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment.

• If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod
reading on A with the instrument still set near B.
• Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
• Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should be adjusted.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 TWO-PEG TEST
Illustration:

L1
b
a L2
d c

B
A

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
 Example # 2:
In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following observations are taken:

Rod Reading Instrument Set up Instrument Set up

near M near P
on point A 0. 296 1. 563
on point B 0. 910 2. 140

Point M is equidistant from both A and B, while P is 2.50 m. away from A

along the extension of line AB and 79.27 m. from B.
a. determine the true difference in elevation between points A and B.
b. Check if the line of sight is in adjustment.
c. If the instrument needs to be adjusted, determine the “false” difference in
elevation, inclination of the line of sight, and the error in the reading on the
far rod.
d. With the level still set up at P, determine the rod reading on B to which the
line of sight should be adjusted
e. Perform the customary check.

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances
ALTERNATE PROCEDURE FOR TWO-
Illustration:
PEG TEST

L2

c=1.563 m. L1
d=2.140 m.

P a=0.296 m. b=0.910 m.

A
M
B
La=2.5 m. (Lb-La) = 76.77 m.

Lb = 79.27

GE 100 Measurement of
Lecture No. 3
Elementary Surveying Vertical Distances