Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22

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Industrial Crops and Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Review

Oil palm fiber (OPF) and its composites: A review

S. Shinoj a , R. Visvanathan b , S. Panigrahi c,∗ , M. Kochubabu a
a
Directorate of Oil Palm Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Pedavegi, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh 534 450, India
b
Department of Food & Agricultural Process Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 003, India
c
Department of Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N5A9, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Twenty first century has witnessed remarkable achievements in green technology in material science
Received 14 October 2009 through the development of biocomposites. Oil palm fiber (OPF) extracted from the empty fruit bunches
Received in revised form is proven as a good raw material for biocomposites. The cellulose content of OPF is in the range of 43%–65%
16 September 2010
and lignin content is in the range of 13%–25%. A compilation of the morphology, chemical constituents
Accepted 17 September 2010
and properties of OPF as reported by various researchers are collected and presented in this paper. The
suitability of OPF in various polymeric matrices such as natural rubber, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride,
phenol formaldehyde, polyurethane, epoxy, polyester, etc. to form biocomposites as reported by various
Keywords:
Oil palm fiber
researchers in the recent past is compiled. The properties of these composites viz., physical, mechanical,
Empty fruit bunch water sorption, thermal, degradation, electrical properties, etc. are summerised. Oil palm fiber loading
Biocomposite in some polymeric matrices improved the strength of the resulting composites whereas less strength
Fiber properties was observed in some cases. The composites became more hydrophilic upon addition of OPF. However
Composite properties treatments on fiber surface improved the composite properties. Alkali treatment on OPF is preferred for
Hybrid biocomposite improving the fiber–matrix adhesion compared to other treatments. The effect of various treatments on
the properties of OPF and that of resulting composites reported by various researchers is compiled in this
paper. The thermal stability, dielectric constant, electrical conductivity, etc. of the composites improved
upon incorporation of OPF. The strength properties reduced upon weathering/degradation. Sisal fiber
was reported as a good combination with OPF in hybrid composites.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Oil palm fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1. Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2. Morphology and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3. Surface treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Oil palm fiber composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1. Oil palm fiber-natural rubber composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.2. Water absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.3. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.4. Electrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2. Oil palm fiber-polypropylene (PP) composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2. Water absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.3. Degradation/weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3. Oil palm fiber-polyurethane (PU) composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2. Water absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.3. Degradation/weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 306 9665312; fax: +1 306 9665334.

E-mail addresses: drrviswanathan@gmail.com (R. Visvanathan), sap382@mail.usask.ca (S. Panigrahi).

0926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.09.009
8 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22

3.4. Oil palm fiber-polyvinyl chloride (PVC) composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.4.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4.2. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5. Oil palm fiber-polyester composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.2. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.3. Water absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.4. Degradation/weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6. Oil palm fiber-phenol formaldehyde (PF) composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6.2. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6.3. Water absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6.4. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6.5. Degradation/weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7. Oil palm fiber-polystyrene composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8. Oil palm fiber-epoxy composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1. Introduction ing the potential of this natural fiber, a number of research studies
have been undertaken in the recent past on its characterization and
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the highest yielding edible utilization, particularly in biocomposite applications.
oil crop in the world. It is cultivated in 42 countries in 11 million ha Biocomposites are defined as the materials made by combining
worldwide (Khalil et al., 2008b). West Africa, South east asian coun- natural fiber and petroleum derived non-biodegradable polymer or
tries like Malaysia and Indonesia, Latin american countries and biodegradable polymer. Biocomposites derived from natural fiber
India are the major oil palm cultivating countries (Joseph et al., and crop/bioderived plastic (biopolymer/bioplastic) are likely to
2006). 1 ha oil palm plantation annually produces about 55 ton of be more eco-friendly and such composites are termed as green
dry matter in the form of fibrous biomass while yielding 5.5 ton of composites (John and Thomas, 2008). Use of natural fiber as filler
oil (Hasamudin and Soom, 2002). From oil palm tree, lignocellu- in polymeric matrix offers several advantages over conventional
losic fibers can be extracted from trunk, frond, fruit mesocarp and inorganic fillers with regard to their low energy cost, positive con-
empty fruit bunch (EFB). Empty fruit bunch is the fibrous mass left tribution to global carbon budget (Hill and Khalil, 2000b), greater
behind after separating the fruits from sterilized (steam treatment deformability, biodegradability (Rozman et al., 2003), combustibil-
at 294 kPa for 1 h) fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Among the various ity, ease of recyclability (Sreekala et al., 2004), good thermal and
fiber sources in an oil palm tree, EFB has potential to yield up to insulation properties (Hariharan and Khalil, 2005), lower den-
73% fibers (Wirjosentono et al., 2004) and hence it is preferable in sity, less abrasiveness to processing equipment, environmentally
terms of availability and cost (Rozman et al., 2000). Palm oil indus- friendly nature, lower cost (Raju et al., 2008), renewable nature,
try has to dispose about 1.1 ton of EFB per every ton of oil produced non-toxicity, flexible usage, high specific strength (Yousif and
(Karina et al., 2008). Some quantity of this highly cellulosic mate- Tayeb, 2008), good electrical resistance, good acoustic insulation
rial is currently used as boiler fuel (Sreekala et al., 1997), in the property, worldwide availability, etc. Apart from these, natural fiber
preparation of fertilizers or as mulching material (Singh et al., 1982) has the additional advantage of being composted or the calorific
whereas major portion is left in mill premises itself. When left in value recovered at the end of their life cycle, which is not possible
field, these waste materials create great environmental problems with glass fibers (Hill et al., 1998).
(Sreekala et al., 1997; Law et al., 2007). A view of EFB wastes piled There is a growing interest on natural fiber composites in various
up for disposal in a palm oil mill in India is shown in Fig. 1. Realiz- fields due to these advantages. Automotive giants such as Daim-
ler chrysler use flax–sisal fiber mat embedded in an epoxy matrix
for the door panels of Mercedes benz E-class model (John and
Thomas, 2008). Coconut fibers bonded with natural rubber latex
are being used in seats of the Mercedes benz A-class model. The
Cambridge Industry (an automotive industry in MI, USA) is making
flax fiber-reinforced polypropylene for Freightliner century COE C-
2 heavy trucks and also rear shelf trim panels of the 2000 model
Chevrolet impala. Besides automotive industry, lignocellulosic fiber
composites have also found their application in building and con-
struction industries such as for panels, ceilings, and partition boards
(Hariharan and Khalil, 2005). Nowadays fiber-reinforced plastic
composites find applications in fields such as aerospace, automo-
tive parts, sports and recreation equipment, boats, office products,
machinery, etc. (Sreekala et al., 2002a).
This article is a compilation of the research developments in the
recent past on characterization of the fiber extracted from oil palm
empty fruit bunch, its utilization in biocomposites and their prop-
erties. Various methods to improve compatibility of the fiber and
Fig. 1. View of EFB wastes piled up in a palm oil mill premise. polymeric matrix and its effect on properties of fibers and result-
 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22 9

ing composites are also discussed. The term oil palm fiber is used in
place of oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber throughout this paper for
convenience.

2. Oil palm fiber

2.1. Extraction

Oil palm fiber (OPF) is extracted from EFB by retting process. The
available retting processes are mechanical retting (hammering),
chemical retting (boiling with chemicals), steam/vapor/dew ret-
ting and water/microbial retting. Water retting is the most popular
process among these (Raju et al., 2008). Many researchers followed
retting method for extraction of the fiber to use in their experi-
ments (Sreekala et al., 1997; Sreekala et al., 2005; Joseph et al.,
2006). Mechanical extraction is environmentally friendly whereas
the other methods pollute water bodies. A machine for extraction
of fiber from oil palm EFB was developed by Jayashree et al. (2002).
It decorticates EFB, separate pith materials and grade fiber into dif-
ferent fractions. A sketch of FFB and cross section of EFB showing
fiber arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.

2.2. Morphology and properties

Oil palm fiber is hard and tough, which shows similarity to coir
fibers (Sreekala et al., 1997; Ibrahim et al., 2005). The scanning elec-
tron microscopic (SEM) image (Khalil et al., 2008b) of the transverse
section of OPF (Fig. 3) shows a lacuna like portion in the middle sur-
rounded by porous tubular structures (Sreekala et al., 2002b). The
pores on fiber surface have an average diameter of 0.07 ␮m. This
porous surface morphology is useful for better mechanical inter-
locking with matrix resin in composite fabrication (Sreekala et al.,
1997). However the porous surface structure also facilitates pene-
tration of water into the fiber by capillary action, especially when Fig. 2. Sketch of (A) oil palm FFB (B) Cross section of EFB showing fiber arrangement.
it is exposed to water (Hill and Khalil, 2000b). The vessel elements
in cross sectional view of the fibers are clearly seen in the longitu- surface. The silica bodies, though hard, can be dislodged mechani-
dinal view also (Fig. 4). Some researchers are of opinion that each cally, leaving behind perforated silica-crater, which would enhance
fiber is a bundle of many fibers (Yousif and Tayeb, 2007; Yousif and penetration of matrix in composite fabrication. This results bet-
Tayeb, 2008) indicating that these vessel elements are nothing but ter fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion. The chemical composition
individual fibers. and physico-mechanical properties of OPF as reported by various
Granules of starch are found in the interior of the vascular bun- researchers are summerised in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
dle as shown in Fig. 4 (Law et al., 2007). Silica bodies are also High cellulose content (Sreekala et al., 2004) and high tough-
found in great number on the fiber strand. They attach them- ness value (John et al., 2008) of OPF make it suitable for composite
selves to circular craters which are spread uniformly over the fiber applications. However presence of hydroxyl group makes the fibers

Fig. 3. SEM images of transverse sections of OPF (4×). F: fiber; L: lacuna.

10 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22

hydrophilic, causing poor interfacial adhesion with hydrophobic

polymer matrices during composite fabrication. This may lead to
poor physical and mechanical properties of the composite (Raju et
al., 2008). Oil palm fibers contain 4.5% of residual oil (AbuBakar et
al., 2006). The fiber–matrix compatibility is adversely affected by
oil residues, the ester components of which may affect coupling
efficiency between fiber and polymer matrix as well as the inter-
action between fiber and coupling agents (Rozman et al., 2001c).
The fiber properties can be improved substantially through surface
modifications. Chemical treatments decrease hydrophilic property
of the fibers and also significantly increase wettability with poly-
mer matrix (Khalid et al., 2008b). There are number of treatment
methods on OPF to improve its properties and make it compatible
with polymeric matrices.

2.3. Surface treatments

Fig. 4. SEM image of longitudinal section of OPF (750×). The treatments to improve fiber–matrix adhesion in composites
include chemical modification of fiber (using anhydrides, epoxies,
isocyanates, etc.), grafting of polymers into lignocellulosic and use

Table 1
Chemical composition of OPF.

Constituents Range References

Cellulose (%) 42.7–65 Khoo and Lee (1991), Sreekala et al. (1997), Hill and Khalil (2000b), Law et al. (2007), Khalil et al.
(2008b)
Lignin (%) 13.2–25.31 Ismail et al. (1997), Sreekala et al. (1997), Hill and Khalil (2000b), Wirjosentono et al. (2004),
AbuBakar et al. (2006), Khalil et al. (2007a), Rozman et al. (2007)
Hemicellulose (%) 17.1–33.5 Hill and Khalil (2000b), Khalil et al. (2007a), Law et al. (2007), Khalid et al. (2008a)
Holocellulose (%) 68.3–86.3 Khoo and Lee (1991), Ismail et al. (1997), Law and Jiang (2001), AbuBakar et al. (2006), Law et al.
(2007), Rozman et al. (2007), Khalid et al. (2008a), Khalil et al. (2008b)
Ash content (%) 1.3–6.04 Ismail et al. (1997), Sreekala et al. (1997), Law and Jiang (2001), Wirjosentono et al. (2004),
AbuBakar et al. (2006), Khalil et al. (2007a), Law et al. (2007), Rozman et al. (2007), Khalil et al.
(2008b)
Extractives in hot water (100 ◦ C) (%) 2.8–14.79 Khoo and Lee (1991), Ismail et al. (1997), Sreekala et al. (1997), Law and Jiang (2001),
Wirjosentono et al. (2004), Law et al. (2007), Khalid et al. (2008a)
Solubles in cold water (30 ◦ C) (%) 8–11.46 Sreekala et al. (1997), Wirjosentono et al. (2004)
Alkali soluble (%) 14.5–31.17 Khoo and Lee (1991), Ismail et al. (1997), Sreekala et al. (1997), Law and Jiang (2001),
Wirjosentono et al. (2004), Law et al. (2007)
Alfa-cellulose (%) 41.9–60.6 Ismail et al. (1997), AbuBakar et al. (2006), Khalid et al. (2008a)
Alcohol–benzene solubility (%) 2.7–12 Ismail et al. (1997), Sreekala et al. (1997), Wirjosentono et al. (2004), Khalid et al. (2008a)
Pentosan (%) 17.8–20.3 Ismail et al. (1997), Khalil et al. (2007a)
Arabinose (%) 2.5 Law et al. (2007)
Xylose (%) 33.1
Mannose (%) 1.3
Galactose (%) 1.0
Glucose (%) 66.4
Silica (EDAX) (%) 1.8
Copper (g/g) 0.8
Calcium (g/g) 2.8
Manganese (g/g) 7.4
Iron (g/g) 10.0
Sodium (g/g) 11.0

Table 2
Physico-mechanical properties of OPF.

Property Range References

Diameter (␮m) 150–500 Sreekala and Thomas (2003), Bismarck et al. (2005), Jacob et al. (2006b)
Microfibrillar angle (◦ ) 46 Bismarck et al. (2005)
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.7–1.55 Sreekala and Thomas (2003), Kalam et al. (2005), Khalil et al. (2007a), Rao and Rao (2007)
Tensile strength (MPa) 50–400 Sreekala et al. (2004), Bismarck et al. (2005), Kalam et al. (2005), AbuBakar et al. (2006), Yousif and
Tayeb (2008)
Young’s modulus (GPa) 0.57–9 Sreekala et al. (1997), Bismarck et al. (2005), AbuBakar et al. (2006), Jacob et al. (2006b), Khalil et
al. (2007a), Yousif and Tayeb (2007)
Elongation at break (%) 4–18 Bismarck et al. (2005), Kalam et al. (2005), AbuBakar et al. (2006), Jacob et al. (2006b), Khalil et al.
(2007a), Yousif and Tayeb (2007)
Tensile strain (%) 13.71 Rao and Rao (2007)
Length-weighted fiber length (mm) 0.99 Law et al. (2007)
Cell-wall thickness (␮m) 3.38
Fiber coarseness (mg/m) 1.37
Fines (<0.2 mm) (%) 27.6
Rigidity index, (T/D)3 × 10−4 55.43
 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22 11

Table 3
Effect of surface treatments on properties of OPF.

Treatment Effect on OPF

Mercerization Amorphous waxy cuticle layer leaches out.

Latex coating Partially masks the pores on the fiber surface.
␥ irradiation Partially eliminates the porous structure of the fiber and causes microlevel disintegration. It degrades mechanical
properties considerably.
Silane treatment Imparts a coating on fiber surface
Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) treatment Makes fiber surface irregular as particles are adhered to surface.
Acetylation Removes waxy layer from the surface and makes the fiber hydrophobic.
Peroxide treatment Fibrillation is observed due to leaching out of waxes, gums and pectic substances.
Permanganate treatment Changes the colour and makes fibers soft. Porous structure is observed after treatment.
Acrylation Imparts a coating on fiber surface and removes pits containing silica bodies and keeps surface irregular. It improves
mechanical properties of fibers.
Silane treatment Keeps the fiber surface undulating and improves mechanical properties
Titanate treatment Smoothens fiber surface.
Alkali treatment Makes the surface pores wider and fiber become thinner due to dissolution of natural and artificial impurities.
Benzoylation Imparts a rough surface to the fibers and makes pores prominent, which helps improving the mechanical interlocking
with matrix resin.
Oil extraction Imparts bright colour to the fiber. Removal of oil layer exposes surface pits and makes surface coarse.

Compiled from: Sreekala et al. (1997), Hill and Khalil (2000b), Sreekala et al. (2000), Rozman et al. (2001c), Zakaria and Poh (2002), Agarwal et al. (2003) and AbuBakar et al.
(2006).

of compatabilizers and coupling agents (Khalil et al., 2001). Various
treatments on some lignocellulosic fibers like physical, physico-
chemical, chemical grafting, etc. to improve their properties were
reported by Belgacem and Gandini (2005). John and Anandjiwala
(2008) reviewed the developments in chemical modification and
characterization of natural fiber–polymeric composites and they
concluded that alkali treatment is the most common and efficient
method of chemical modification to treat natural fibers.
Alkali treatment reduces OPF weight by 22%, while silane treat-
ment reduces weight by 6%. The fiber diameter also decreased
upon chemical treatment (Sreekala et al., 1997). Thermal degrada-
tion of treated OPF revealed that initial degradation temperature
was higher for alkali treated fibers (350 ◦ C), whereas untreated
and acetylated fibers degraded at 325 ◦ C and silane treatment
increased the degradation temperature to 365 ◦ C. Chemical treat-
ment reduces mechanical strength of fibers; however, strain to
break of the fibers increased upon all chemical treatments except
silane treatment. Young’s modulus of OPF increased with mercer-
ization and silane treatments (Sreekala and Thomas, 2003). The
physico-mechanical properties of OPF improved to a large extent
when treated with bulk monomer allyl methacrylate (AMA) and
subsequently cured under ultraviolet radiation (Ashraf et al., 2008).
It was also observed that treatment of OPF with urea in combination
with AMA improved both soil and water weathering characteris-
tics. The response of individual fibers to applied stress is important
as load applied to composite material is transferred from matrix to
fiber. The stress-deformation behaviour of treated OPF was found
intermediate between brittle and amorphous (Sreekala et al., 2000).
Chemical modifications lead to major changes in the fibrillar
structure of fibers and remove the amorphous components caus-
ing change in the deformation behaviour. Brittleness of the fiber is
substantially reduced upon treatments. Thermo-gravimetric anal-
ysis of grafted OPF indicated that grafting induces thermal stability
(Raju et al., 2007). Water sorption characteristics of treated OPF
were studied in detail by Sreekala and Thomas (2003). Equilibrium
mole percent uptake of water at 30 ◦ C was 13.37% for untreated
fibers, which reduced to 7.26% (mercerization), 7.65% (latex coat-
ing), 7.36% (␥ irradiation), 8.51% (silane treatment), 6.94% (toluene
diisocyanate treatment), 7.48% (acetylation) and 7.44% (peroxide
treatment). Diffusion coefficient, sorption coefficient and perme-
ability coefficient also decreased.
Interfacial shear strength (ISS) is one of the important param-
eters controlling the toughness and strength of composites. It
depends on fiber surface treatment, modification of matrix and
other factors affecting properties of fiber–matrix interface. The
ISS of OPF was 1.15 MPa, 1.5 MPa, 1.8 MPa, 1.8 MPa and 1.5 MPa,
respectively for polystyrene, metset (unsaturated polyester with
33% styrene content), west system (epoxy), epiglass and crystic
(unsaturated polyester with more than 45% styrene content) matrix
systems (Khalil et al., 2001). The acetylation treatment improved
ISS of OPF in all these matrices. Improvement in ISS of OPF in
polystyrene matrix upon acetylation was more prominent than
that of other matrices. Chemical modification of fibers creates more
transactive surface molecules that would readily form bonds with
matrix. These results indicate that ISS of OPF in thermoset matrix
was higher than that in the thermoplastic matrix due to higher
wettability of thermosets than thermoplastics. The lignin content
and other main polymerics (hemicellulose, cellulose, etc.) are reac-
tive to thermoset than thermoplastic, thereby improving wetting
between the fiber and the matrix leading to higher ISS values with
thermoset matrix.
The effect of some of the treatments on surface properties of
OPF as reported by various researchers is summarized in Table 3.
3. Oil palm fiber composites
Many studies were conducted in the recent past to develop
OPF filled both thermoset and thermoplastic composites and to
characterize them for mechanical, physical, electrical, thermal and
biodegradation properties. Most of the studies were focussed on
the behaviour of the composites to different mechanical loading
viz., tensile, flexural, impact and static, which are of great impor-
tance in structural and load-bearing applications. Studies on stress
relaxation and creep behaviour for predicting long-term mechani-
cal performance, dimensional stability of load-bearing structures
and retention of clamping force were also conducted on com-
posites (Sreekala et al., 2001b). Crystallization kinetics of some
of the composites developed was also studied for using them
in high and low temperature applications. Water absorption and
swelling behaviour of composites for applications in packaging,
building industry, waste water treatment, etc. have also been stud-
ied. Electrical properties of composites for applications in electrical
insulators, electronic and electrical components, etc. have been
attempted. Biodegradation study on OPF composites is important
as the composites need resistance to fungal attack for use in out-
door and to compost the product rather than burning towards end
of the life cycle (Khalil and Ismail, 2001).
Most of the researchers followed standard methods for testing
the composites, whereas the test methods were not mentioned in
some papers. A compilation of the methods followed for conduct-
12 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22

Table 4
Standard methods followed for conducting mechanical testing of OPF composites.

Authors Tensile strength Tear strength Flexural strength Impact strength Hardness

AbuBakar et al. (2005) – – ASTM D790 NS –

AbuBakar et al. (2006) – – ASTM D790 NS –
Amin and Badri (2007) – – ASTM D 790-86 ASTM D 256-88 –
Badri et al. (2005) – BS 4370:Part 1: 1988 – –
Badri et al. (2006) – – ASTM D790-86 ASTM D256-88 ASTM D2240
Bakar and Baharulrazi (2008) ASTM D638 (Type IV) – – ASTM D256–88 –
Hariharan and Khalil (2005) ASTM D638-76 – – ASTM D256 –
Hill and Khalil (2000a) BS2782: part 10: 1003: 1977 – BS 2782: part 3: 335A: 1978 – –
Hill and Khalil (2000b) BS2782 – BS2782 BS2782 –
Ismail et al. (1997) BS 903 part A2 BS 903 part A3 – – ASTM 2240
Jacob et al., 2004 ASTM D 412-68 ASTM D 624-54 – – –
John et al. (2008) ASTM D412-98 ASTM D624-00 – – ASTM D2240-03
Joseph et al., 2006 ASTM D 412-68 – – – –
Kalam et al. (2005) NS – – – –
Karina et al. (2008) – – ASTM D 790 – –
Khalid et al. (2008a) ASTM 1882L – ASTM D790–97 ASTM D235 –
Khalid et al. (2008b) ASTM 1822L – ASTM D790-97 ASTM D235 –
Khalil and Ismail (2001) BS 2782: Part 10 – – BS 2782: Part 3: 359:1984 –
Khalil et al., 2007a ASTMD638 – ASTMD790 ASTMD-256 –
Khalil et al. (2000) BS 2782: Part 10: 1003: 1977 – – BS 2782: Part 3: 359; 1984 –
Khalil et al. (2007b) JIS A5905 – JIS A5905 JIS A5905 –
Khalil et al. (2008a) ASTM D 638 – ASTM D 790 ASTM D 256 –
Raju et al. (2008) BS6746 – ASTM D 790-97 ASTM D 256-97. ASTM D2240-89
Rozman et al. (2000) ASTM D618 – ASTM D790 ASTM D256 –
Rozman et al. (2001a) ASTM D 3039 – – – –
Rozman et al. (2001b) ASTM D618 – ASTM D790 – –
Rozman et al. (2001c) ASTM D618 – ASTM D790 – –
Rozman et al. (2002) – – ASTM D 790 ASTM D 256 –
Rozman et al. (2003) – – ASTM D790 – –
Rozman et al. (2007) ASTM D 3039 – ASTM D 790 ASTM D 256 –
Sreekala et al. (2000) NS – NS NS –
Sreekala et al. (2002a) ASTM D 638-76 – ASTM D 790 ASTM D 256 ASTM D 2240
Wirjosentono et al. (2004) ASTM D 638-72 type IV – – – –
Zakaria and Poh (2002) – – ASTM D790-91 – –

NS—Not specified.

ing mechanical tests on OPF composites is presented in Table 4.
Standard methods followed by different researchers for conducting
physical, thermal and degradation properties of OPF composites are
compiled and given in Table 5. However the dynamic mechanical
analysis, abrasion tests, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity,
dielectric constant and thermo-gravimetric analysis were con-
ducted as per no particular standard.
The composite properties are largely dependent on matrix
properties and hence selection of the matrix is based on desired
end properties of the composites. For a particular matrix–fiber
combination, parameters like fiber content, orientation, size and
treatments affect fiber–matrix bonding and end properties. Oil
palm fiber has been tried in various matrices including natural
rubber (NR), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), phenol
formaldehyde (PF), polyurethane (PU), epoxy, polyester, etc.
3.1. Oil palm fiber-natural rubber composites
Natural rubber is derived from latex obtained from the sap of
rubber trees. Its use ranges from household articles to industrial
products. Tire and tube industries are the largest consumers of
rubber and the remaining are taken up by general rubber goods
(GRG) sector. A number of research studies have been carried out
in the recent past on fabrication and characterization of OPF-NR
composites.
3.1.1. Mechanical properties
3.1.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. The mechanical properties of OPF-
sisal-NR and OPF-NR composites reported by Jacob et al. (2004)
and Joseph et al. (2006) are summarised in Table 6. Incorporation
of OPF in NR matrix decreased tensile strength and elongation at

Table 5
Standard methods for testing physical, thermal and degradation properties of OPF composites.

Authors Water absorption DSC Degradation Density

Agarwal et al. (2000) – NS – –

Amin and Badri (2007) ASTM D 570-8 – – –
Badri et al. (2005) – – – BS 4370: Part 1:
1988 (method 2)
Badri et al. (2006) ASTM D570-8 – – –
Bakar and Baharulrazi (2008) ASTM D570 ASTM D 3418–82 – –
Hill and Khalil (2000a) – – BS: EN ISO 846: 1997 –
Karina et al. (2008) NS – – NS
Khalil et al. (2000) BS 2782: Part 4. Method 430A – NS –
Khalil et al. (2007a) ASTMD5229 – – –
Khalil et al. (2007b) JIS A5908-1994 – – –
Sreekala et al. (2001a) NS – – –
Sreekala et al. (2002a) – – – ASTM D 792
Sreekala et al. (2004) – – NS –

NS: Not specified.

 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22 13

Table 6 tramine (5:2:5) was found as the best combination of bonding

Mechanical properties of OPF-NR and OPF-sisal-NR composites at different fiber
agents for OPF reinforced in NR matrix (Ismail et al., 1997). Alkali
contents.
treatment on fiber increased the tensile modulus, tensile strength
Property Fiber content Composite and tear strength of OPF-NR composites and the properties were
(phr)
better when NaOH of 5% concentration was used (Joseph et al.,
OPF-sisal-NRa OPF-NR (Joseph 2006). At higher alkali concentrations, excessive removal of bind-
(Jacob et al., 2004) et al., 2006) ing materials such as lignin, hemicellulose, etc. happens causing
Tensile strength 5 – 19.2 degradation of the fiber properties and obviously the compos-
(MPa) 10 1.75 – ite quality. Alkali and fluro silane treatments on fibers improved
30 7.5 – the fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion in OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid
50 3.25 7.28
composites (Jacob et al., 2006b). The tensile strength of OPF-sisal
Elongation at break 0 875 –
(%)a 5 – 1082
fiber-NR hybrid composites was in the range of 6–11 MPa when
10 650 – various treatments were done, while that of pure NR was 14 MPa
30 800 496 (John et al., 2008). The shore A hardness of NR was 33 whereas that
50 – – for hybrid composite was in the range of 40–82.
Tear strength 0 20 –
The storage modulus (E ) of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid com-
(MPa)b 50 30 –
posites increased when chemical treatments were done on fibers
a
b
OPF and sisal fiber in equal proportions. (Jacob et al., 2006a). Higher values of E were exhibited by the
The trend was not consistent at incremental fiber loadings.
composite prepared from fibers treated with 4% NaOH. Improved
interfacial adhesion and increased surface area of fibers on alkali
break. Natural rubber inherently possesses higher strength due to treatment lead to more crosslinks within rubber matrix–fiber net-
strain induced crystallization. When fibers are incorporated into work and thus the E increased. The loss modulus increased from
NR, regular arrangement of rubber molecules was disrupted and 634 MPa to 655 MPa when fibers were treated with 0.5% NaOH
hence the crystallization ability decreased causing reduction in (both contain 30 phr fibers). The loss modulus further increased to
tensile strength. The tensile strength of sisal fiber-OPF-NR hybrid 801 MPa when fibers were treated with 4% NaOH. However, treated
composite was less than that of pure gum (John et al., 2008). fiber composites exhibited low mechanical damping parameter
The stress relaxation rate of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid compos- (tan ımax ). The strong and rigid fiber–matrix interface due to
ites decreased with increase in fiber content (Jacob et al., 2006b). improved adhesion reduces molecular mobility in the interfacial
The relaxation in the gum compound was due to rubber molecules zone causing a decrease in tan ı. The presence of bonding agents
alone and it got hindered due to fiber–rubber interface when fibers results in more number of crosslinks being formed and alkali treat-
were added. The dynamic mechanical analysis of OPF-sisal fiber- ment on fibers leads to strengthening of these crosslinks. As a
NR composites indicated that the storage modulus increased with result, molecular motion along the rubber macromolecular chain
increase in fiber content at all temperatures (Jacob et al., 2006a). was severely hindered, leading to low damping characteristics.
The gum compound comprising of rubber phase gives the material
more flexibility resulting in low stiffness and hence low storage 3.1.2. Water absorption characteristics
modulus. The composite stiffness increases upon fiber addition 3.1.2.1. Effect of fiber loading. The water absorption percentage of
and fibers allow greater stress transfer at the interface resulting in OPF-NR composites increased with increase in fiber loading due
high storage modulus. The loss modulus also increased with fiber to the hydrophilicity of the fibers (Jacob et al., 2005). The water
loading, reaching a maximum of 756 MPa at 50 phr fiber loading absorption behaviour of NR changed from Fickian to non-Fickian
whereas gum has loss modulus of 415 MPa. The damping parame- upon addition of OPF due to the presence of microcracks as well as
ter decreased with fiber loading due to lower flexibility and lower due to the viscoelastic nature of the polymer. Jacob et al. (2005)
degrees of molecular motion caused by incorporation of fibers in also reported that the water uptake of OPF-NR composite was
rubber matrix. lower than that of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid biocomposite. The
incorporation of sisal fiber containing comparatively more holocel-
3.1.1.2. Effect of fiber size. Joseph et al. (2006) introduced the con- lulose (23%), which is highly hydrophilic caused more water uptake.
cept of critical fiber length in transmitting load from matrix to fiber. Moreover, the lignin content of OPF (19%) was higher than sisal fiber
At critical fiber length (lc), the load transmittance from matrix to (9%). Lignin being hydrophobic prevents absorption of water.
fiber was maximum. If lc is greater than the length of the fiber,
stressed fiber debonded from the matrix and the composite failed 3.1.2.2. Effect of fiber treatment. The water uptake by OPF-sisal
at a low load. The tensile properties of OPF-NR composites were fiber-NR hybrid composites reduced upon mercirization and alkali
maximum when fiber length was 6 mm and reduced at higher fiber treatment on fibers (Jacob et al., 2005). Mercerization improves
lengths. This was due to the fiber entanglements prevalent at higher the adhesive characteristics of fiber surface and alkali treatment
fiber length. The longitudinal orientation of fibers in NR matrix leads to fibrillation providing large surface area. This results bet-
resulted in higher tensile strength (19.2 MPa) than transverse ori- ter mechanical interlocking between fiber and matrix causing less
entation (17.5 MPa). When longitudinally oriented, the fibers were water absorption. Besides, the treatment with NaOH solution pro-
aligned in the direction of strain, causing uniform transmission of motes activation of hydroxyl groups of the cellulose by breaking
stress. When transversely oriented, the fibers were aligned perpen- hydrogen bond. Among three types of silane treatments given to
dicular to the direction of the load and they could not take part in the fibers viz., fluro silane, amino silane and vinyl silane, the maxi-
stress transfer. Elongation at break was also less for the transversely mum water uptake was exhibited upon vinyl silane treatment and
oriented fibers (940%) comparing to longitudinally oriented fibers less by flurosilane treatment.
(1082%).
3.1.3. Thermal properties
3.1.1.3. Effect of fiber treatment. Aqueous alkali treatment at Generally, incorporation of plant fibers into polymeric matrix
elevated temperatures and various bonding agents improved increases the thermal stability of the system. In the thermal analy-
the physical and adhesion properties of OPF-NR composites. sis of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid composites also, it was found that
Resorsinol-formaldehyde: precipitated silica: hexamethylenete- addition of more fibers resulted increase in thermal stability as indi-
14 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22
Fig. 5. Variation of dielectric constant with frequency as a function of OPF loading.
cated by the higher peak temperatures in the thermogram (Jacob
et al., 2006b). Increased thermal stability was also confirmed by
the decrease in the activation energy of the composites. The ther-
mal stability of NR-sisal fiber-OPF hybrid composites improved
upon chemical modification (Jacob et al., 2006b). However chemical
modification resulted in lower activation energy (for decomposi-
tion) values compared to the untreated fiber composite.
3.1.4. Electrical properties
3.1.4.1. Effect of fiber content. The dielectric constant of fiber-
reinforced composite system is higher due to the polarization
exerted by incorporation of lignocellulosic fibers. The dielectric
constant of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid composites at all the fre-
quencies tested increased with increase in fiber content as shown
in Fig. 5 (Jacob et al., 2006c). The presence of two lignocellulosic
fibers in NR, which is non-polar leads to the presence of polar
groups giving rise to dipole or orientation polarizability. The overall
polarizability of a composite is the sum of electronic, atomic and
orientation polarization resulting higher dielectric constant. Hence
the dielectric constant increased with increase in fiber loading at
all frequencies.
Volume resistivity of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid composites
decreased when the fiber content increased due to the presence
of polar groups (Jacob et al., 2006c). In polymers, higher propor-
tion of the current flows through the crystalline region whereas
passage of current in the amorphous region is due to the pres-
ence of moisture. At a frequency of 10 kHz, the volume resistivity
of pure gum reduced from 650 × 104  m to 150 × 104  m upon
addition of 50 phr OPF-sisal fiber combination. At low volume frac-
tions, there was a chaotic dispersion of fibers and the orientation
of fibers was too random to promote the flow of current. At high
volume fractions, the fiber population was adequate to bring about
uniform dispersion, facilitating flow of current.
Dissipation factor or loss tangent (tan ı) is defined as the ratio
of electrical power dissipated in a material to total power circulat-
ing in a circuit. The dissipation factor of NR matrix at a frequency
of 10 kHz increased from 0.002 to 0.035 upon addition of 50 phr
OPF-sisal fiber combination (Jacob et al., 2006c). The incorporation
of fibers in NR matrix disrupted regular arrangement of rubber
molecules leading to loss of crystallization ability. Furthermore,
addition of fibers enhances flow of current through amorphous
region due to their ability to absorb moisture. Therefore, addition
of fibers resulted in higher loss or higher amount of dissipation that
are associated with amorphous phase relaxations.
Fig. 6. Effect of fiber/cellulose loading on tensile strength of PP composites.
3.1.4.2. Effect of fiber treatment. Chemical modification of fibers
decreased the dielectric constant of OPF-sisal fiber-NR hybrid com-
posites (Jacob et al., 2006c). This was due to the decrease in
orientation polarization of the composites upon treatment. Chem-
ical treatment reduced the hydrophilicity of the fibers leading to
lowering of orientation polarization and subsequently the dielec-
tric constant decreased. Though alkali treatment yielded higher
dielectric constant comparing to silane treatment, higher concen-
tration of alkali reduced the dielectric constant. Alkali treatment
resulted in unlocking of hydrogen bonds making them more reac-
tive. In untreated state, the cellulosic-OH groups are relatively
unreactive as they form strong hydrogen bonds. In addition to this,
alkali treatment can lead to fibrillation i.e. breaking down of the
fibers into smaller ones. All these factors provide a large surface
area and give a better mechanical interlocking between the fiber
and matrix and lowered the overall polarity and hydrophilicity of
the system. This resulted in reduction of orientation polarization
and consequently dielectric constant of the composites.
3.2. Oil palm fiber-polypropylene (PP) composites
Polypropylene is an addition polymer made from the
monomer—propylene. It is a thermoplastic polymer mainly used in
packaging, stationery, laboratory equipments, automotive compo-
nents, etc. Resistance to many chemical solvents, bases and acids
makes it suitable for a variety of applications. Melt processing of
polypropylene can be achieved through extrusion and moulding.
However, the most common shaping technique followed is injec-
tion moulding.
3.2.1. Mechanical properties
3.2.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. Loading OPF in PP matrix reduced its
tensile strength as shown in Fig. 6 (Khalid et al., 2008a). The reduc-
tion in tensile strength upon fiber loading was due to interruption
caused by the fiber in transferring the stress along applied force
and this problem was intensified by lack of interfacial adhesion
of the fiber and the matrix. It is interesting to note that addition
of OPF derived cellulose increased the tensile strength of compos-
ites even though the strength lowered at lower cellulose fractions.
The tensile strength was equal to that of pure PP at 40% cellulose
loading. The flexural modulus increased with increase in filler load-
ing and cellulose composites exhibited higher modulus than fiber
composites. Addition of 50% cellulose to virgin PP increased flexural
modulus from 1750 MPa to 4250 MPa, whereas OPF composite of
50% fiber content increased the modulus up to 2750 MPa only. How-
ever, increasing percentage of OPF reduced the flexural strength.
 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22
In an attempt to make OPF filled PP composites by reactive pro-
cessing, maximum tensile strength (21.4 MPa) of the composites
was obtained at 20% weight fraction of fiber (Wirjosentono et al.,
2004). However the elongation at break decreased with increase in
fiber loading. The flexural strength, flexural modulus and flexural
toughness of OPF-PP composites at 40% fiber loading were 37 MPa,
2.13 GPa and 47 kPa, respectively (Rozman et al., 2000). The Izod
impact strength of pure PP was 32 J/mm, while 10% fiber and cellu-
lose loadings reduced it to 25 J/mm thereafter steadily increased up
to 37 J/mm when 50% cellulose was added (Khalid et al., 2008a). Oil
palm fiber loading of 50% resulted same impact strength as that of
virgin PP. The irregularity in shape and low aspect ratio of OPF may
affect their capabilities to support stress transmitted from the PP
matrix (Rozman et al., 2000; Khalid et al., 2008a). The effect would
be amplified if the proportion of OPF is increased.
The flexural properties of OPF-glass fiber-PP hybrid compos-
ites reduced upon increasing the proportion of OPF (Rozman et al.,
2001b). When the whole glass fibers were replaced with OPF (30%
fiber content), the flexural strength, flexural modulus and flexu-
ral toughness values reduced from 37MPa to 20 MPa, 3.75 GPa to
2.75 GPa and 25 kPa to 13 kPa, respectively. The tensile strength,
tensile modulus and tensile toughness of OPF-glass fiber-PP com-
posites containing 30% fiber reduced, respectively, from 25MPa to
13MPa, 850 MPa to 610 MPa and 180 kPa to 105 kPa when the whole
glass fiber was replaced with OPF.
3.2.1.2. Effect of fiber treatments. The maleic anhydride grafted
polypropylene (MAPP) has significant influence on the surface
properties of OPF (Khalid et al., 2008b). The OPF-PP compos-
ite exhibited good tensile strength (36 MPa) and impact strength
(38 J/m) upon incorporation of 2% MAPP. However there was a
substantial decrease in mechanical strength with increase in con-
centration of MAPP above 2% in the PP matrix. Trimethylolpropane
triacrylate (TMPTA) also significantly influenced the mechanical
properties of PP-cellulose composite. The toughness of both the
composites was significantly improved by addition of TMPTA.
However, PP-cellulose composite remained the better choice than
PP-OPF composite as the tensile strength (43 MPa), flexural mod-
ulus (3.3 GPa) and impact strength (43 J/m) were better with the
addition of 2% TMPTA. Rozman et al. (2003) reported that at Maleic
anhydride (MAH) chemical loading of 15%, a flexural strength of
40 MPa, flexural modulus of 4 GPa, flexural toughness of 7 kPa and
impact strength of 80 J/m was exhibited by the OPF-PP composites
prepared with 40 percent of 60 mesh size fibers. The MAH chem-
ical loading increased the flexural strength and flexural modulus
of OPF-PP composites due to the increased interfacial adhesion
caused by the covalent bonding between MAH and PP. The maleic
anhydride treatment has enabled the compatibility between polar
functional groups of OPF and non-polar PP. The coupling agent
E-43 contributed towards higher tensile strength, flexural tough-
ness, flexural modulus and impact strength to OPF-PP composites
(Rozman et al., 2000).
The tensile strength and toughness of OPF-glass fiber-PP hybrid
composites were significantly improved upon removal of resid-
ual oil from OPF (Rozman et al., 2001c). The tensile strength
increased from 7 MPa to 13 MPa and toughness increased from
50 kPa to 130 kPa upon oil removal. Oil removal reduced the
stress concentrations created by incompatible layer of esters of
the oil. However, the tensile modulus (700 MPa) and elonga-
tion at break (2.3%) did not vary significantly upon residual oil
removal, whereas the flexural properties increased significantly.
The flexural strength, modulus and toughness of unextracted
fiber composite were 13 MPa, 1.9 GPa and 7.5 kPa, respectively,
which increased to 27 MPa, 2.3 GPa and 26 kPa upon residual oil
removal. Treatment of OPF with coupling agent-polymethylene
(polyphenyl isocyanate) (PMPPIC) further increased both ten-
15
sile and flexural properties. Fibers treated with other coupling
agents viz., maleic anhydride–modified PP (commercial name
Epolene, E-43) and 3-(trimethoxysilyl)-propylmethacrylate (TPM)
also increased the strength properties of the composites in
which the contribution by E-43 was higher (Rozman et al.,
2001b).
3.2.2. Water absorption characteristics
3.2.2.1. Effect of fiber loading. The water absorption of OPF-PP com-
posites of varying fiber fractions at the end of a six day immersion
was in the range of 4.5–7.5% (Rozman et al., 2000). Composites
with higher proportion of OPF absorbed more water due to cellu-
lose, lignin and hemicellulose, which possess polar hydroxyl groups
leading to formation of hydrogen bonds with water. Absorption of
water by the cell wall of lignocellulosic materials caused swelling
of the cell wall and the thickness of the composite increased.
The percent thickness swelling of OPF-PP composites of vary-
ing fiber contents after a six day immersion varied from 2.3%
to 7%.
3.2.2.2. Effect of fiber treatments. The hydrophobicity of OPF-PP
composites enhanced upon E-43 treatment to the fiber and the
effect of treatment was further enhanced by chemical loading
(Rozman et al., 2000). The increase in hydrophobicity was due to
(i) the ability of maleic anhydride residue of E-43 to interact with
hydroxyl groups of OPF, blocking the hydroxyl group-water hydro-
gen bonding and (ii) the hydrophobicity imparted by the PP chain
of E-43.
3.2.3. Degradation/weathering
Weathering decreases strength of the composites. The flex-
ural stress and flexural modulus of OPF-PP composites were
41.6 MPa and 3.85 GPa, respectively, which reduced to 27.4 MPa
and 2.69 MPa after soil exposure for 12 months (Hill and Khalil,
2000a).
3.3. Oil palm fiber-polyurethane (PU) composites
Polyurethane polymers are formed through step-growth poly-
merization by reacting a monomer containing at least two
isocyanate functional groups with another monomer contain-
ing at least two hydroxyl groups in the presence of a catalyst.
Polyurethanes are widely used in high resiliency flexible foam
seating, rigid foam insulation panels, microcellular foam seals and
gaskets, automotive suspension bushings, carpet underlay, hard
plastic parts for electronic instruments, etc. Polyurethane is also
used for moldings which include door frames, columns, window
headers, etc. Oil palm fiber acts as a good reinforcement in PU
matrix.
3.3.1. Mechanical properties
3.3.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. The mechanical properties of OPF-
PU composites at different fiber contents as reported by various
researchers are compiled in Table 7. Increase in tensile strength
was due to increase in reaction between lignin and isocyanates in
forming a three-dimensional network of crosslinkings when the
fiber functioned as both filler and reactive component. Modulus
also increased with percent loading of OPF obviously because of its
inherent stiffness. The hydroxyl (OH) groups present on the fiber
surface act as electron donors, while the PU carbonyl groups act
as electron acceptors. These interactions can therefore be consid-
ered as additional physical crosslinks within the polymer network,
which increased the crosslinking capacity and consequently, the
hardness of the composite.
16 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22

Table 7 3.4. Oil palm fiber-polyvinyl chloride (PVC) composites

The mechanical properties of OPF-PU composites at different fiber contents.

Property Fiber Value Reference Polyvinyl chloride is a thermoplastic polymer. It is a vinyl poly-
content (%) mer constructed of repeating vinyl groups having one of their
Tensile strength (MPa) 30 21 Rozman et al. (2007) hydrogens replaced with a chloride group. Polyvinyl chloride is the
30 10 Rozman et al. (2001a) third most widely produced plastic after polyethylene and PP. It is
45 30 Rozman et al. (2007) used for sewage pipe lines and other pipe line applications as it is
60 35 Rozman et al. (2001a)
biologically and chemically resistant. It is also used for windows,
Tensile modulus (MPa) 30 3.9
60 9.5 door frames and such other building materials by adding impact
Tensile toughness (MPa) 30 13 modifiers and stabilizers. It becomes flexible on addition of plas-
60 60 ticizers and can be used in cabling applications as wire insulator.
Flexural strength (MPa) 50 75 Rozman et al. (2002)
Oil palm fiber is found to be a good combination with PVC to form
65 11 Badri et al. (2006)
75 4.5 composites.
65a 11.2 Amin and Badri (2007)
Flexural modulus (GPa) 65a 2.55 3.4.1. Mechanical properties
50 2.25 Rozman et al. (2002)
65 1.45
3.4.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. The mechanical properties of OPF-
Badri et al. (2006)
75 1.10 PVC composites at various fiber contents reported in literature
Flexural toughness (MPa) 50 6.5 Rozman et al. (2002) are compiled in Table 8. The tensile strength of OPF-PVC compos-
Impact strength (J/m) 50 100 ite decreased with fiber loading. The broken ends of short fibers
Impact strength (J/m2 ) 65a 4600 Amin and Badri (2007)
formed during tensile deformation induced cracks in the matrix and
65 4000
75 2225 Badri et al. (2006)
lead to a reduction in tensile strength. The inability of OPF to sup-
Shore D hardness 65 73 port stress transmitted from the matrix due to its irregular shape
75 55 and dispersion problems (agglomerate formation) was another rea-
a
The composites were hybridized with 15% (by weight) kaolinite. son. The low impact strength at high fiber loading was due to
incapability of OPF in dissipating stress through shear yielding
prior to fracture. The reduction in flexural strength was attributed
3.3.1.2. Effect of fiber size. The effect of fiber size on the mechanical to agglomeration of the filler and its inability to support stresses
properties of OPF filled PKO based PU foam was studied by Badri et transferred from the PVC-U matrix.
al. (2005). Higher compressive stress was observed for 45–56 ␮m Raju et al. (2008) reported the reduction in ultimate tensile
fiber particulate than higher sizes. This was due to the higher sur- strength (UTS) of pure PVC-epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) blend
face area of the fiber in powder form, which may produce better from 9 MPa to 6 MPa upon addition of 30% OPF. The reduction in ten-
hindrance to stress-impact propagation. Scanning electron micro- sile strength of composites at higher fiber loading was due to the
scopic images indicate that small size fibers got embedded in the agglomeration of the filler particles to form a domain that acts like a
matrix well comparing to large size fibers. However the flexural foreign body. Other mechanical properties viz., tensile modulus and
strength of OPF filled PU composites decreased with decrease in flexural modulus increased with fiber loading, while elongation at
filler size (Rozman et al., 2002). Similar trend was observed for break and impact strength reduced with fiber loading. There was
tensile properties also (Rozman et al., 2001a). only a marginal increase in hardness with fiber loading beyond 5%
level. The elasticity or flexibility of the polymer chain reduced with
3.3.1.3. Effect of fiber treatments. Both toluene diisocynate addition of fiber, resulting in more rigid composites. The reduc-
treatment and hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI) treatment tion in impact strength of OPF-PVC-ENR composites was due to the
improved the tensile strength of OPF-PU composites (Rozman et increase in interfacial regions with more fiber content.
al., 2007). At fiber loading of 40% and NCO/OH ratio of 1.1, tensile
strengths of 26 MPa, 30 MPa, 28 MPa were exhibited by untreated 3.4.1.2. Effect of fiber treatments. Benzoylation treatment to the
fiber composite, TDI treated fiber composites and HMDI treated fibers improved the tensile strength, impact strength and stiff-
fiber composites, respectively. The introduction of isocyanates ness of resulting OPF-PVC composite due to improved fiber–matrix
from TDI or HMDI has enhanced the interaction between OPF and adhesion (Bakar and Baharulrazi, 2008). However addition of
PU matrix. acrylic impact modifier caused a negative effect on both modu-

3.3.2. Water absorption characteristics Table 8

3.3.2.1. Effect of fiber loading. The water absorption by OPF-PU The mechanical properties of OPF-PVC composites at different fiber contents.
composites increased sharply on the day of immersion itself and
Property Value Fiber Reference
remained constant thereafter (Badri et al., 2006). Composites with content
75% fiber content absorbed 55% water and composites with 65%
Tensile strength (MPa) 60.0 0% Bakar and Baharulrazi
fiber absorbed 48% water on the first day of immersion. Weak bond-
34.7 40% (2008)
ing between the matrix and fiber, agglomeration of the fiber and Flexural strength (MPa) 80 0% AbuBakar et al. (2005)
incomplete encapsulation of matrix over OPF are the factors that 70 40%
lead to poor water resistivity of OPF-PU composites. 72.4 30 phr AbuBakar et al. (2006)
74.5 30 phra
Flexural modulus (GPa) 3.5 0% AbuBakar et al. (2005)
3.3.3. Degradation/weathering 4.5 40%
The dimensional stability of OPF filled PU composites at high and 4.14 30 phr AbuBakar et al. (2006)
3.9 30 phra
low temperature environment was studied by Badri et al. (2005).
Impact strength (kJ/m2 ) 20 0% Bakar and Baharulrazi
The dimensional stability of composite prepared using 45–56 ␮m 17.4 40% (2008)
fiber was within the allowable limits. However higher sizes caused 6.1 30 phr AbuBakar et al. (2006)
increased deformation due to the deterioration of cellular structure 6.4 30 phra
of the PU foam at higher fiber sizes. a
OPF was residual oil extracted.
 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22 17

lus and strength (AbuBakar et al., 2005). Oil palm fibers grafted Table 9
The mechanical properties of OPF-polyester and OPF-polyester-glass fiber compos-
with methyl acrylate (MA) improved the ultimate tensile strength
ites at different fiber contents.
(UTS) of the PVC-ENR blend composites (Raju et al., 2008). At 10%
fiber loading, untreated fiber composites exhibited UTS of 8 MPa, Property Composite Value Reference
combination
which increased to 10 MPa upon grafting. Other mechanical prop-
erties viz., tensile modulus (stiffness), flexural modulus, hardness Tensile strength Polyester 25 Khalil et al. (2007a)
and impact strength also reduced upon grafting, while elongation (MPa)
31.5% OPF13.5% glass 48
at break increased. It is interesting to note that impact strength
fiber
of the grafted fiber composite was less even though the treatment 45% OPF 31
improved interfacial adhesion due to better bonding, which leads
to catastrophic brittle failure. Tensile modulus Polyester 2.6 Khalil et al. (2007a)
(GPa)
31.5% OPF 3.75
3.4.2. Thermal properties 13.5% glass fiber
The glass transition temperature (Tg ) of OPF-PVC-ENR compos-
ite increased with fiber content (Ratnam et al., 2008). However the Elongation at break Polyester 3% Khalil et al. (2000)
thermal stability was not affected significantly with addition of OPF. 55% OPF 3.8%
Polyester 2.5 mm Khalil et al. (2007a)
Benzoylation treatment on fiber reduced the glass transition tem-
31.5% OPF 3.7 mm
perature (Tg ) of OPF-PVC composites (64 ◦ C) than that of pure PVC 13.5% glass fiber
(79.16 ◦ C) whereas Tg of untreated OPF composite (80.29 ◦ C) and
pure PVC were not significantly different (Bakar and Baharulrazi, Flexural strength Polyester 50 Khalil et al. (2000)
(MPa)
2008). Decrease in Tg was due to plasticization effect of fibers that
15% 32
diffused or dissolved into the PVC matrix. 55% 43
Polyester 43.3 Karina et al. (2008)
3.5. Oil palm fiber-polyester composites 12% glass fiber 165.4
4.8% OPF 165.4
7.2% glass fiber
Polyester is a polymer which contains ester functional group in
8.4% OPF 143
its main chain. It is used mainly in textiles and packaging industry. 3.6% glass fiber
Polyester is also used to manufacture high strength ropes, threads, 12% OPF 36.8
hoses, sails, floppy disk liners, power belting, etc. Oil palm fiber is 24.5% OPF 75 Khalil et al. (2007a)
10.5% glass fiber
a good reinforcement in polyester matrix.
Flexural modulus Polyester 3.2 Hill and Khalil (2000b)
3.5.1. Physical properties (GPa)
3.5.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. One of the desirable functions of nat- 55% OPF 3.7
ural fiber in polymeric matrix is to reduce the composite mass on
Impact strength Polyester 6 Khalil et al. (2000)
account of the inherent low density of the fiber. The density of OPF
(kJ/m2 )
powder is 1.138 g/cm3 and that of polyester is 1.202 g/cm3 . Addi- 55% OPF 18
tion of 55% OPF in polyester matrix reduced composite density to 24.5% OPF 14.7 Khalil et al. (2007a)
1.17 g/cm3 (Hill and Khalil, 2000b). Similarly, the density of glass 10.5% glass fiber
fiber-polyester composite can be reduced by substituting glass fiber
Rockwell hardness Polyester 113
with OPF. The density of glass fiber is high (2.6 g/cm3 ) comparing to (HRB)
polyester, which obviously results in higher composite density. Oil 55% OPF 105
palm fiber of 1.14 g/cm3 density used in place of glass fiber resulted
in low density composites (Karina et al., 2008). Incorporation of
40% and more OPF in OPF-polyester composites caused reduction holes created on alkali treatment allowed the polyester to pene-
in density from 1.15 to 1.11 g/cm3 (Hill and Khalil, 2000b). trate into the fiber bundles in a better way. Acetylation treatment
to the fibers improved impact strength of OPF-polyester compos-
3.5.2. Mechanical properties ites due to improved fiber wettability and resulting fewer void
3.5.2.1. Effect of fiber loading. The mechanical properties of OPF- spaces (Khalil et al., 2000). The tensile stress of OPF-polyester
polyester and OPF-polyester-glass fiber composites at different composites increased slightly upon both acetylation and silane
fiber contents are compiled in Table 9. Oil palm fiber can be a sub- treatments and decreased upon titanate treatment (Hill and Khalil,
stitute for glass fiber in potential applications where it does not 2000b). The flexural modulus of OPF-PP composites also increased
require high load bearing capabilities. The tensile strength of OPF- considerably upon acetylation treatment on fibers. Similarly the
glass fiber reinforced polyester composites increased up to total abrasion resistance of OPF-polyester composites was enhanced
fiber content of 45% (Khalil et al., 2007a). upon alkali treatment to fibers (Yousif and Tayeb, 2008). Treated
The abrasion characteristics of OPF filled polyester composites fibers enhanced the adhesion resistance of polyester resin by
were better than pure resin (Yousif and Tayeb, 2008). Oil palm 75–85%, while untreated fibers enhanced the abrasion resistance
fiber reinforcement reduced the weight loss on abrasion of pure only by 50–60%
polyester resin by 50–60%. In addition, the friction coefficient of
OPF-polyester composite was less by about 23% comparing to that 3.5.3. Water absorption characteristics
of the neat polyester (Yousif and Tayeb, 2007). 3.5.3.1. Effect of fiber loading. The water absorption pattern of
unsaturated OPF-polyester composite followed typical Fickian
3.5.2.2. Effect of fiber treatments. Alkali treatment on OPF signifi- behaviour, where the mass of water absorbed increased linearly
cantly improved its interfacial shear strength in polyester matrix with a function of square root of time and then gradually decreased
(Yousif and Tayeb, 2008). Alkali treatment washed out the outer until equilibrium plateau or complete saturation is reached (Khalil
skin, better exposing fiber to the polyester matrix, leading to et al., 2008a). Increased water absorption of the composites is due
proper interaction between their surfaces. In addition, the fine to swelling of the fibers, leading to crack formation in the polyester
18 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22
matrix, which act as pathways for the water molecules to dif-
fuse into the composite material. The temperature dependence of
water absorption of OPF-polyester composites was established by
Khalil et al. (2000). The water absorption characteristics of OPF-
glass fiber-polyester hybrid composites were studied by Khalil et al.
(2007a). Pure polyester resin absorbed 1% water, which increased
to 9% when 45% OPF was incorporated. The absorption percent-
age reduced to 6% when hybridized with glass fibers in the ratio
of 70:30. The percentage thickness swelling of pure polyester resin
when submerged in boiling water for 2 h increased from 1.04% to
1.2% when 12% glass fibers were incorporated (Karina et al., 2008).
Thickness swelling further increased to 2.03% when 70% of fiber
fraction was replaced by OPF and a maximum thickness swelling
of 2.46% was observed when 100% of the fiber fraction was replaced
with OPF.
3.5.3.2. Effect of fiber treatments. Acetylation treatment on fibers
reduced the water absorption (at 100 ◦ C) of untreated OPF-
polyester composites from 15.8% to 5.7% (Khalil et al., 2000).
Good interfacial contact between fiber and matrix and increased
hydrophobicity caused by the treatment lead to reduced water
absorption.
3.5.4. Degradation/weathering
3.5.4.1. Effect of fiber loading. The loss in tensile properties of OPF-
polyester composites upon degradation in soil was quantified by
Khalil and Ismail (2001). Loss in tensile strength by 8%, 17% and 35%
was observed, respectively, after exposure of 3, 6 and 12 months.
Similarly tensile modulus, elongation at break and impact strength
also reduced upon soil exposure. A loss of impact strength by 6%,
18% and 43% was observed, respectively, after 3, 6 and 12 months
of exposure to soil. Similarly the tensile stress, tensile modulus and
elongation at break decreased from 35.1 to 34.6 MPa, 3.29 GPa to
2.32 MPa and 3.75 to 2.48%, respectively, upon soil burial for 12
months (Hill and Khalil, 2000a).
3.5.4.2. Effect of fiber treatment. Chemical treatment to the fiber
considerably reduced loss of mass of OPF-polyester compos-
ites upon weathering (Hill and Khalil, 2000a). The magnitude
of mass loss decreased in the order: unmodified fiber > titanate
treated > silane treated > acetylated. Chemical treatments also
could conserve the mechanical properties of OPF-polyester com-
posites upon ageing (Khalil et al., 2000). The loss of tensile stress,
tensile modulus and elongation at break of OPF-polyester com-
posites during ageing in deionized water was more prominent
for untreated fiber composites. Though further reduction was
observed in the subsequent months, an increase in tensile stress
and modulus was observed upon acetylation treatment on fiber
in the initial 3 months period. The treatments such as acetyla-
tion, silane and titanate on fibers conserved the tensile properties
of OPF-polyester composites even after exposure in soil for many
months (Khalil and Ismail, 2001). The loss in strength decreased in
the order: unmodified > titanate > silane > acetylated.
3.6. Oil palm fiber-phenol formaldehyde (PF) composites
Phenol formaldehyde, a synthetic thermosetting resin obtained
by the reaction of phenols with aldehyde, is used for making ply-
wood, particle board, medium density fiber boards and other wood
and lignocellulose based panel and wood joinery. Phenolic lam-
inates are made by impregnating one or more layers of a base
material such as paper, fiber or cotton with phenolic resin and lam-
inating the resin-saturated base material under heat and pressure.
The resin fully polymerises (cures) during this process. A num-
ber of research reports are available on the properties of OPF-PF
composites.
3.6.1. Physical properties
The density of pure PF increased from 1.33 g/cm3 to 1.48 g/cm3
when 40% glass fibers were incorporated. This could be reduced to
1.45 g/cm3 when 24% of fiber fraction was replaced with OPF and
further reduction to 1.2 g/cm3 could be achieved when 96% of the
fiber fraction was replaced with OPF (Sreekala et al., 2002a).
3.6.2. Mechanical properties
3.6.2.1. Effect of fiber loading. The tensile and flexural strength
properties of OPF-glass fiber-PF hybrid composite decreased with
increase in fraction of OPF (Sreekala et al., 2002a). In case of com-
posite with 40% fiber content (weight fraction), tensile strength
reduced from 80 MPa to 50 MPa, tensile modulus reduced from
2.5 GPa to 0.25 GPa, flexural strength reduced from 87 MPa to
50 MPa and elongation at break reduced from 6.5% to 4.75%, when
25% (volume fraction) of the glass fibers were replaced with OPF.
However, the impact strength remained the same (230 kJ/m) even
with OPF substitution. It was also observed that further fiber load-
ing improved the impact strength.
The stress relaxation in OPF-PF composite was studied by
Sreekala et al. (2001b). Higher relaxation was observed for com-
posites with 30% fiber content among the 20%, 30% and 40% fiber
contents studied. Stress relaxation mechanism in the OPF rein-
forced PF composite exhibited a two step process, wherein the
fiber–matrix bond failure contributed to the first step relaxation
and the second step relaxation was pre-dominated by the matrix
phase relaxation. Hybridization of OPF with glass fiber in the PF
matrix reduced the relaxation rate than both pure glass fiber-PF
composite and OPF-PF composite. This indicated that OPF with
glass fiber resulted in composites of long-term higher mechanical
performance.
Dynamic mechanical analysis of OPF-PF composite indicated
that incorporation of OPF increased the modulus and damping char-
acteristics of the pure sample (Sreekala et al., 2005). This was due
to the increase in interface area and more energy loss at the inter-
face at higher fiber loading. The impact performance of PF resin
also largely improved upon reinforcement with OPF (Sreekala et
al., 2000). Sreekala et al. (2005) observed that incorporation of OPF
with glass fiber increased the damping value of the OPF-PF com-
posite and notably the damping increased with relative volume
fraction of OPF. Both the storage modulus and loss modulus val-
ues decreased after the relaxation when the relative OPF volume
fraction increased in hybrid composites.
3.6.2.2. Effect of fiber treatments. Oil palm fiber-PF composite
exhibited maximum tensile strength of 40 MPa, tensile modu-
lus of 1.3 GPa and elongation at break of 9% when the fibers
were treated, respectively, with permanganate, mercerization
and latex coating (Sreekala et al., 2000). The changes in ten-
sile strength and tensile modulus of OPF-PF composites followed
the order: acetylated (highest) > propionylated > extracted > non-
extracted (lowest) as reported by Khalil et al. (2007b). The tensile
strength and tensile modulus of acetylated fiber composite was
13 MPa and 1.6 GPa, respectively. The composite with acetylated
and propionylated fibers exhibited higher flexural strength than
unmodified fiber composite. Acetylated fiber composite exhibited
flexural strength of 23 N/mm2 whereas raw fiber composite exhib-
ited flexural strength of only 9 N/mm2 . The stiffness of acetylated
and propionylated fiber composite was higher than unmodified
fiber composites. This was due to the increased compatibility
between the resin and the fiber. The increased fiber–matrix com-
patibility upon modification resulted in formation of a continuous
interfacial region, causing better and efficient stress transfer.
The impact properties of OPF-PF composites varied in the fol-
lowing order: non-extracted (lowest) < extracted < propionylated <
acetylated (highest). The impact strength of OPF-PF composite
 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22
increased from 6 kJ/m2 to 6.8 kJ/m2 upon acetylation treatment on
fiber. In a study by Sreekala et al. (2000), it was observed that impact
strength of pure resin increased from 20 kJ/m2 to 80 kJ/m2 upon
addition of 40% untreated OPF. It was also observed that latex coat-
ing imparted impact resistance of 190 kJ/m2 followed by acetylated
(180 kJ/m2 ), silane (165 kJ/m2 ) and TDI (155 kJ/m2 ). Alkali treat-
ment decreased the relaxation rate of OPF-PF composite due to
strong interfacial interlocking between fiber and matrix (Sreekala
et al., 2001b). Net relaxation in isocyanate treated sample was less
than that of untreated samples, whereas latex treated fiber com-
posite exhibited maximum stress relaxation. The faster relaxation
in latex treated fiber composite was due to low interfacial bonding
between fiber and matrix upon the treatment, causing decrease in
strength and stiffness to the composite.
3.6.3. Water absorption characteristics
3.6.3.1. Effect of fiber loading. Oil palm fiber-PF composite exhib-
ited lowest percent water absorption at a fiber content of 40%,
among various fiber contents in the range of 10%–50% (Sreekala
et al., 2002b). It is interesting to note that maximum mechanical
properties were also exhibited at this fiber content. The OPF-glass
fiber-PF hybrid composite was found more hydrophilic than unhy-
bridized composite due to the poor compatibility between the OPF
and glass fiber. It was also observed that the water absorption
of OPF-PF composite was diffusion controlled and follows Fickian
behaviour, whereas hybridization with glass fiber caused a devia-
tion from Fickian behaviour.
3.6.3.2. Effect of fiber treatments. The rate of water uptake by OPF-
PF composite upon different fiber treatments was in the order:
extracted (highest) > non-extracted > propionylated > acetylated
(lowest) as reported by Khalil et al. (2007b). The variation between
the lowest and highest was 30%. Sreekala et al. (2001a) made an
interesting observation that most of the fiber treatments increased
water absorption of the composites except alkali treatment; how-
ever, the treatments reduced water absorption of the fibers. Alkali
treatment removes the amorphous waxy cuticle layer of the fiber
and activates hydroxyl groups, leading to chemical interaction
between the fiber and matrix. In case of PF, the trend was different
as it is hydrophilic whereas most polymers used for composite
fabrication are hydrophobic. Therefore the more hydrophobic the
fiber in OPF-PF composite, less the extent of fiber–matrix inter-
action, which facilitates sorption process (Sreekala et al., 2002b).
For example, latex coating makes the fibers most hydrophobic and
the OPF-PF composite prepared from latex coated fibers exhibits
maximum water absorption.
3.6.4. Thermal properties
3.6.4.1. Effect of fiber loading. The thermal conductivity and ther-
mal diffusivity of OPF reinforced PF composite was less than that
of pure resin. The thermal conductivity (␭) and thermal diffusiv-
ity (␹) of untreated OPF-PF composite of 40% fiber loading were
0.29 W/mK and 0.16 mm2 /s, respectively, whereas the thermal con-
ductivity and thermal diffusivity of pure PF were 0.348 W/mK and
0.167 mm2 /s, respectively (Singh et al., 2003). The effective thermal
conductivity of composite can also be predicted from individual
thermal conductivities of fibers and matrix by employing different
models (Agrawal et al., 1999). The incorporation of OPF in PF matrix
resulted in decrease of glass transition temperature (Sreekala et
al., 2005). This was due to increased void formation at higher fiber
content as voids facilitate the chain mobility at lower temperatures
resulting decrease in Tg value.
3.6.4.2. Effect of fiber treatments. The thermal conductivity of fillers
in OPF-PF composite increased after chemical treatments such as
19
KMnO4 , peroxide treatment, etc., obviously causing increase in con-
ductivity of the resulting OPF-PF composite (Agarwal et al., 2003).
The cellulose radicals formed during these treatments enhanced
the chemical interlocking at the interface. However silane treated
fiber composite exhibited lower thermal conductivity and ther-
mal diffusivity compared to alkali treated fiber composite (Singh
et al., 2003). Silane treatment made the fibers less hydrophilic,
leading to less adhesion between fibers and hydrophilic phenolic
resin. Agarwal et al. (2000) reported increase in thermal stability
of OPF-PF composite upon fiber treatments. The lignin–cellulose
complex formed during treatments imparted more stability to the
fiber. Activation energy for crystallization and thermal stability of
OPF-PF composite quantified using differential scanning calorime-
try indicated that the crystallization energies of treated and
untreated samples were not significantly different. Alkali-treated
samples had the slowest rate of crystallization and maximum
stability.
3.6.5. Degradation/weathering
3.6.5.1. Effect of fiber loading. The tensile strength of OPF-PF com-
posite reduced from 37 MPa to 16 MPa upon thermal ageing
whereas boiling water ageing reduced the tensile strength only up
to 28 MPa (Sreekala et al., 2004). The reduction in tensile strength
when the specimens were aged in thermal environment was due
to the decrease in fiber–matrix adhesion owing to shrinkage of
the fiber in thermal environment. However tensile strength of
cold water aged samples was 38 MPa and biodegraded samples
(8 months) was 35 MPa. Increase in strength upon cold water
ageing was due to the decrease in void size at the fiber–matrix
interphase during swelling of the fiber. This could exert a radial
pressure, leading to higher tensile strength. The flexural strength
of OPF-PF composite also decreased upon ageing. It was also
found that the Izod impact strength decreased to a very low value
upon ␥ irradiation due to the bond scission and disintegration at
the fiber–matrix interface. However increased stress relaxation of
water aged OPF-PF composite was observed (Sreekala et al., 2001b).
This was due to the changes in interface properties attained during
ageing.
3.6.5.2. Effect of fiber treatments. The modulus of OPF-PF compos-
ite got enhanced when fibers were given acetylation, isocyanate,
acrylate and silane treatments. Peroxide treatment on resin also
caused increase in modulus upon thermal ageing (Sreekala et al.,
2004). Similarly, the flexural properties of peroxide treated, latex
modified and acrylated fiber composite increased upon thermal
ageing. However, untreated and most of the treated fiber compos-
ites exhibited decrease in flexural performance on water ageing. On
the contrary, the impact strength of OPF-PF composites (41 kJ/m2 )
increased upon water ageing in untreated, acrylonitrile, peroxide
and isocyanate treatment systems. However the impact strength of
the composite decreased upon thermal ageing, biodegradation and
also upon ␥ irradiation.
3.7. Oil palm fiber-polystyrene composites
Polystyrene is an aromatic polymer made from styrene,
an aromatic monomer which is commercially manufactured
from petroleum. Polystyrene is commonly injection moulded
or extruded while expanded polystyrene is either extruded or
moulded in a special process. Solid polystyrene is used in disposable
cutlery, plastic models, CD, DVD cases, etc. Foamed polystyrene is
mainly used for packaging materials, insulation, foam drink cups,
etc. Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and therefore
used as building insulation materials such as in structural insulated
panel building systems. They are also used for non-weight-bearing
20 S. Shinoj et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 33 (2011) 7–22
architectural structures. The information on OPF-polystyrene com-
posites is limited.
3.7.1. Mechanical properties
The modulus of OPF-polystyrene composite increased with
increase in fiber loading up to 30% whereas the maximum strain
and flexural strength decreased (Zakaria and Poh, 2002). The drop
in strain was suspected as due to irregular shape of the fibers, which
caused inability of transferring stress from the matrix. The flex-
ural properties viz., maximum stress, maximum strain, modulus
of elasticity and Young’s modulus of OPF-polystyrene composites
at 10% fiber content (300–500 ␮m size fibers) were reported as
46.4 MPa, 0.027 mm, 1665.4 MPa and 2685.8 MPa, respectively. The
flexural properties were not affected by fiber size when the size
was below 300 ␮m. The flexural properties of polystyrene compos-
ite improved upon benzoylation due to better interfacial adhesion
and hydrophobicity of the fibers.
3.8. Oil palm fiber-epoxy composites
Epoxy or polyepoxide is a thermosetting polymer formed from
reaction of an epoxide resin with polyamine hardener. Epoxy is
used in coatings, adhesives and composite materials. They have
excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good mechani-
cal and electrical insulating properties. Epoxies with high thermal
insulation and thermal conductivity combined with high electrical
resistance are used for electronics applications. There are only few
studies conducted on OPF-epoxy composites.
3.8.1. Mechanical properties
3.8.1.1. Effect of fiber loading. The ultimate tensile strength of OPF-
epoxy composite decreased from 47.78 MPa to 46.1 MPa when fiber
content increased from 35% to 55%, whereas the ultimate tensile
strength of carbon fiber-epoxy composite and pure epoxy resin
were 247 MPa and 62.49 MPa, respectively (Kalam et al., 2005). This
indicated that OPF failed to act as a reinforcement comparing to car-
bon fiber in epoxy resin. Oil palm fiber did not contribute towards
the fatigue strength of epoxy as increase in fiber volume ratio
resulted in lowering the fatigue resistance of OPF. Oil palm fiber-
epoxy composite with 10% fiber would be able to support about
200 kg load with a maximum deflection of 0.2 mm for a 7 m span
using the T-beam configuration (Bakar et al., 2007). This outcome
indicated the potential use of OPF to build moderate load support-
ing structures, thereby reducing the cost of short span bridge.
The tensile strength of glass fiber-epoxy composite decreased
from 111 MPa to 24 MPa when glass fiber was replaced with OPF
(Hariharan and Khalil, 2005). This indicated that the hybrid com-
posite had intermediate strength characteristics. Oil palm fibers are
composed of individual fibers bonded by strong pectin interface,
which cause individual fibers not loaded uniformly or in some case
no loading at all. Hence the OPF is unable to support the stress trans-
ferred from the epoxy matrix successfully. Poor adhesion between
epoxy matrix and OPF also leads to a weak interfacial bond, result-
ing in inefficient stress transfer between epoxy matrix and OPF.
The elongation at break of OPF-epoxy composite (4%) was
slightly lower than that of glass fiber-epoxy composite (4.75%);
however, the hybrid composite exhibited higher elongation at
break. This exceptional behaviour of the hybrid composite was due
to the existence of a load sharing mechanism between the plies of
glass fiber and OPF. The failed glass fiber plies were able to continue
to carry the load while redistributing the remaining load to OPF ply.
The incorporation of glass fibers into OPF composite increased the
stiffness of the hybrid composites. Increase in stiffness of the hybrid
composite with addition of glass fibers was due to the higher tensile
modulus of glass fibers (66–72 GPa) than that of OPF (1–9 GPa). The
OPF-epoxy composite exhibited a lower impact strength (18 kJ/m2 )
than glass fiber composite (107 kJ/m2 ). As OPF composite was
subjected to a high speed impact load, the sudden stress trans-
ferred from the matrix to the fiber exceeded the fiber strength,
resulting in fracture of OPF at the crack plane without any fiber
pullout.
4. Conclusions
The fiber extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) is
a byproduct in palm oil mills. Availability of EFB in bulk in palm
oil mills and technology available for mechanical extraction of
fiber from EFB makes industrial level processing of OPF viable. Oil
palm fiber is hard and tough, which shows similarity to coir fibers
and its porous surface morphology is useful for better mechan-
ical interlocking with matrix resin for composite fabrication. It
has been used in combination with various polymeric matrices
including natural rubber (NR), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), phenol formaldehyde (PF), polyurethane (PU), epoxy,
polyester, etc. to form biocomposites. Alkali treatment is the most
common treatment on OPF to improve fiber–matrix interfacial
adhesion. Similarly, removal of residual oil from oil palm fiber sur-
face improves the interfacial adhesion between fiber and matrix.
Fiber size also has an influence on the properties of the resulting
composites.
Oil palm fiber loading in some polymeric matrices improved the
strength properties whereas the strength of composite was less in
some cases. Glass fiber-OPF hybrid composite is more hydrophilic
than single fiber composite due to incompatibility between both.
The thermal stability, dielectric constant, electrical conductivity,
etc. were improved upon incorporation of OPF. The strength prop-
erties reduced upon weathering/degradation of the composite.
Sisal fiber is a good combination with OPF in hybrid composites.
Information on the effect of OPF size on the composite properties
is limited. Information on thermal properties, electrical resistance,
high voltage break down characteristics, degradation/weathering
characteristics, deflection in thermal environment, rheology, resis-
tance to various chemicals, etc. of the OPF composites is also
limited and such studies need to be taken up. Oil palm fiber treat-
ment strategies to further improve the interfacial adhesion with
wide variety of polymeric matrices need to be taken up as the
fiber–polymer bonding is crucial in determining the composite
properties. Completely biodegradable or green composites using
OPF and biodegradable matrices need to be developed in future.
The biodegradability of the composites and effect of degradation
on various properties also need to be evaluated.
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