Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Treatment of smuggled cigarette tobacco by composting process in

facultative reactors
Rosimara Zittel a,⇑, Cleber Pinto da Silva a, Cinthia Eloise Domingues a,
Tatiana Roselena de Oliveira Stremel a, Thiago Eduardo de Almeida a, Gislaine Vieira Damiani b,
Sandro Xavier de Campos a
a
Research Group on Environmental and Sanitary Analytical Chemistry (QAAS), Ponta Grossa State University (UEPG), PO Box: 992, Av. General Carlos Cavalcanti, 4748 Ponta
Grossa, PR 84030-900, Brazil
b
Federal Institute of Paraná, Department of Health Sciences, CEP 82530-230 Jaguariaiva, PR, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a study on the degradation of smuggled cigarette tobacco combined with domestic
Received 30 March 2017 organic waste and sawdust or wood chips, using facultative reactor. Four reactors with different amounts
Revised 8 August 2017 of residue were assembled. For the study of the quality of the compost obtained, physicochemical, phy-
Accepted 17 October 2017
totoxicity and microbiological analyses were carried out. The mixture with wood chips presented the best
Available online 6 November 2017
temperature conditions and pH variation optimizing the degradation. The final germination index (GI)
values of all treatments were above the recommended GI value (50%) and the final C/N ratio between
Keywords:
8 and 13 indicated a mature compost. The concentration of metals under study was below the limit
Smuggled cigarette tobacco
Toxicity
allowed for the commercialization. The composting carried out in all facultative reactors provided ideal
Facultative reactor conditions for the total sterilization of the final compost. Therefore, the treatment of smuggled cigarettes
Composting through facultative reactors was efficient to produce stable and mature compost.
Stable Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction carbons, among others (Eldridge et al., 2015; Novotny and

Considering the increasing generation of organic waste, a great
volume of tobacco residue is produced during and after the tobacco
plant harvest up to its processing in the cigarette industry
(Ćosić et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015; Silva et al., 2016a,b). In addition,
significant quantities of smuggled cigarettes are seized annually all
over the world generating tons of waste.
The seizure of smuggled cigarettes is estimated to have reached
600 billion units in 2015 (BAT, 2015). In Brazil, the volume of
smuggled cigarettes sized has increased lately reaching over 14 bil-
lion cigarettes in 2015 and 18 billion units in 2016 (BFR, 2016).
Such a high number of seizures turns this material into an environ-
mental liability, which requires proper treatment. Up to now, the
most used treatment is incineration (Portal Planalto, 2015; Silva
et al., 2016a,b). The process of incinerating cigarettes is not the
best alternative, since it results in emissions of CO2 and other toxic
substances such as: ammonia, phenol acetate, aromatic polyhydro-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: r_roseuepg@hotmail.com (R. Zittel), campos@uepg.br
(S. Xavier de Campos).
Slaughter, 2014).
Tobacco is an organic residue, which can be treated and trans-
formed into a compost of commercial and agricultural interest
(Szwed and Bohacz, 2014; Wu et al., 2015). Moreover, the mature
compost can promote nitrogen immobilization in the soil, reducing
NH+4 and increasing NO
3 (Cayuela et al., 2009). The composting of
organic waste through piles is considerably developed and studied,
being widely reported in the literature (Bernal et al., 2009; Fialho
et al., 2010). However, studies on composting in reactors from
the technical and scientific viewpoint are scarce (Hu et al., 2009;
Iyengar and Bhave, 2006; Kopčić et al., 2014).
The composting in reactors is a promising technology, when
compared to conventional technologies of open systems such as
windrows and presents advantages, since it does not require
revolving the composting mass and provides sufficient aeration
to the mixture (with or without mechanical injection of air) to pro-
duce mature final compost (Campos et al., 2014). Also, it provides
the control of physical and chemical parameters such as tempera-
ture and moisture, and can be used in different climatic seasons
(Campos et al., 2014; US.EPA, 2016).
Composting in reactors is an efficiency technology when com-
pared to the anaerobic digestion or incineration, for resulting in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.10.023
0956-053X/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
116 R. Zittel et al. / Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121
compost able to improve the physical and chemical conditions of
the soil, preventing the emission of greenhouse effect gases (CO2,
NO, CH4) and provides the control of leachate and of odor
(Campos et al., 2014; US.EPA, 2016; Gutiérrez et al., 2017). Some
research has demonstrated that tobacco waste originated in cigar-
ette factories (powder, leaves, stems, residue, etc.) can be com-
posted through reactors (Briski et al., 2012; Kopčić et al., 2014,
2013).
However, no research presents data on the treatment of tobacco
used to produce smuggled cigarettes. Due to the lack of quality in
irregular factories, smuggled cigarettes are highly harmful to the
human health and the environment, with excess of toxic sub-
stances such as: cyanide, ammonia, arsenic and heavy metals
(Shen et al., 2010; Silva et al., 2016a,b, 2014). Therefore, this study
main aim was to verify the viability of treating smuggled cigarette
tobacco through facultative reactors by adding four different com-
binations of waste materials (smuggled cigarette tobacco, domestic
organic waste, sawdust and wood chips) and to evaluate chemical
and biological parameters in the maturity of the composts.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Assembling facultative reactors
Four facultative reactors were prepared (R1, R2, R3 and R4)
(Fig. 1), made of bronze metallic alloy (Cu/Zn) with a cylindrical
vertical shape, 570 mm diameter, 870 mm height, volume around
Fig. 1. Facultative reactor.
240 L and 120 mm from the lid height. In the system, the oxygen
flow occurred through 120 holes of 1.0 mm each distributed sym-
metrically on the lid (Campos et al., 2014). The four facultative rec-
tors have the same structure and dimensions.
2.2. Experiment
The reactors were filled with smuggled cigarette tobacco resi-
due smuggled cigarette tobacco (SCT), domestic organic waste
(DOW), sawdust (Sa) and wood chips (WC). The waste of DOW
and SCT was shredded to achieve between 1 and 30 mm particles
size for better aeration and moisture control. The residue was
homogenized and distributed in layers in the reactor. The filling
was carried out daily and homogeneously for 4 weeks and the mix-
ture was matured. The material was analyzed in different phases
through physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, C/N ratio),
heavy metal concentration, germination index and pathogenic
microorganisms. The idea was to have an aerobic type reactor ini-
tially, which would eventually become anaerobic at the bottom
layers when the depth of load increased. If the top layers were aer-
obic, they would contribute to capture odorous compounds and
also to accelerate the compost stability via nitrification of the sys-
tem (Campos et al., 2014).
The facultative reactors provide controlled conditions of tem-
perature, moisture, homogenized mixture and aeration during
the process, without requiring air injection or shaking the mixture
(Campos et al., 2014). The waste material initial characterization is
given in Table 1.
 R. Zittel et al. / Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121 117

Table 1 was determined in triplicate. The digestion process was carried

Initial characterization of waste materials. out according to the method 3050B (US.EPA, 1996). A flame atomic
SCT DOW Sa WC absorption spectrometer (FAAS), brand Varian, model 240 FS was
pH 7.2 5.5 6.2 6.0 used for the analysis.
Moisture (%) 15.3 65.4 12.5 13.2
Electric conductivity (mS cm
1) 15.12 2.86 0.25 0.21 2.5. Germination index (GI)
C (%) 36.85 36.15 44.1 44.1
N (%) 3.20 3.04 0.28 0.28
C/N ratio 11.15 11.89 157.5 157.5 Phytotoxicity was evaluated according to the method proposed
Particle size (mm) 2.20 10.0–30.0 1.30 3.60 by Mari et al., (2003). The germination index (GI) was determined
Bulk Density (g/cm3) 0.65 1.39 0.52 0.21 in the sample with 105 days as follows: 20 g of dry weight compost
SCT: Smuggled cigarette tobacco; DOW: Domestic Organic Waste; Sa: Sawdust; were extracted with 200 ml of distilled water stirred for 2 h and
WC: Wood chips. then centrifuged at 9000 rpm.
Ten Lepidium sativum seeds were evenly distributed on filter
paper in Petri dishes (10 cm diameter) and moistened with 5 ml
Table 2 of the compost extract. Three replicate dishes for each sample were
Initial combination of waste materials and initial characteristics of the mixtures.
incubated at 25 °C for three days. The number of germinating seeds
Waste composition R1 R2 R3 R4 was measured. As a control, 5 ml of distilled water was replaced
SCT (kg) 2.62 10.1 1.69 6.7 with the extract at every treatment. The GI was calculated accord-
DOW (kg) 157.2 86.3 105.6 57.6 ing to the following formula:
Sa (kg) 8.7 8.3 0 0
WC (kg) 0 0 2.9 2.8 GI ð%Þ ¼ ðSGT
RLT=SGC
RLCÞ  100
Total weight of mixture (kg) 168.52 104.7 164.89 67.1
C/N ratio 19.6 18.3 18.9 17.2 where SGT = seed germination of treatment in percentage; RLT =
pH 5.8 5.1 5.8 6.2 root length of treatment; SGC = seed germination of control in per-
Moisture content (%) 65 62 56 53 centage; RLC = root length of control.
SCT: Smuggled cigarette tobacco; DOW: Domestic Organic Waste; Sa: Sawdust;
WC: Wood chips. 2.6. Pathogenic microorganisms

The microbiological analysis of thermotolerant coliform analy-

The compost was prepared with four different types of organic
waste mixtures according to the quantification presented in Table 2.
Those amounts were used to ensure optimal carbon/nitrogen ratio
and in this study the C/N ratios were 17 to 20 and initial moisture
content between 50 and 65%. Bulking agents were mixed with the
substrates to give required open structure and to ensure suitable
aeration. In reactors 1 and 2, Sa was added, while in reactors 3
and 4 wood chips were added. The SCT, DOW, Sa and WC waste
were mixed in the ratio 1:7:2 (R1 and R3) and 2:2:1 (R2 and R4).
The initial C/N ratio of each mixture was calculated based on carbon
and nitrogen values given in Table 2 (Caricasole et al., 2011).
C=N ¼ AðaÞ þ BðbÞ=AðcÞ þ BðdÞ
where A = C rich material mass, B = N rich material mass; a = per-
centage of C in the C rich material; b = percentage of C in the N rich
material; c = percentage of N in the C rich material; d = percentage
of N in the N rich material.
Sampling was determined according to the method US-EPA,
300-R3 (US.EPA, 2014).
2.3. Humidity, temperature, pH and C/N ratio
In order to control the humidity, readings of the mixtures in the
reactors were carried out fortnightly. A digital thermo hygrometer
was used for this analysis. The temperature was verified daily in
the reactor with a digital thermometer. The pH value was deter-
mined fortnightly, according to the methodology proposed by
Fialho et al., (2010). The elemental chemical analysis to determine
the C/N ratio was carried out in the periods 1, 60 and 120 days,
using the equipment elemental analyzer TruSpec CN Analyser
(LECOÒ).
2.4. Determination of metals in the final compost
The total concentration of the metals nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),
cadmium (Cd), chrome (Cr), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and
manganese (Mn) in the final compost obtained in the 4 reactors
sis, helminth viable eggs and Salmonella spp. was carried out for
the all reactors. The samples were prepared according to the meth-
ods described by Hoffman et al., (1934) and Ritchie (1948), modi-
fied. The tests used 5 g samples of the compost.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Humidity, temperature, pH and C/N ratio
At the beginning of the process, the reactors presented 50–65%
moisture. This content is within the 50–70% band, which is the ger-
mination index considered ideal for the biodegradation. At the end,
the reactors presented 50–60% moisture, without the need for any
manipulations. Thus, Fig. 2 presents the temperature values
obtained throughout the composting time.
Fig. 2 shows that all reactors reached thermophilic temperature,
given that the maximum peaks of temperature reached 45 °C,
52 °C, 49 °C and 52 °C for reactors R1, R2, R3 and R4, respectively.
The thermophilic phase is important for the decomposition of
organic matter and destruction of pathogenic agents and toxic
composts. In this phase, the mass temperature in the middle and
at the bottom of the reactor resulted in smaller peaks. The varia-
tion temperature peaks for reactors 3 and 4 were between 40 to
49 °C and 40 to 52 °C, respectively and were maintained for a
longer period when compared to reactors 1 and 2, which may be
due to particle size (3.60 mm) and structure (bulk density of
0.21) of the WC used as a bulking agent. On the other hand, the
highest temperature peaks were reached in reactors 2 and 4 in
which a higher proportion of SCT waste was added. Although the
temperature did not reach 55 in a short period, it remained above
40 in a longer period. However, the minimum temperature for the
destruction of pathogenic organisms depends on the duration of
the exposure and the characteristics that the microbial groups pre-
sent in the waste (Strauch, 1991). Higher temperatures for a short
period or a lower temperature for a longer period is equally effi-
cient in inactivation and death of pathogens in organic waste
(Haug, 1980; Strauch, 1991).
118 R. Zittel et al. / Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121
Fig. 2. Temperature variation at the top, in the middle and at the bottom of the reactors.
The time and temperature parameters required for the elimina-
tion of human pathogens vary and the optimum temperature is
considered in the range 40–65 °C for composting and the period
of one week is considered sufficient for complete elimination of
pathogens as a result of different microbial communities (Bhatia
et al., 2013; Chan et al., 2016; Kopčić et al., 2014; Rich and
Bharti, 2015). In addition to the heat generated during composting,
the elimination of pathogens is often a consequence of the interac-
tion of several factors, such as: presence of toxic compounds
(ammonia and organic acids), microbiological competition for
nutrients, parasitism and production of the antimicrobial sub-
stances (Millner et al., 2014; Nartey et al., 2017; Shepherd et al.,
2011). Temperature at 38 °C in a period of 3 days is considered suf-
ficient to inactivate salmonella spp. (Millner et al., 2014).
These variations might have occurred due to an aerobic pro-
cess at the top of the reactor and the predominance of anaerobic
processes in the lower portions of the reactor with temperatures
closer to 40 °C, agreeing with results obtained in similar surveys
(Campos et al., 2014; Iyengar and Bhave, 2006; Kopčić et al.,
2013). After the thermophilic phase, the four reactor composts
reached room temperature. This stability is associated to the
low microbial activity and the compost stability (Bernal et al.,
2009).
Therefore, the temperatures obtained in the facultative reactors
revealed that this system can contribute to the degradation of sev-
eral compounds present in the waste that provided ideal conditions
for microbiological activity and the total sterilization of the
compost.
From the results presented in Fig. 3, the pH was seen to
decrease in the three portions under analysis in the first few days
of the experiment. Changes in pH may be indicative of biological
activity. Decrease in pH can be caused by volatilization of sub-
strates rich in ammonia (NH+4-N) with release of H+ in the mixtures,
resulting from the nitrification process by activity nitrifying bacte-
ria, carrying out the production of organic and inorganic acids due
to microbial decomposition of waste organics (Wang et al., 2014;
Karak et al., 2013). The composition of food waste is rich in carbo-
hydrate and protein content and can be converted into volatile
fatty acids through a biological process, lowering the pH of the
compost (Sudharsan Varma and Kalamdhad, 2014).
Acceptable pH ranges should be within tolerable levels to
microorganisms: bacteria need a pH range of 6.0–7.5, fungi can tol-
erate a range of 5.5–8.0 and actinomycetes 5.0–9.0 (Gómez-
Brandón et al., 2008). The increase in pH after 30 days might have
resulted from the decomposition of acid organic compounds,
ammonia formation and mineralization of organic nitrogen
(Nadia et al., 2015; Nobelen et al., 2016). In addition, the cause of
this increase may be due to the additives of nitrogen compounds
(ammonia and phenolic compounds) added to tobacco in the cigar-
ette manufacturing process (Nobelen et al., 2016). These pH values
favor the composting process and the quality of the compost, since
organic nitrogen is transformed into NH3 and NH+4 (ammonifica-
tion) and in the nitrification phase it is transformed into elemental
forms (NO


2 e NO3 ) that might be used by the plants (Awasthi
et al., 2014; Nakasaki et al., 2005).
The composting in facultative reactors showed pH variation in
the three portions of the mixtures. This may be attributed to the
existence of different microbial groups at different combinations
of temperature and pH ranges, optimizing the degradation process.
The final value pH was 7.4, 9.0, 7.3 and 8.0 for reactors R1, R2, R3
and R4, respectively and is in agreement with others studies
(Kalamdhad et al., 2009; Kopčić et al., 2014).
Fig. 4 shows that the initial C/N ratio was 19.6, 18.3, 18.9 and
17.2 for reactors R1, R2, R3 and R4, respectively. However, these
values are inside the range of 15/1 and 30/1 recommended for
composting process and recently some researchers have success-
fully carried out composting in reactor at lower initial C/N ratios
(Kalamdhad et al. 2009; Kopčić et al., 2014; Sudharsan Varma
and Kalamdhad, 2014). These initial conditions of carbon and
nitrogen low for large amounts of organic solid waste to be treated
and the process to develop rapidly and excess nitrogen to be
released as ammonia, resulting in self-regulation of the C/N ratio
(Rodríguez et al., 2012; Zhu, 2006). Fig. 4 shows that the final
C/N ratios values of 12.32, 9.10, 8.20, 9.80 for reactors R1, R2, R3
and R4, respectively produced mature compost. This is related to
the loss of organic carbon to an increase in the proportion of total
 R. Zittel et al. / Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121
Fig. 3. pH variation in the reactors.
nitrogen. A C/N ratio below 15 is considered an indicative of a
mature compost (Kopčić et al., 2014).
3.2. Germination index (GI)
The GI is a significant parameter to evaluate the compost phy-
totoxicity and maturity, and is known to increase with the decom-
position of toxic materials such as fatty acids in the compost
(Bernal et al., 2009).
The results in Fig. 5 revealed that the GI increased during the
evolution of the composting and within 180 days reached 91%,
64%, 93% and 88% for reactors 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. It has been
reported that a GI of more than 50% was an indication of a
phytotoxic-free compost (Bernal et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2014).
This low GI value for the reactor R2 might be ascribed to the
higher proportion of high toxicity compounds in the smuggled
cigarettes that might be toxic to the plants (Silva et al., 2016a,b,
2014). Cigarette tobacco is composed of very fine particles and
when mixed with Sa (1.29 mm), the spaces between the mass
can be reduced due to its bulk density (0.52), reducing the diffusion
of oxygen (Kopčić et al., 2013). Fig. 5 shows that the compost of R3
and R4 reached GI of 79% within 90 days. These results suggest that
Initial
21
18
15
C/N (w/w)
12
9
6
3
0 30
R1 R2 R3 R4
Reactors
Fig. 4. Variation of C/N ratio in the reactors.
119
the wood chips used as a bulking agent provided conditions for the
maturity in shorter composting time and that high SCT did not
affect the process. The GI for all the composts showed absence of
phytotoxicity, with values above 50%, suggested that the time of
120 days was sufficient to produce mature compost.
3.3. Determination of metals in the final compost
The concentration of metals Ni, Co, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Mn and Zn
was evaluated in the composts obtained from all reactors and the
results are presented in Table 3. It was seen that the total concen-
tration of metals Ni, Co, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Mn and Zn was below the
values established by the Brazilian MAPA, (2014), American
USDA, (1980) and Canadian CCME, (2005) norms, indicating that
the compost can be used, pursuant to this parameter, as an organic
fertilizer.
These agencies regulate the use of organic composts obtained
from the composting process. Therefore, despite the studies having
demonstrated that smuggled cigarettes present high values of
heavy metals, the mixture proposed for the composting process
enabled the reduction of these metals through the dilution effect,
reaching values below the limit established (Kulikowska and
Gusiatin, 2015; Moretti et al., 2016; Silva et al., 2014).
Final
90 days 120 days 150 days 180 days
100
90
Germination Index %
80
70
60
50
40
R1 R2 R3 R4
Reactors
Fig. 5. GI for the reactors in the periods 90, 120, 150 and 180 days.
120 R. Zittel et al. / Waste Management 71 (2018) 115–121

Table 3
Concentration of metals in the four reactors in the period 180 days and the maximum limits permitted.

Metals Concentration (mg kg
1)

R1 R2 R3 R4 MAPA USDA CCME
Ni 0.822 1.479 2.492 3.58 25 200 62
Co 2.658 3.211 6.014 8.788 – – 34
Cd 0.975 0.971 1.034 1.757 0.7 10 3
Cr 3.525 2.195 7.655 10.939 70 1000 210
Pb 7.484 6.956 5.789 7.009 45 250 150
Cu 8.775 11.866 18.074 18.643 70 1000 400
Mn 95.766 183.1 161.6 331.88 – – –
Zn 117.86 65.08 78.422 116.8 200 2500 700

Table 4
Results of pathogenic microorganism analyses in the final compost.

Item Unit R1 R2 R3 R4 MLC

Thermo-tolerant coliforms MLN/1g DM N N N N 1000
Salmonella spp. MLN/10g DM A A A A A
Helminth viable eggs MLN/4g of TS <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.0

MLC = maximum limit of contaminants; MLN = most likely number; DM = dry matter; TS = total solids; N = negative; A = absence.

3.4. Microbiological analyses
Table 4 presents the results of pathogenic microorganism anal-
yses obtained in the compost reactors and maximum limit of con-
taminants allowed in organic composts according to the normative
N° 17/2014 (MAPA, 2014). The presence of coliform bacteria is
often used as an indicator of overall sanitary quality of the compost
(Kalamdhad et al., 2009). According to the results, it was seen that
the final compost in the four reactors presented absence of patho-
gens, in relation to the groups under study. Even for helminth eggs,
which are more resistant to thermal inactivation and the main
pathogens present in the different sources of solid residues, the
inactivation was seen to be efficient in all reactors (Cabañas-
Vargas et al., 2013).
The pathogen results obtained were below the established lim-
its in the four treatments and demonstrated that composting in
facultative reactor reached the temperatures needed for the hygi-
enization of the final compost. This indicated that the lower tem-
perature profile in a long period was effective to eliminate these
microorganisms (Haug, 1980; Strauch, 1991). Furthermore, the
presence of different species may have contributed to the death
of these pathogens due to the competition for nutrients, parasitism
and the presence of toxic substances (Nartey et al., 2017; Shepherd
et al., 2011).
4. Conclusion
The results revealed that moisture remained suitable (50–60%),
this is an ideal condition for the degradation of organic matter,
indicating that the composting process in facultative reactor pre-
sents conditions of control of aeration, moisture content and tem-
perature, without the need for air injection or shaking the mixture.
The pH values can favor the transformation of the nitrogen in ele-
mental forms. The final germination index (GI) values of all treat-
ments were above the recommended GI value (50%). The metal
concentration did not exceed the limits established. In all treat-
ments, the temperature profile was sufficient for the destruction
of pathogens and the mixture with wood chips presented the best
temperature conditions in the reactor 4. The combination of wastes
prepared for the four reactors was suitable for the composting
process with regard to the physical – chemical and microbiological
parameters and the best results were obtained in reactor 4 that
was prepared with greater amount of SCT and added wood chips.
Cigarette tobacco can be treated through composting in facultative
reactor, resulting in toxicity free and stable compost.
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