International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Short- and Long-Term Structural Characterization of
Cured-in-Place Pipe Liner with Reinforced Glass
Fiber Material
Hyon Wook Ji 1 , Dan Daehyun Koo 2 and Jeong-Hee Kang 1, *
1 Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Department of Land, Water and Environment
Research, 283, Goyang-daero, Ilsanseo-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do 10223, Korea; jihyonwook@kict.re.kr
2 Department of Engineering Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI),
799 W. Michigan St. ET 314J, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; dankoo@iupui.edu
* Correspondence: kangjeonghee@kict.re.kr; Tel.: +82-10-7193-0798




Received: 3 March 2020; Accepted: 18 March 2020; Published: 20 March 2020


Abstract: Cured-in-place pipe (CIPP), as a kind of trenchless sewer rehabilitation technology, is a

method to repair sewer pipe using unsaturated polyester resin. This study develops a CIPP liner
using hot water or steam curing as well as glass fiber, in contrast to traditional methods, which
use nonwoven fabric. Composite material samples were fabricated by combining liner materials
using various methods, and the structural characteristics of the liners were compared and analyzed
through short- and long-term flexural strength tests. A long-term test was conducted for 10,000 h,
and the results revealed 13.3 times higher flexural strength and 8 times higher flexural modulus
than the American Society for Testing Materials minimum criteria for CIPP short-term properties.
The maximum creep retention factor was 0.64, thereby reducing the design thickness of the CIPP by
up to 54%. The structural characteristics also improved when glass fibers were mixed with traditional
CIPP liner, making it possible to reduce the thickness by 30%. Glass fibers result in high structural
strength when combined with unsaturated polyester resin. Structural strength increased, even when
glass fibers were mixed with traditional CIPP liner. The main contribution of this research is the
development of a high strength CIPP liner and improvement of the structural properties of CIPP
lining without using the specially formulated resin or lining materials.

Keywords: trenchless technology; glass fiber; flexural strength; flexural modulus; creep test;
environmental engineering

1. Introduction
The purpose of sewer systems is to prevent urban flooding and maintain sanitary conditions.
To this end, sewer systems rapidly remove and transport surface rainwater and deliver sewage to
treatment plants. Sewer pipes are not visible because they are buried underground, but they are
also gradually damaged due to continuous traffic, ground loads, groundwater effects, and aging.
Aging sewer pipes crack, and the soil, tree roots, and groundwater that penetrate the cracks disrupt
the flow in the pipes. Sewage leaking out of the cracks leads to internal and external problems,
such as contaminating soil and causing sink holes [1]. To prevent or address these problems, repair or
replacement is required.
Aging sewer pipes need to be replaced, but general open-cut excavations obstruct traffic and cause
long-term inconvenience, thereby incurring social costs. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation, however,
necessitates less traffic control [2], causes fewer complaints and environmental impacts [3], leads to

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073; doi:10.3390/ijerph17062073 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 2 of 15

lower accident
Int. J. Environ. Res.risks
Public[4], and2020,
Health improves
17, x productivity [5] and economic efficiency [6]. Therefore, it is
desirable to extend the service lives of sewer pipes by rehabilitating them if possible.
Trenchless sewer rehabilitation includes various methods, such as pipe bursting, slip lining, and
Trenchless sewer rehabilitation includes various methods, such as pipe bursting, slip lining,
modified cross-section liners [7], but cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) has been most widely used. CIPP is
and modified cross-section liners [7], but cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) has been most widely used. CIPP
a method in which a liner impregnated with thermosetting resin is placed into an existing sewer pipe,
is a method in which a liner impregnated with thermosetting resin is placed into an existing sewer pipe,
expanded by hydrostatic or air pressure, attached to the inner surface of the pipe, and cured on-site
expanded by hydrostatic or air pressure, attached to the inner surface of the pipe, and cured on-site by
by applying heat [8,9]. The CIPP construction method can be largely divided into the manufacturing
applying heat [8,9]. The CIPP construction method can be largely divided into the manufacturing and
and site installation processes (Figure 1). In a factory, a liner is manufactured to fit the size of the
site installation processes (Figure 1). In a factory, a liner is manufactured to fit the size of the existing
existing sewer pipe. At the site, the condition of the pipe is inspected using closed-circuit television
sewer pipe. At the site, the condition of the pipe is inspected using closed-circuit television (CCTV).
(CCTV). After cleaning the pipe, the liner is inserted, cured, cooled, and finished. When the
After cleaning the pipe, the liner is inserted, cured, cooled, and finished. When the construction is
construction is completed, only the cured liner is left inside the pipe for its structural rehabilitation.
completed, only the cured liner is left inside the pipe for its structural rehabilitation. In terms of work
In terms of work hours, liner manufacturing takes a few days from material preparation to
hours, liner manufacturing takes a few days from material preparation to manufacturing, but a team can
manufacturing, but a team can install and finish a length of approximately 100 m on-site in a single
install and finish a length of approximately 100 m on-site in a single day. Although the field production
day. Although the field production rate may significantly vary depending on the site conditions,
rate may significantly vary depending on the site conditions, construction method, and workmanship,
construction method, and workmanship, CIPP is a useful technology for urban sewer rehabilitation
CIPP is a useful technology for urban sewer rehabilitation because it can significantly reduce traffic
because it can significantly reduce traffic obstruction during the construction period and excavation,
obstruction during the construction period and excavation, as compared to traditional excavation work.
as compared to traditional excavation work.

Figure1.1.Cured-in-place
Figure Cured-in-placepipe
pipe(CIPP)
(CIPP)installation
installationprocess.
process.

A combination of various technologies is required from the start of CIPP to the completion of
A combination of various technologies is required from the start of CIPP to the completion of
construction, but the key technology lies in manufacturing the CIPP liner itself. Traditional CIPP liner
construction, but the key technology lies in manufacturing the CIPP liner itself. Traditional CIPP liner
is made by impregnating nonwoven repair cloth with unsaturated polyester resin. As unsaturated
polyester resin in the liquid state cannot maintain its shape, it is impregnated into fabrics, such as
repair polyester felt, to maintain cylindrical shapes like those of sewer pipes. Unsaturated polyester
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 3 of 15

is made by impregnating nonwoven repair cloth with unsaturated polyester resin. As unsaturated
polyester resin in the liquid state cannot maintain its shape, it is impregnated into fabrics, such as
repair polyester felt, to maintain cylindrical shapes like those of sewer pipes. Unsaturated polyester
resin is a thermosetting resin. It is made by adding diluents such as styrene to unsaturated polyester
resin for free molding and by adding polymerization inhibitors to prevent polymerization during
transportation. The resin hardens when an appropriate temperature is applied after adding an initiator
and a catalyst [10]. Unsaturated polyester resin has high moldability, and is therefore used in various
fields. The unsaturated polyester resin used in CIPP must have a high cure initiation temperature
because it needs to stay outside for a long time, even in summer. CIPP resin must be sufficiently
impregnated in the cylinder-shaped liner along the pipe wall, and the resin must be able to move
inside the liner once it is installed inside the pipe. As the impregnation amount of the resin inside the
liner must be maintained before and after curing, and handling must be easy, it is important for the
resin to have an appropriate viscosity. In addition, conventional polyester resin for CIPP application
needs to comply with the minimum requirement for the chemical resistance properties in standard
domestic wastewater, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. ASTM F1216 [11] minimum chemical resistance requirements for domestic sanitary
sewer applications.

Chemical Solution Concentration (%)

Tap water (pH 6–9) 100
Nitric acid 5
Phosphoric acid 10
Sulfuric acid 10
Gasoline 100
Vegetable oil 100
Detergent 0.1
Soap 0.1

The economic efficiency of CIPP is determined by various elements, such as materials,

tube manufacturing methods, and construction methods. Among these elements, the flexural structural
property is the most important for determining the thickness of a CIPP liner. As the strength of CIPP
increases, its design can be performed with a smaller thickness and fewer materials. A liner with a
small amount of resin and a small thickness reduces on-site work hours due to the fast curing speed,
and is economical because of the low cost for maintaining the heat required for curing decreases.
Traditional CIPPs usually have a large liner thickness because the minimum requirement for the
flexural property is not high. Hot water or steam is used for curing, and a large amount of energy is
consumed via the transportation of hot water and heating the liner to a curable temperature. On the
other hand, CIPPs that use ultraviolet (UV) rays and glass fibers have high structural strength [12] and
can save energy because they do not use hot water. In addition, the combination of epoxy and glass
fibers [13], or epoxy and carbon fibers [14], can improve the flexural properties. However, epoxy and
carbon fibers are relatively costly. Moreover, various resins have been developed and used, including
vinyl ester resins with higher chemical resistance than polyester resin [15], and nonstyrene-based
resin and silicate resin without styrene odor [13]. General unsaturated polyester resin is competitive
in price compared to other resins, and thus, has been most widely used in CIPP liners for sewer
rehabilitation worldwide.
The new trend of CIPP research and development has focused on environmental implications and
high strength CIPP liners. Researchers have shown concern about styrene-based resin and its levels
in drinking water sources after the application of a CIPP. Donaldson [16] revealed that several water
sources after the application of CIPPs exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency’s maximum
containment level for drinking water of 0.1 mg/L. Ra et al. [17] and other researchers reported that
volatile and semivolatile organic compound (VOC/SVOC) emissions were detected during the sewer
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 4 of 15

CIPP installation process. Environmental implications and other hazardous material emissions during
the application of CIPP and their impact on humans are still the subject of debate, and need further
research. Polyester resin manufactures developed nonstyrene resin systems for the application CIPPs,
but the cost-benefit of using conventional resin systems has not been overcome.
CIPP liner manufacturers have introduced high strength liner materials. However, no similar
academic research about the development of these materials, nor any details of their short- and long-term
mechanical properties, has been published. Most previous research has focused on retrospective
evaluations of existing CIPP liners for long-term quality control and assurance [18,19].
Hot water or steam curing, which is the traditional curing method, can transfer temperature and
pressure evenly and in a stable manner, thereby enabling the construction of consistently good quality
materials. In addition, this curing method does not require special curing equipment, except boilers,
and exhibits excellent heat transfer characteristics. Therefore, the development of a high-strength
liner that uses ordinary hot water and steam has the benefits of improving strength and quality and
reducing costs.
In Int.
thisJ. Environ.
study,Res.thePublic
long- and
Health short-term
2020, 17, x structural characteristics of a composite liner, made by
adding glass fibers to unsaturated polyester resin and felt, were compared with those of a CIPP
CIPP liner manufacturers have introduced high strength liner materials. However, no similar
composite material
academic liner
research thatthe
about uses glass fibers
development for the
of these development
materials, of anofeconomical
nor any details high-strength
their short- and long-
CIPP liner.
term mechanical properties, has been published. Most previous research has focused on retrospective using
To this end, composite material samples were fabricated by combining liner materials
various evaluations
methods, and the structural
of existing CIPP liners characteristics of thecontrol
for long-term quality liners and
were compared
assurance and analyzed through
[18,19].
Hot water or
short- and long-term steam curing,
flexural strengthwhich is the traditional curing method, can transfer temperature and
tests.
pressure evenly and in a stable manner, thereby enabling the construction of consistently good
quality materials.
2. Experimental In addition,
Materials this curing method does not require special curing equipment, except
and Methods
boilers, and exhibits excellent heat transfer characteristics. Therefore, the development of a high-
Thestrength
CIPP liner
linerthat
samples used in
uses ordinary hotthis study
water were has
and steam fabricated by of
the benefits combining
improving the linerand
strength materials
quality
presented and reducing
in Table 2 with costs.
isophthalic unsaturated polyester resin and through lamination and
impregnation.In thisAstudy, the long- and
conventional short-term structural
unsaturated isophthaliccharacteristics
polyesterofresin
a composite liner, made
was diluted withbystyrene,
adding glass fibers to unsaturated polyester resin and felt, were compared with those of a CIPP
providing low viscosity to facilitate resin impregnation through liner materials. Styrene was also used
composite material liner that uses glass fibers for the development of an economical high-strength
as a monomer participating
CIPP liner. To this end,incomposite
the free radical
materialpolymerization process.byAcombining
samples were fabricated small amount (approximately
liner materials
1% of the resin
using weight)
various of peroxide
methods, was added
and the structural to catalyze
characteristics theliners
of the free were
radicals into the
compared and polymerization
analyzed
process.through
The resin
short-used in this study
and long-term flexuralwas produced
strength tests. by a mixture of isophthalic acid, unsaturated
dicarboxylic acids, and glycols. Figure 2 shows a generic structure of isophthalic polyester resin, which
2. Experimental Materials and Methods
is used for the majority of CIPP lining applications in the industry.
The CIPP liner samples used in this study were fabricated by combining the liner materials
presented in Table
Table 22. with
Summaryisophthalic unsaturated
of materials and itspolyester resin and
characteristics through
for CIPP lamination and
liner.
impregnation. A conventional unsaturated isophthalic polyester resin was diluted with styrene,
providing low viscosityName
Material to facilitate resin impregnation through liner materials.
Abbreviation Styrene was also used
Thickness Type
as a monomer participating in the free radical polymerization process. A small amount
Unsaturated polyester resin - n/a (Liquid state) Iso-type
(approximately 1% of the resin weight) of peroxide was added to catalyze the free radicals into the
Polyester nonwoven felt F 2 mm Polyester
polymerization process. The resin used in this study was produced by a mixture of isophthalic acid,
Polyester nonwoven felt with coating film CF 1.5 mm Polyester
unsaturated
Roving dicarboxylic
cross glass acids, and
fiber and chopped glycols.
strand mat Figure 2 G shows a generic structure
1 mm of isophthalic
E-glass
polyester resin, which is used for the majority of CIPP lining applications in the industry.

Figure 2. Generic
Figure structure
2. Generic structure of
of isophthalic polyester
isophthalic polyester resin
resin [20]. [20].

The basic thickness of the felt was 2 mm, but this was adjusted by stacking several layers when
necessary. The polyester nonwoven felt (F) is polyester-based, as with unsaturated polyester resin. It
has excellent material binding and adhesion performance, and the space of the felt structure induces
and stores resin impregnation. The felt also secures sufficient tensile strength, thereby preventing
excessive stretch or expansion/contraction and maintaining the shape of a CIPP liner during its
study, one layer of 0.5 mm-thick glass fibers woven into a lattice was bonded to one layer of 0.5-mm-
thick glass fibers that were finely chopped and attached like a nonwoven fabric. All the fibers were
made of E-glass (Figure 3b). As this glass fiber had two layers, it was relatively thick. The handling
was easy because the two layers maintained its shape, and it has various benefits, such as no
directivity. The above materials were mixed using various methods, and tests were conducted to5find
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 of 15
the optimal structural characteristics.
The preparation of CIPP liner samples follows a standard practice used in the industry. The
curingThe basic thickness
process used hotofwater the felt
as was 2 mm,
a heat but this
source for was adjusted
the resin by stacking several
polymerization, but thelayers when
potential
degradation issue is eliminated by wrapping waterproof film layers. The water effect during theresin.
necessary. The polyester nonwoven felt (F) is polyester-based, as with unsaturated polyester life
It hasservice
cycle excellentof material
the CIPPbinding
liner is and adhesion performance,
not considered, and theused
but the materials spaceinof thestudy
this felt structure induces
are not known
and
to be stores resin by
degradable impregnation. The felt also secures sufficient tensile strength, thereby preventing
aquatic conditions.
excessive stretch or expansion/contraction and maintaining the shape of a CIPP liner during its
installation inside aTable sewer 2. pipe.
Summary of materials and its characteristics for CIPP liner.
A polyester nonwoven felt with coating film (CF) Abbreviation
Material Name was used on the outer surface of the
Thickness liner.
Type
The impermeable film attached
Unsaturated to resin
polyester the felt prevents damage to -the tube and n/aimproves the liner
(Liquid state) curing
Iso-type
quality by separating sewage
Polyester fromfelt
nonwoven the resin. In addition, it protects
F the liner against
2 mm various pollutants
Polyester
containedPolyester nonwoventhereby
in the sewage, felt with coating
ensuringfilm appropriate curing CF and extending 1.5the
mm service life
Polyester
of the
Roving cross glass fiber and chopped strand mat G 1 mm E-glass
liner (Figure 3a). The thickness of the felt and film was approximately 1.5 mm, and that of the film was
0.5 mm.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3.3.Appearance
Appearanceofofmaterials
materialsfor
forCIPP
CIPPliner.
liner.(a)
(a)Polyester
Polyesternonwoven
nonwovenfelt
feltwith
withCF
CFand
and(b)
(b)Roving
Roving
cross glass fiber and chopped strand mat.
cross glass fiber and chopped strand mat.

Samples for short-

For the roving andglass
cross long-term
fiber tests were fabricated
and chopped strandinmat accordance
(G), which withis ASTM
the main D790 [21]. The
material of
mold for theone
this study, samples
layer ofwas
0.5amm-thick
plate-typeglass
made of stainless
fibers woven intosteelawith dimensions
lattice was bonded of 207 × 239
to one mm
layer of
(Figure 4). The glass
0.5-mm-thick samples were
fibers prepared
that by placing
were finely choppedthe resin and the other
and attached like amaterials
nonwoven intofabric.
the moldAlland
the
performing
fibers were impregnation
made of E-glass and curing.
(Figure Each
3b). As sample had
this glass different
fiber had two thicknesses,
layers, it was depending
relativelyonthick.
the
material combinations,
The handling but theythe
was easy because were
two cut to the
layers same length
maintained and and
its shape, width, i.e.,various
it has 120 mm and 15such
benefits, mm, as
respectively. A The
no directivity. tableabove
saw was used for
materials themixed
were cutting, and various
using a diamond wheel blade
methods, for concrete,
and tests or a steel
were conducted to
blade foroptimal
find the acrylic resin, was used.
structural characteristics.
The preparation of CIPP liner samples follows a standard practice used in the industry. The curing
process used hot water as a heat source for the resin polymerization, but the potential degradation
issue is eliminated by wrapping waterproof film layers. The water effect during the life cycle service of
the CIPP liner is not considered, but the materials used in this study are not known to be degradable
by aquatic conditions.
Samples for short- and long-term tests were fabricated in accordance with ASTM D790 [21].
The mold for the samples was a plate-type made of stainless steel with dimensions of 207 × 239 mm
(Figure 4). The samples were prepared by placing the resin and the other materials into the mold
and performing impregnation and curing. Each sample had different thicknesses, depending on the
material combinations, but they were cut to the same length and width, i.e., 120 mm and 15 mm,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 6 of 15

respectively. A table saw was used for the cutting, and a diamond wheel blade for concrete, or a steel
blade for acrylic resin, was used.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Mold
Mold for
for CIPP sample production.
CIPP sample production.

2.1. Short-Term Test

Test
The liner of CIPP is a composite
composite material that combines thermosetting plastics with reinforcing
materials. The minimum strength criteria are a flexural strength of 31 MPa and a flexural modulus of
1724
1724 MPa,
MPa,asasprovided
providedbybythethemost
mostwidely used
widely usedASTM
ASTM F1216 [11].[11].
F1216 TheThe
domestic KS M
domestic KS3550-9 [22] also
M 3550-9 [22]
specifies the same
also specifies thestrength as the minimum
same strength value. These
as the minimum properties
value. Thesecan be obtained
properties canbybeconducting
obtained the
by
three-point
conducting bending test, suggested
the three-point by ASTM
bending D790, andby
test, suggested using the following
ASTM D790, and equations:
using the following
equations:
3PL
σ f = 3𝑃𝐿 (1)
𝜎𝑓 =2bd2 2 (1)
2𝑏𝑑

and
and
L3 m
EB = 3
, (2)
4bd
𝐿3 𝑚
𝐸𝐵 = , (2)
where σf is flexural stress (MPa). The maximum flexural 4𝑏𝑑 3stress before 5% flexural strain is the flexural

where σf (MPa).
strength P isstress
is flexural the load
(MPa). L ismaximum
(N),The the distance between
flexural points
stress (mm),
before b is the width
5% flexural strain of the flexural
is the sample
(mm), d is the thickness of the sample (mm),
strength (MPa). P is the load (N), L is the distance E B is the flexural modulus, and m is the initial
between points (mm), b is the width of the sampleslope of the
load-strain
(mm), d is the curve (N/mm).
thickness of the sample (mm), EB is the flexural modulus, and m is the initial slope of
The flexural
the load-strain strength
curve (N/mm).and modulus represent the magnitude of force-resisting bending compared
to theThe
thickness. In astrength
flexural three-point bending
and modulustest, the load is increased
represent until theof
the magnitude bar-type sample, fabricated
force-resisting bending
in accordance
compared withthickness.
to the the specifications suggestedbending
In a three-point by ASTM D790
test, the [21],
loadruptures,
is increasedand the corresponding
until the bar-type
vertical
sample,displacement is measured.
fabricated in accordance with the specifications suggested by ASTM D790 [21], ruptures, and
the corresponding vertical displacement is measured.
2.2. Long-Term Test
2.2. Long-Term Test of the load that can be supported by a CIPP liner is determined by the thickness of
The magnitude
the liner
The and the strength
magnitude of thecharacteristics
load that can of
bethe liner material.
supported Theliner
by a CIPP thickness of the liner
is determined byisthe
determined
thickness
using equations to obtain the load value for the liner thickness, which are given by
of the liner and the strength characteristics of the liner material. The thickness of the linerASTM F1216 [11]
is
based on the theory on liner deformation characteristics under an external load. The equations
determined using equations to obtain the load value for the liner thickness, which are given by ASTM are given
below
F1216 in Equation
[11] based (3)
on for
thepartial
theoryrepair, which
on liner is used when
deformation the existing sewer
characteristics underpipe
an can sufficiently
external load. take
The
care of external force, and Equation (4) for complete repair, which is used under the assumption
equations are given below in Equation 3 for partial repair, which is used when the existing sewer that
pipe can sufficiently take care of external force, and Equation 4 for complete repair, which is used
under the assumption that the existing sewer pipe can no longer maintain its structural performance.
These equations originate from ASTM F1216 [11] expressions derived to obtain the liner thickness:
𝐷
t= ,
3 2𝐾𝐸𝐿,50 𝐶
√ +1
(3)
𝑃𝑁(1−𝑣2 )
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 7 of 15

the existing sewer pipe can no longer maintain its structural performance. These equations originate
from ASTM F1216 [11] expressions derived to obtain the liner thickness:

D
t= q , (3)
3 2KEL,50 C
PN (1−v2 )
+1

and v
u
t  Nq 2
t
3
C
t = 0.721D , (4)
EL,50 RW B0Es 0
where t is the thickness of the CIPP liner (mm), D is the inner diameter of the sewer pipe, K is the
support improvement factor, EL,50 is the 50-year long-term modulus of elasticity (MPa), C is the shape
reduction factor, P is the groundwater pressure (MPa), N is the safety factor, ν is Poisson’s ratio, qt is
the total external pressure applied to the pipe (MPa), Rw is the buoyancy factor of water, B’ is the elastic
support coefficient, and E’s is the soil reaction coefficient (MPa).
EL,50 is the long-term modulus of elasticity (EL ) that remains 50 years after construction. EL is
determined by the ratio of the flexural stress (Equation (1)) to the flexural strain when a certain load is
given, as shown by:
σf
EL = . (5)
r
In addition, the flexural strain is obtained using:

6De f d
r= , (6)
L2
where r is the flexural strain (mm/mm), and Def is the deflection (mm).
In the short-term test, the changing deflection was measured, and the flexural stress was calculated
while the load was slowly changed. In the long-term test, however, the changing deflection was
measured, and EL was calculated over time under the fixed load condition. The test methods
followed the three-point bending test and sample specifications specified in ASTM D2990 [23] and
ASTM D790 [21]. The weight of the long-term load used in the long-term test was calculated using
Equation (7), as suggested by WIS 4-34-04 [24]:

bd2 S
M= (kg), (7)
14.71L
where M is the long-term load (kg), and S is the flexural strength (MPa), which is equal to 0.0025EB . EB
is the flexural modulus.
It is generally recommended that the long-term test be conducted for 10,000 h [25]. Based on
the test data, the long-term modulus of elasticity at 50 years (438,000 h) is obtained through linear
estimation on a log scale, and the value is described as EL,50 . As 10,000 h exceeds one year, the test
is sometimes replaced with 1,000 h test. In this study, however, the test was conducted for more
than 10,000 h for a more standardized test. The deflection measurement intervals and frequencies
were 30 times per minute, 9 times every 30 min, 45 times every hour, 45 times every 10 h, 20 times
every 25 h, 80 times every 50 h, and 80 times every 80 h. The total measurement time was 11,400 h.
The long-term modulus of elasticity was evaluated by calculating the creep retention factor (CRF, CL ),
which is the ratio of the long-term modulus of elasticity to the flexural modulus, shown in Equation (8),
and comparing the values.
EL,50
CL = . (8)
EB
The typical values presented in the literature are 0.5 (polyester resin in nonwoven felt), 0.2 (epoxy
in woven hose), and 0.7 (epoxy in fiberglass matrix) [11,13]. As CL is closer to 1, the material has
 3.
3. The
The
felt and sample
sample F group
F
resin. While group
While was fabricated
was
F was
was the control
the controlfor group
group
testingandthe
and was
was fabricated
fabricated
properties using
ofusing only the
only
the traditional
traditional the polyester
polyester
liner, the nonwoven
the nonwoven
CFF group
felt
felt and
and resin.
resin. While F
F was fabricated
fabricated for
for testing
testing the
the properties
properties of
of the
the traditional liner,
liner, the CFF
CFF group
group
felt
felt and
and resin.
resin. While
While F
F was
was fabricated
fabricated for
for testing
testing the
the properties
properties of
of the
the traditional
traditional liner,
liner, the
the CFF
CFF group
group
had
had the
the shape
shape of
of a traditional
aa traditional CIPP
CIPP tube
tube that
that is
is installed
installed in
in the
the field.
field. The
The sample
sample CFF
CFF group
group was
was
had
had thethe shape
the shape
shape of of traditional
of aa traditional
traditional CIPP CIPP
CIPP tube tube
tube thatthat
that is is installed
is installed
installed in in the
in the field.
the field. The
field. The sample
The sample
sample CFF CFF
CFF groupgroup
group was was
was
had
fabricated by
fabricated by placing
placing the the polyester
polyester nonwovennonwoven felt felt with
with the the coating
coating film,film, on on the the top
top and and bottom
bottom
fabricated
fabricated by
by placing
placing the
the polyester
polyester nonwoven
nonwoven felt
felt with
with the
the coating
coating film,
film, on
on the
the top
top and
and bottom
bottom
fabricated
surfaces, the
surfaces, byfelt
the placing
felt in thethe
in the polyester
middle,
middle, and by
and nonwoven
by felt with thethem
finally impregnating
finally impregnating themcoatingwithfilm,
with on the
the resin.
the resin. The
Thetop CFand
CF bottom
is expected
is expected
surfaces,
surfaces, the the felt
the felt in
felt in the
in the middle,
the middle,
middle, and and
and by by finally
by finally impregnating
finally impregnating
impregnating them them
them with with the
with the resin.
the resin.
resin. The The
The CF CF
CF is is expected
is expected
expected
surfaces,
to have
to have
Int. J. Environ. no
Res.no impact
impact
Public Healthon on the
2020,the strength of
strength
17, 2073 of the
the liner
liner because
because it it does
does not not absorb
absorb the the resin
resin 8due due to its
of 15to its
to have
to have
have no no impact
no impact
impact on on
on thethe strength
the strength
strength of of the
of the liner
the liner because
liner because
because it it does
it does
does not not absorb
not absorb
absorb the the resin
the resin
resin due due
due to to its
to its
its
to
impervious
impervious property,
property, but there
but there is is no
no published
published report confirming
report confirming this. This
this. This sample
sample was was fabricated
fabricated to
to
impervious
impervious property,
property, but
but there
there is
is no
no published
published report
report confirming
confirming this.
this. This
This sample
sample was
was fabricated
fabricated to
to
impervious
experimentally
experimentally property,
identify
identify but there
the
the effect
effectis no
of
of published
the
the CF
CF on
on report
the
the CIPP
CIPP confirming
liner.
liner. this. This sample was fabricated to
experimentally
experimentally identify
identify the
the effect
effect of
of the
the CF
CF on
on the
the CIPP
CIPP liner.
liner.
betterexperimentally
structural
The sample
The performance
sample identify
G group
G group in was
the the
was long-term
effect of the CF
fabricated
fabricated because
by theitsCIPP
byonstacking
stacking deformation
liner. across
roving
roving is small
across glass
glass under
fiber,a chopping
fiber, long-term the
chopping load,
the strand
strand
The
The sample
sample G group
G group
group was fabricated
was fabricated
fabricated by stacking
by stacking
stacking roving roving
roving acrossacross glass
across glass fiber,
glass fiber, chopping
fiber, chopping
chopping the the strand
the strand
strand
making it
mats,
mats, possible
The
and
and sample
then
then to design
G
impregnating
impregnating a smaller
was them
them thickness.
with
with by
the
the resin.
resin. This
This group
group is
is similar
similar to
to the
the FRP
FRP structure
structure that is
that is
mats,
mats, and
and then
then impregnating
impregnating them
them with
with the
the resin.
resin. This
This group
group is
is similar
similar to
to the
the FRP
FRP structure
structure that is
that isis
mats,
used
used and
in
in then
various
various impregnating
areas,
areas, such
such as
as them
ships,
ships, with
building
building the resin.
materials,
materials, This group
sporting
sporting is similar
goods,
goods, to
and
and the FRP
bathtubs.
bathtubs. structure
It
It is
is strong
strong thatand
and
used
3. Results
used in in
and various areas,
Discussion
in various
various areas,
areas, such such
such as as ships, building
as ships, building materials,
building materials, sporting
materials, sporting goods,
sporting goods, and and bathtubs.
and bathtubs.
bathtubs. It It is
It is strong
is strong
strong and and
and
used
elastic, inexpensive,
elastic, inexpensive, light, andships,
light, and highly resistant
highly resistant to environmental goods,
to environmental factors [26].
factors [26]. TheThe CIPP CIPP liner
liner cured by
cured by
elastic,
elastic, inexpensive,
inexpensive, light,
light, and
and highly
highly resistant
resistant to
to environmental
environmental factors
factors [26].
[26]. The
The CIPP
CIPP liner
liner cured
cured by
by
elastic,
the
the UV
UV inexpensive,
method
method was
was light, and
installed
installed highly
after
after resistant
making
making a to
tube
aa tube environmental
by
by wrapping
wrapping factors
the
the [26].
outer
outer The
surface
surface CIPP
of
of liner
these
these cured
materials
materialsby
3.1. Short-Term
the UV Structural
method was Characterization
installed after making tube by wrapping the outer surface of these materials
the
the UV method was installed after making a tube by wrapping the outer surface of these materials
withUV
with method was
impervious
impervious film,
film, installed
UV blocking
UV after making
blocking film, and
film, a tube
and by wrapping
antidamage
antidamage film.the
film. outer G#
Sample
Sample surface
G# of theseof
(#: number
(#: number ofmaterials
stacked
stacked
with
with
To test impervious
impervious
the short-term film,
film, UV
UV
properties,blocking
blockingfive film,
film,
types and
and
of antidamage
antidamage
samples were film.
film.
fabricated Sample
SamplethroughG#
G# (#:
(#:
the number
number
combination of stacked
of stacked
stacked
with impervious
layers) was
layers) was fabricated film,
fabricated from UV
from G4 blocking
G4 to to G7.
G7. film, and antidamage film. Sample G# (#: number of
layers)
layers)
of onelayers) was
was
unsaturated fabricated
fabricated
polyester from
from
resin G4
G4
for to
to G7.
G7.
sewer repair and three reinforcing materials, as shown in Table 3.
Aswas
As for fabricated
for the FG
the FG sample from group,
sample G4 to G7.
group, the polyester
the polyester nonwoven
nonwoven felt felt was
was placed
placed on on thethe top,
top, and and bottom
bottom
The sample As
As for
for the
the FG
FG sample
sample group,
group, the
the polyester
polyester nonwoven
nonwoven felt
felt was
was placed
placed on
on the
the top,
top, and
and bottom
bottom
AsF for
surfaces
surfaces
group
andthe
and
was
glass
glass
the control
FGfibers
sample
fibers were
were group,group
placed
placed theand
in the
the
was
inpolyester fabricated
middle.
middle. Eachusing
nonwoven
Each layer
layer feltonly
was
was
the
wasthen
then polyester
placed on the
impregnated
impregnated
nonwoven
top, with
withandthe felt
thebottom
resin.
resin.
surfaces
surfaces
and resin. Whileand glass
andFglass
glass
was fibers
fabricated were
fibers were
were forplaced
placed
testing in
inthethe middle.
theproperties
middle. Each Each
Each
of layer
layer
the was then
was then
traditional impregnated
thenliner,
impregnated
the CFF with
with the
group the
the
had resin.
resin.
surfaces
In
In general,
general, and CIPP
CIPP fibers
liners
liners that
that use
useplaced
glass
glass in the
fibers
fibers middle.
are
are combined
combined layer
with
with was UV-curable
UV-curable impregnated
resins,
resins, with
but
but this
this resin.
sample
sample
In
In
the shape general,
general,
of a CIPP
CIPP
traditional liners
liners
CIPP that
that
tube use
usethatglass
glass
is fibers
fibers
installed are
are
in combined
combined
the field. Thewith
with UV-curable
UV-curable
sample CFF group resins,
resins,was but
but this
this
fabricated sample
sample
In general,
group
group was CIPP
was designed
designed liners to that
to use use glass fibers
use traditional
traditional hot water
hot are combined
water or steam
or with UV-curable
steam curing.
curing. groupresins,
This group
This ranged
ranged butfrom
fromthis FG2F
sample
FG2F to
to
group
groupthe
by placing was
was designed
designed
polyester to
nonwoven use
to use traditional
use traditional
traditional
felt with hot
the water
hotcoating
water or or steam
or steam
film,steam
on curing.
curing.
the top and This
This group
group
bottom ranged
rangedthe
surfaces, from
from felt FG2F
FG2F
in to
to
group was
FG5F, depending
FG5F, designed
depending on on theto
the number
number of of stacked hot
stacked glasswater
glass fiber
fiber layers.
layers.curing. This group ranged from FG2F to
FG5F,
the middle, depending
FG5F, depending
depending
andsample
by finally on the number
on impregnating
the number
number of of stacked
ofthem
stacked with glass
glass fiber layers.
fiber layers.
the resin. layers.
The CF is expected to have noaimpact
FG5F, The
The sample on
CFG
CFG the
group has
group has thethe stacked
outer
outer glass
surface
surface fiber
wrapped
wrapped with
with coating felt.
coating felt. It has
It has form in
aa form inonwhich
which
the strength The
The of sample
sample
the liner CFG
CFGbecausegroup
group it has
has
does the
the
not outer
outer
absorb surface
surface
the resinwrapped
wrapped
due to with
with
its coating
coating
impervious felt.
felt. It
It
property, has
has a
but form
formthere in
iniswhich
which
glass
glass The sample
fibers
fibers are
are CFG
added
added group
to
to the
the has
core
corethe outer
of
of the
the surface
traditional
traditional wrapped
CIPP
CIPP with
liner.
liner. coating
CF
CF was
was felt.
used
used It has
to
to a form
enable
enable in
the
the which
actual
actual
glass
no published fibers
glass fibers
fibers
report are added
areconfirming
added to to the
to the
the
this. core
core
This of the
ofsample traditional
the traditional
traditional
was CIPP liner.
CIPP liner.
fabricated liner.
to CF was
CF was
was used
experimentally used
used to enable
to enable
identify enablethe the actual
the actual
effect actual
glass
installation of
installation are
of the added
the FG FG group.
group. Three core of
Three glass the
glass fiber
fiber sheets
sheets were CIPP
were placed
placed in CF
in the
the middle
middle to to
to increase the
increase strength.
strength.
installation
installation
of theinstallation
CF on the CIPP of
of the
the FG
FG
liner. group.
group. Three
Three glass
glass fiber
fiber sheets
sheets were
were placed
placed in
in the
the middle
middle to
to increase
increase strength.
strength.
of the FG group. Three glass fiber sheets were placed in the middle to increase strength.
Table 3.
3. Test
Test samples.
samples.
TableTable
Table
3. Test3.
Table Test samples.
3.samples.
Test samples.
samples.
Table 3. Test
Group Samples
Group Samples Designations
Designations Standard Images
Standard Images of
of Samples
Samples
Group Group
Group Samples
Samples
Samples Designations
Designations
Designations Standard Images
StandardImages
Standard of
Images of
of Samples
Samples
ofSamples
Samples
Group Samples Designations Standard Images
F
F F
F
F F
F FF F FF

CFF
CFF CFFCF
CFFCF
CFF CFF
CFF CFFCF
CFFCFCFFCF
CFFCF
CFF

G
G G4 G4 / G5 / G6 / G7
/ G5 // G6 / G7
G G
G G4/G5/G6/G7
G4
G4 // G5
G5 / G6
G6 // G7
G7
G G4 / G5 / G6 / G7

FG2F // FG3F
FG2F FG3F //
FG FG FG2F / FG3F
FG2F/FG3F/FG4F/FG5F
FG FG2F /
FG
FG FG4F///FG3F
FG2F FG3F
FG5F//
FG4F // FG5F
FG FG4F FG5F
FG4F // FG5F
FG5F
FG4F

CFG CFG
CFG CFG3CF
CFG3CF
CFG3CF
CFG
CFG CFG3CF
CFG3CF
CFG CFG3CF

The short-term
The
The sample short-term property
G groupproperty test results
test
was fabricated results of these
of
by stackingtheseroving
samples
samples are shown
are
across shown in Figure
in
glass fiber, Figure 5. Figure
5.
chopping Figure 5(a) shows
5(a)
the strand shows
The short-term
The short-term
short-term property
property test results
test results
results of these
of these samples
these samples
samples are shown
are shown
shown in Figure
in Figure
Figure 5. Figure
5. Figure
Figure 5(a) shows
5(a) shows
shows
that The
the flexural property
strength of test
F was 48 of
MPa, and the are
corresponding in
flexural 5.
strain was 5(a)
2.4%. The
mats,that
andthe
that
that thenflexural
the
the flexural
strength
impregnating
flexural strength
strength
of
them
of
of
F
F
F
was
with
was
was
48
the
48
48
MPa,
resin. and
MPa,
MPa, Thisthe
and
and the
the
corresponding
group is similar to flexural
corresponding
corresponding the FRP strain
flexural
flexural structure
strain
strain
was
was
was
2.4%.
that is The
2.4%.
2.4%. The
The
that the
flexural flexural
strength strength
of CFFCF,
CFFCF, of F was
forbuilding 48 MPa,
which coating
coating and the corresponding
feltsporting
was added
added to F,
F, wasflexural
was strain
similarItto was
toisthat
that 2.4%.
of F,
F, The
but its
its
used flexural
in various
flexural strength
areas,
strength
flexural strength
strength of
of
such
of as
of CFFCF,ships,
CFFCF,
CFFCF, for
for
for which
which
for which materials,
coating
which coating
coating felt
felt
felt was
was
felt was goods,
added
was added
added to
to
to and
F,
to F, was
F, was
similar
bathtubs.
similar
was similar
similar to to that
to that
of
strong
of
that of and
F,
of F,
but
but
F, but its
but its
its
flexural
strain
strain was
was approximately
approximately double.
double. Equation
Equation 1 shows
11 shows that
that the
the flexural
flexural stress
stress is inversely proportional
elastic, inexpensive,
strain
strain was
was light, and highly
approximately
approximately double.
double. resistant
Equation
Equation to environmental
1 shows
shows that
that the
thefactors
flexural
flexural[26]. The is
stress
stress is
is
inversely
CIPP
inversely
inversely
proportional
liner cured by
proportional
proportional
strain
to the was
to method
the square
square approximately
ofinstalled double.
the thickness.
thickness. Equation
It was
was predicted1 shows
that thethatimpervious
the the flexuralfilm
impervious stress
film is inversely
contained proportional
by CFFCF
CFFCF would
the UVto the
to the square
the square
square wasof
of the
the
of the thickness.
the thickness.
thickness.
It
after making
It was
It was
predicted
wasapredicted
predicted
predicted
that
tube by wrapping
that the
that the the outer surface
impervious
the impervious
impervious film contained
contained
film contained
contained
by
of these materials
by CFFCF
by CFFCF
CFFCF withwould
would
would
to
have no
have no of
impact
impact on strength
on strength It
because
because it does
it that
does film.
not absorb
not absorb resin.
resin. film
Therefore,
Therefore, the
the by
flexural
flexural stress
stress would
curve
curve
impervious
have
have no nofilm,
no impactUV
impact blocking
impact on on film,
strength
on strength and
because
strength because antidamage
because it it does
it does
does notnot Sample
absorb
not absorb G#
resin.
absorb resin. (#: number
Therefore,
resin. Therefore, of
Therefore, the stacked
the layers)
flexural
the flexural was
stress
flexural stress curve
stress curve
curve
have
calculated,
calculated, except
except the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the coating
coating felt
felt (1
(1 mm),
mm), was
was found
found to
to be
be CFFCF-C,
CFFCF-C, which
which exhibited
exhibited
fabricated from G4
calculated,
calculated, to G7.
except
except the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the coating
coating felt
felt (1
(1 mm),
mm), was
was found
found to
to be
be CFFCF-C,
CFFCF-C, which
which exhibited
exhibited
calculated,
increased
increased except the
flexural thickness
strength buttheof the coating
decreased strain felt (1 mm), was
compared towas found Compared
CFFCF. to be CFFCF-C,
Compared to F, which
F,and
both theexhibited
flexural
As for the flexural
increased
increased FG sample
flexural
flexural
strength
strength
but
group,
strength but decreased
polyester
decreased
but decreased
decreased
strain
strain
strain
compared
nonwoven
compared
compared feltto
to CFFCF.
CFFCF.
to CFFCF.
CFFCF.placedCompared
Compared
to
on the top,
to F,
to F,
both
both
F, both
the
bothbottom
the flexural
flexural
the flexural
flexural
increased flexural strength but strain compared to Compared to the
surfaces and glass fibers were placed in the middle. Each layer was then impregnated with the resin.
In general, CIPP liners that use glass fibers are combined with UV-curable resins, but this sample group
was designed to use traditional hot water or steam curing. This group ranged from FG2F to FG5F,
depending on the number of stacked glass fiber layers.
The sample CFG group has the outer surface wrapped with coating felt. It has a form in which
glass fibers are added to the core of the traditional CIPP liner. CF was used to enable the actual
installation of the FG group. Three glass fiber sheets were placed in the middle to increase strength.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x

the curves smoothly increased and then dropped indicates that the glass fibers and the resin were
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 9 of 15
completely integrated.
Figure 5c shows the curves of the FG group. Some of the experiment results of Ji et al. [27] were
compared with thoseproperty
The short-term of F. Thetest
flexural
resultsstrength
of thesewas approximately
samples are shown three times
in Figure 5. higher
Figurethan that of
5a shows F,
that
and the strain
the flexural significantly
strength of F was increased.
48 MPa,FG3F andcorresponding
and the FG4F were continuously
flexural strainresistant to theThe
was 2.4%. increasing
flexural
load,
strength evenof though
CFFCF, the flexuralcoating
for which strain felt
exceeded 5%. For
was added to F,5% or similar
was higher tostrain, however,
that of F, but itsthe flexural
strain was
strength
approximatelyis not effective
double. in accordance
Equation with ASTM
(1) shows D790
that the [21]. stress is inversely proportional to the
flexural
square Figure
of the5d shows the
thickness. curve
It was of the CFG
predicted group.
that the There was
impervious filmno significant
contained by reduction
CFFCF would in strength,
have no
even
impact though three glass
on strength fiberitsheets
because does were inserted
not absorb in the
resin. middle, and
Therefore, the coating
the flexural feltcurve
stress was added. Due
calculated,
to the glass
except fibers, however,
the thickness a failure
of the coating occurred
felt (1 mm),atwas
a point
foundwhere
to bethe flexuralwhich
CFFCF-C, strain exhibited
was approximately
increased
5%. Here,
flexural the flexural
strength stress andstrain
but decreased straincompared
were also to
calculated, except the to
CFFCF. Compared thickness of the
F, both the coating
flexural felt (1
strength
mm), and the
and strain results These
increased. were found
resultstoindicate
be similar
thatto CFG3CF-C,
impervious CFwhich exhibited
increases strain.increased flexural
As the increased
strength but decreased
flexural strain flexural
did not exceed strain.
0.05 mm/mm (5%), the flexural strength was still effective.

(a) F vs. CFF (b) F vs. G

(c) F vs. FG (d) F vs. CFG

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Flexural
Flexural strain-stress
strain-stress curves
curves ofof short-term
short-term property tests of
property tests of CIPP
CIPP liner
liner samples:
samples: (a)
(a) F
F vs.
vs. CFF
CFF
(b)
(b) F
F vs.
vs. G,
G, (c)
(c) FF vs.
vs. FG,
FG, and
and (d)
(d) FF vs.
vs. CFG.
CFG.

The short-term
Figure 5b showsproperty test properties
the flexural results of the samples
of G, which arewassummarized
fabricated using in Table
only4.glass
An important
fibers and
factor
resin. in the design
Some of CIPP is theresults
of the experimental flexuralofmodulus. EL,50were
Ji et al. [27] is proportional
compared with to EBthose
, as shown in Equation
of F. The flexural
5, and theofthickness
strength of CIPP is inversely
G was approximately proportional
nine times to thethat
higher than cubeofofF.EIn , as shown in
L,50particular, Equations
a pattern 3 and
whereby
4.
theIf curves
the flexural modulus
smoothly increases,
increased and athen
thinner liner can
dropped be used.
indicates that the glass fibers and the resin were
The coating
completely felt of CFFCF slightly increased the flexural strain and the flexural strength;
integrated.
however, it reduced
Figure 5c showsthe theflexural
curvesmodulus
of the FGby more Some
group. than 30%. The
of the flexural modulus,
experiment results ofexcept the
Ji et al. coating
[27] were
felt, was similar
compared to thatofofF.the
with those TheF.flexural
Measures to improve
strength strength while three
was approximately maintaining the constructability
times higher than that of F,
and the strain significantly increased. FG3F and FG4F were continuously resistant to the increasing
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 10 of 15

load, even though the flexural strain exceeded 5%. For 5% or higher strain, however, the flexural
strength is not effective in accordance with ASTM D790 [21].
Figure 5d shows the curve of the CFG group. There was no significant reduction in strength,
even though three glass fiber sheets were inserted in the middle, and the coating felt was added. Due to
the glass fibers, however, a failure occurred at a point where the flexural strain was approximately 5%.
Here, the flexural stress and strain were also calculated, except the thickness of the coating felt (1 mm),
and the results were found to be similar to CFG3CF-C, which exhibited increased flexural strength but
decreased flexural strain.
The short-term property test results of the samples are summarized in Table 4. An important factor
in the design of CIPP is the flexural modulus. EL,50 is proportional to EB , as shown in Equation (5), and
the thickness of CIPP is inversely proportional to the cube of EL,50 , as shown in Equations (3) and (4).
If the flexural modulus increases, a thinner liner can be used.

Table 4. Short-term properties of CIPP samples.

Flexural Properties
Samples Thickness (d, mm)
Strain (r, %) Strength (σ f , MPa) Modulus (EB , MPa)
F 8.47 2.4 48 3488
CFFCF 9.06 4.3 52 2309
CFFCF excluding C 8.06 3.8 66 3279
G4 5.55 3.3 403 13,800
G5 5.85 3.1 414 13,700
G6 8.86 3.6 337 10,490
G7 9.03 3.4 365 10,820
FG2F 6.61 5 90 3474
FG3F 7.64 5 132 4718
FG4F 9.44 5 150 4830
FG5F 13.16 5 135 4200
CFG3CF 7.14 5 115 2917
CFG3CF excluding C 6.14 4.7 161 4586

The coating felt of CFFCF slightly increased the flexural strain and the flexural strength; however,
it reduced the flexural modulus by more than 30%. The flexural modulus, except the coating felt,
was similar to that of the F. Measures to improve strength while maintaining the constructability of the
traditional CIPP are FGF and CFGCF. The flexural strength increased by approximately three times,
and the flexural modulus increased by approximately 1.4 times compared to the original values.
When the structural characteristics of these materials were compared with the criterion of ASTM
F1216 [11], CFFCF with the lowest flexural modulus exhibited an approximately 1.4-times higher
value. G exhibited an approximately 8-times higher value, and FGF an approximately 2.8-times
higher value. CFGCF exhibited an approximately 1.7-times higher value. According to NASTT [13],
the flexural modulus and flexural strength of the CIPP liner made of nonwoven felt and polyester are
59 and 3,590 MPa, respectively. A comparison with these indicates that the addition of glass fibers
contributes to strengthening structural characteristics, and CFGCF becomes a compromise plan that has
the strength improvement effect while maintaining constructability. The presence of the impervious
CF was found to reduce the flexural strength and the flexural modulus by approximately 30%.

3.2. Long-Term Structural Characterization

The test results showed that EB was high when only glass fibers were mixed with the unsaturated
polyester resin. When the coating felt that improves constructability was added, however, an increase
in the overall thickness of the liner was inevitable. The long-term load test was conducted on the
following three samples: the samples that combined the unsaturated polyester resin with glass fibers
(G4 and G5), which exhibited the highest EB in Table 4, and the sample that combined the resin,
glass fibers, and coating felt (CFG3CF), which has excellent constructability.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 11 of 15

For the test, two samples were prepared for each sample, and thus, a total of six samples were
prepared. The long-term load (M) was calculated using Equation (7), and the results were found to
be 10, 15, and 4.5 kg, respectively (Table 5). The corresponding weight was placed in the center of
each sample, and a displacement meter was placed on top of it to measure the deflection (Figure 6).
The measurement results were recorded at determined time intervals using a data logger.

Table 5. Mechanical properties with long-term modulus of samples.

Samples d (mm) EB (MPa) M (kg) EL50 (MPa) CL (CRF)

G4 5.14 12,800 10 7121 0.56
G5 5.94 13,600 15 8688 0.64
CFG3CF excluding C 5.96 4590 4.5 2336 0.51
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x

Figure 6. Creep test loading.

Figure 6. Creep test loading.

In the
In the long-term
long-term loadload test,
test, the
the deflection
deflection measurement
measurement time time isis 10,000
10,000 h.h. Scatter
Scatter plots
plots and
and trend
trend
lines for x-y were drawn by converting the measurement time, which is the
lines for x-y were drawn by converting the measurement time, which is the x-axis, into a log scalex-axis, into a log scale
(Figure 7).
(Figure 7).Based
Based ononthe the
trendtrend
lines,lines, data
data are are the
above above
trendthe
linestrend
at thelines at theofbeginning
beginning of the
the measurement,
measurement, but they are below the trend lines after 100 h. As the graphs are also
but they are below the trend lines after 100 h. As the graphs are also on a log scale, the observation on a log scale, the
observation data after 100 h have the same importance as the data measured within
data after 100 h have the same importance as the data measured within the first ten hours, even though the first ten hours,
evenwere
they though they were
measured measured attime
at considerable considerable
intervals. time intervals.the
In particular, In moment
particular, the moment
at which at which
the weight was
the weight was first loaded to each sample and the behavior of the next few minutes
first loaded to each sample and the behavior of the next few minutes have a significant impact on the have a significant
impactcreep
entire on the entire creep test.
test.
EL,50 can be obtained by substituting 438,000 h, corresponding to 50 years, into these three
equations. G4 and G5, which have the same material and differ only in the number of glass fiber layers,
have high slopes and y-intercepts. On the other hand, the slope and y-intercept of the trend line of
CFG3CF exhibit low values. The trend lines of each case are given by:

y = −510.7 ln(x) + 13757, (9)

y = −1162 ln(x) + 23788, (10)

and
y = −219 ln(x) + 5182.2. (11)

Table 5 summarizes the results of the long-term load test. G4 and G5 exhibited high EL,50 values.
G5 showed the highest CRF (0.64), followed by G4 (0.56). It can be said that the liners made of glass
fibers have very high durability because their long-term, as well as short-term properties, are high.
CFG3CF showed a relatively low CRF (0.51).
(a) G4.
(Figure 7). Based on the trend lines, data are above the trend lines at the beginning of the
measurement, but they are below the trend lines after 100 h. As the graphs are also on a log scale, the
observation data after 100 h have the same importance as the data measured within the first ten hours,
even though they were measured at considerable time intervals. In particular, the moment at which
the weight was first loaded to each sample and the behavior of the next few minutes have a significant
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 12 of 15
impact on the entire creep test.

(a) G4.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x (b) G5.

(c) CFG3CF.

Figure 7. Experimental results of creep modulus for samples (a) G4, (b) G5, and (c) CFG3CF.
Figure 7. Experimental results of creep modulus for samples (a) G4, (b) G5, and (c) CFG3CF.
The minimum flexural modulus suggested by ASTM F1216 [11] is 1724 MPa. If the general CRF is
EL,50 can be obtained by substituting 438,000 h, corresponding to 50 years, into these three
0.5, the long-term modulus of elasticity after at least 50 years is 862 MPa. Since G4 and G5 have 8.3-
equations. G4 and G5, which have the same material and differ only in the number of glass fiber
layers, have high slopes and y-intercepts. On the other hand, the slope and y-intercept of the trend
line of CFG3CF exhibit low values. The trend lines of each case are given by:
y = −510.7 ln(x) + 13757, (9)

y = −1162 ln(x) + 23788, (10)

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 13 of 15

and 10-times higher values compared to this criterion, the liner thickness can be reduced by 51% and
54%. For CFG3CF, the liner thickness can be reduced by 30% because it has a 2.7-times higher value.

3.3. Discussion
The polyester felt used in liner composite materials increases the ductility of the liner, thereby
increasing the flexural strain. In ASTM D790, the flexural strength represents the maximum flexural
stress within 5% flexural strain. Thus, the flexural stress at 5% or higher strain is meaningless [21].
Depending on the samples, the felt increased the strain of the liner to more than 5%. On the other
hand, glass fibers contributed to achieving effective flexural stress within the limited strain because
they not only had the effect of increasing the flexural strength, but also decreased ductility and
increased stiffness.
Glass fibers increase the strength and modulus of elasticity [28]. When the CRF values were
compared, there was not a significant difference between the liner that used glass fibers and the one
that used the felt together; however, there was a significant difference in the design thickness.
The thickness of a CIPP liner is adjusted by the 50-year modulus of elasticity. The change in
the long-term modulus of elasticity is based on the deformation caused by the change in modulus of
elasticity by using a test method for observing the strain through the long-term load test. The test to
secure the quality of individual liners is practically very difficult because it requires a long time period,
i.e., 10,000 h. Therefore, in the design method suggested by ASTM, the flexural modulus (a short-term
property) is obtained. The long-term modulus of elasticity is obtained by multiplying it by the general
CRF of 0.5, and is used for the CIPP thickness design. Using the existing CRF for new materials,
however, sometimes plays a decisive role in underestimating good materials or overestimating bad
ones. In NASTT [13], CRF varied from 0.2 to 0.7 depending on the combination of polyester, epoxy,
felt, and glass fibers. Riahi [15] showed that CRF varied from 0.01 to 0.87, depending on the types of
vinyl ester resins and glass fibers. To avoid uncertainty in material strength evaluation, the test on the
long-term modulus of elasticity must be conducted.
The test, however, is highly likely to involve a high degree of uncertainty because it performs
the extrapolation of the results after 50 years from the results obtained during a limited time period.
Trenchless technology has expanded its application range in the sewer system market, and follow-up
studies have been conducted on the existing CIPP [29]. These follow-up studies are significant because
they provide insight into the long-term behavior of CIPP liners, and they can complement the long-term
modulus of elasticity. It is necessary to establish more precise methodologies based on the results of
these studies.

4. Conclusions
In this study, CIPP liners were fabricated in various combinations using glass fibers, which have
been more frequently used in trenchless sewer rehabilitation, and the structural characteristics of each
case were analyzed. When only glass fibers and unsaturated polyester resin were used, the flexural
strength was 13.3 times higher, and the flexural modulus was 8 times higher compared to the minimum
criteria of ASTM F1216 [11]. In addition, the flexural strength was 6.2 times higher, and the flexural
modulus was 3.6 times higher than the general CIPP liner suggested by NASTT [13]. When the coating
felt with impervious film was added to this to allow the use of traditional hot water and steam curing,
the flexural strength decreased to 161 MPa and the flexural modulus to 4.59 GPa, but these values were
still high compared to the existing liner.
The 50-year modulus of elasticity was approximately 8 GPa when only glass fibers and unsaturated
polyester resin were used, and 2.3 GPa when the coating felt was added. The CRF, which represents
flexural modulus degradation over time, ranged from 0.51 to 0.64. These values were slightly higher
compared to the CRF (0.5) of the traditional liner that used the unsaturated polyester resin and felt
suggested by NASTT [13]. The long-term modulus of elasticity has a direct effect on the design
thickness of a CIPP liner, and it is possible to reduce the liner thickness by 30–54%.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2073 14 of 15

Felt and coating felt increase ductility, which is lacking in resins, through curing with unsaturated
polyester resin, but they reduce the flexural strength and the flexural modulus. As traditional CIPPs
use only resin and felt, strength degradation cannot be prevented. Glass fibers, however, offset the
strength degradation of felt by increasing the strength of a CIPP liner. The use of glass fibers with the
composition of materials like that was suggested in this study can improve the strength of a liner while
maintaining existing CIPP manufacturing and construction practices.

Author Contributions: Investigation and writing—original draft preparation, H.W.J.; validation and supervision,
D.D.K.; data curation and writing—review and editing, J.-H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This subject is supported by the Korea Ministry of Environment (MOE: 2017-0007-00001) as “Public
Technology Program based on Environmental Policy.”
Acknowledgments: We acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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