Part VI

1. Fade Margin
2. Combined Uplink and Downlink
3. Intermodulation Noise
 Uplink rain-fade margin
• Rainfall results in degrading the 𝐶 𝑁0 at the satellite in
two ways.
– Attenuation of the signal and
– Increase in noise temperature
• The increase in noise, however, is not usually a major for
the uplink.
– This is so because the satellite antenna is pointed towards the
earth,
• This added to the satellite receiver noise temperature tends
to mask any additional noise induced by rain attenuation.
• What is important is that the uplink carrier power at the
satellite must be held within close limits for certain modes
of operation,
– Some form of uplink power control is necessary to compensate
for rain fades.
 Uplink rain-fade margin
• The power output from the satellite may be
monitored by a central control station or by each
earth station, and
– The power output from any given earth station may
be increased if required to compensate for fading.
• Thus the earth-station HPA must have sufficient reserve
power to meet the fade margin requirement.
• As an example, for Ottawa, the rain attenuation
exceeds 1.9 dB for 0.1 percent of the time.
– This means that to meet the specified power
requirements at the input to the satellite for 99.9
percent of the time, the earth station must be
capable of providing a 1.9-dB margin over the clear-
sky conditions.
 Downlink rain-fade margin
• The results for clear sky conditions given by
𝐶 𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝐷 + − 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆𝐸𝑆 𝐷 − 𝑘
𝑁𝑂 𝐷 𝑇 𝐷
𝐶 𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝐷 + − 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆𝐸𝑆 𝐷 − 𝑘 − 𝐵
𝑁 𝐷 𝑇 𝐷
• Rainfall introduces attenuation by absorption and
scattering of signal energy, and the absorptive
attenuation introduces noise.
• Let 𝐴 𝑑𝐵 represent the rain attenuation caused by
absorption.
• The corresponding power loss ratio is
𝐴 = 10 𝐴 10
 Downlink rain-fade margin
• Substituting this for L in the equation
1
𝑇𝑁𝑊,𝑂 = 𝑇𝑥 1−
𝐿
– Where 𝑇𝑁𝑊,𝑂 is the equivalent noise temperature of the network
referred to the output terminals of the network.
– 𝑇𝑥 is the temperature at which the antenna matched to a resistive
source.
• Thus gives the effective noise temperature of the rain as
1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑎 1 −
𝐴
• Here, 𝑇𝑎 , which takes the place of 𝑇𝑥 , is known as the apparent
absorber temperature.
• It is a measured parameter which is a function of many factors
including the physical temperature of the rain and the scattering
effects of the rain cell on the thermal noise incident upon it.
• The value of the apparent absorber temperature lies between 270
and 290 K,
 Downlink rain-fade margin
• The total sky-noise temperature is the clear-sky temperature
𝑇𝐶𝑆 plus the rain temperature,
𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 𝑇𝐶𝑆 + 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
• Rainfall therefore degrades the received 𝐶 𝑁0 in two ways:
by attenuating the carrier wave and by increasing the sky-noise
temperature.
Problem
Under clear-sky conditions, the downlink 𝐶 𝑁 is 20dB, the
effective noise temperature of the receiving system being 400K. If
rain attenuation exceeds 1.9dB for 0.1 percent of the time,
calculate the value below which 𝐶 𝑁 falls for 0.1 percent of the
time. Assume 𝑇𝑎 = 280𝐾.
 Answer
• 1.9 dB attenuation is equivalent to a 1.55:1 power loss.
• The equivalent noise temperature of the rain is therefore
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 280 1 − 1 1.55 = 99.2 𝐾
• The new system noise temperature is 400+99.2=499.2K.
• The decibel increase in noise power is therefore
10 log 499.2 − 10 log 400 = 0.96 𝑑𝐵
• At the same time, the carrier is reduced by 1.9dB, and
• Therefore, the 𝐶 𝑁 with 1.9dB rain attenuation drops to
20 - 1.9 - 0.96 = 17.14 dB
• This is the value below which 𝐶 𝑁 drops for 0.1 percent of
the time.
 Combined Uplink and Downlink
𝐶 𝑁 Ratio
• The complete satellite circuit includes an uplink and a downlink, as
sketched in Fig. a.
 Combined Uplink and Downlink
𝐶 𝑁 Ratio
• Noise will be introduced on the uplink at the satellite
receiver input.
• Denoting the noise power per unit bandwidth by 𝑃𝑁𝑈 and
the average carrier at the same point by 𝑃𝑅𝑈 ,
• Thus the carrier-to-noise ratio on the uplink is
𝐶 𝑁0 𝑈 = 𝑃𝑅𝑈 𝑃𝑁𝑈
• The carrier power at the end of the space link is shown as
𝑃𝑅 , which of course is also the received carrier power for
the downlink.
• This is equal to  times the carrier power input at the
satellite, where  is the system power gain from satellite
input to earth-station input.
– It includes the satellite transponder and transmit antenna gains,
the downlink losses, and the earth-station receive antenna gain
and feeder losses.
 Combined Uplink and Downlink
𝐶 𝑁 Ratio
• The noise at the satellite input also appears at the earth station
input multiplied by ,
• In addition, the earth station introduces its own noise, denoted by
𝑃𝑁𝐷 .
– Thus the end-of-link noise is 𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈 + 𝑃𝑁𝐷 .
• The 𝐶 𝑁0 ratio for the downlink alone, not counting the 𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈
contribution, is 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑁𝐷
• The combined 𝐶 𝑁0 ratio at the ground receiver is
𝑃𝑅 𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈 + 𝑃𝑁𝐷
• The power flow diagram is shown in Figure.
 Combined Uplink and Downlink
𝐶 𝑁 Ratio
• The combined carrier-to-noise ratio can be determined
in terms of the individual link values.
• It is more convenient to work with the noise-to-carrier
ratios rather than the carrier-to-noise ratios,
– These must be expressed as power ratios, not decibels.
• Denoting the combined noise-to-carrier ratio value by 𝑁0 𝐶 , the
uplink value by 𝑁0 𝐶 𝑈 , and the downlink value by 𝑁0 𝐶 𝐷 then,
𝑁0 𝑃𝑁
=
𝐶 𝑃𝑅
𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈 + 𝑃𝑁𝐷 𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈 𝑃𝑁𝐷
= = +
𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅
𝛾𝑃𝑁𝑈 𝑃𝑁𝐷 𝑁0 𝑁0
= + = +
𝛾𝑃𝑅𝑈 𝑃𝑅 𝐶 𝑈 𝐶 𝐷
 Combined Uplink and Downlink
𝐶 𝑁 Ratio
𝑁0 𝑁0 𝑁0
= +
𝐶 𝐶 𝑈 𝐶 𝐷
• To obtain the combined value of 𝐶 𝑁0 ,
– The reciprocals of the individual values must be added to
obtain the 𝑁0 𝐶 ratio
– Then the reciprocal of this will be taken to get 𝐶 𝑁0 .
• The reason for this reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals method is that
– A single signal power is being transferred through the
system,
– The various noise powers present are additive.
• Similar reasoning applies to the carrier-to-noise ratio,
𝐶 𝑁.
 Problems
2. For a satellite circuit the individual link carrier-to-
noise spectral density ratios are: uplink 100 dBHz;
downlink 87 dBHz. Calculate the combined 𝐶 𝑁0
𝐶
ratio and .
𝑁0
Answer:
𝐶
= 4 × 108
𝑁0
𝐶
= −10 log 2.095 × 10−9
𝑁0
= 86.79 𝑑𝐵𝐻𝑧
 Problems
3. A multiple carrier satellite circuit operates in the 6/4-GHz band with the
following characteristics.
Uplink:
Saturation flux density -67.5 dBW/m2; input BO 11 dB; satellite G/T -11.6
dBK-1.
Downlink:
Satellite saturation EIRP 26.6 dBW; output BO 6 dB; free-space loss 196.7
dB; earth station 𝐺 𝑇 40.7 𝑑𝐵𝐾 −1 . Other losses may be ignored.
Calculate the carrier-to-noise density ratios for both links and the combined
value.
Answer:
𝑈𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝐶 𝑁0 = 101.5
𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝐶 𝑁0 = 93.2
𝐶
= −10 log 5.49 × 10−10
𝑁0
= 92.6 𝑑𝐵𝐻𝑧
 Intermodulation Noise
• Intermodulation occurs where multiple carriers
pass through any device with nonlinear
characteristics.
• In satellite communications systems, this most
commonly occurs in the traveling-wave tube HPA
aboard the satellite.
• Both amplitude and phase nonlinearities give rise
to intermodulation products.
• When a large number of modulated carriers are
present, the intermodulation products are not
distinguishable separately but instead appear as
a type of noise which is termed intermodulation
noise.
 Intermodulation Noise
• The carrier-to-intermodulation noise ratio is usually
found experimentally, or in some cases it may be
determined by computer methods.
• Once this ratio is known, it can be combined with the
carrier-to-noise ratio by the intermodulation term by
𝐶 𝑁0 𝐼𝑀
• The reciprocals of the 𝐶 𝑁0 𝐼𝑀 power ratios must be
added with overall 𝐶 𝑁0 .
• Combined Uplink and Downlink equation is extended
to
𝑁0 𝑁0 𝑁0 𝑁0
= + +
𝐶 𝐶 𝑈 𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐼𝑀
• A similar expression applies for noise-to-carrier 𝑁 𝐶
ratios.
 Intermodulation Noise
Problem
4. For a satellite circuit the carrier-to-noise
ratios are uplink 23 dB, downlink 20 dB,
intermodulation 24 dB. Calculate the overall
carrier-to-noise ratio in decibels.
Answer:
𝑁
= 10−2.4 + 10−2.3 + 10−2 = 0.0019
𝐶
𝐶
= −10 log 0.0019
𝑁
= 17.2 𝑑𝐵𝐻𝑧
 Intermodulation Noise
• In order to reduce intermodulation noise, the
TWT must be operated in a BO condition.
• The 𝐶 𝑁0 𝐼𝑀 ratio improves as the input
BO is increased for a typical TWT.
• At the same time, increasing the BO
decreases both 𝐶 𝑁0 𝑈 and 𝐶 𝑁0 𝐷 .
• The result is that there is
– An optimal point where the overall carrier-to-
noise ratio is a maximum.
 Problem - 1
• A ground station located at 45°N and 90°W is
receiving the transmission from a DBS at
101°W. The EIRP is 55dBW, and the downlink
frequency is 12.5GHz. Transmission at the full
capacity is at the rate of 40 Mbps. An 18-in-
diameter antenna is used with an efficiency of
0.55. Miscellaneous transmission losses are of
2dB. For the IRD, the equivalent noise
temperature at the input to the LNA is 100K, and
the antenna noise temperature is 70K. Calculate
the look angles for the antenna, the range, and
the Eb/N0 at the IRD.
 Answer
• Central Angle = 46.0430 • 𝐹𝑆𝐿 = 205.94𝑑𝐵
• Elevation Angle = 370
• Intermediate Angle = 15.370 • 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆𝐸𝑆 = 207.94dB
• Azimuth Angle = 195.370 • 𝐺 = 32.94𝑑𝐵
• Range = 38,019.1km
• T = 170K
𝐶 𝐸𝑏
• = + 𝑅𝑏 • [G/T] = 10.64dBK-1
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
𝐶 𝐺
• = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + − 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆𝐸𝑆 − 𝐾
𝑁𝑂 𝑇
• 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆𝐸𝑆 = 𝐹𝑆𝐿 + 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐶
• 𝐹𝑆𝐿 = 10 log Ranger • = 86.3𝑑𝐵𝐻𝑧
λ 𝑁𝑂
• T = Teq + Tant
• 𝐺 = 𝜂𝐴 𝜋𝐷  2 D  Diameter • 𝑅𝑏 = 76𝑑𝐵𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝐸𝑏
• = 10.3𝑑𝐵
𝑁𝑜
 Problem - 2
• A DBS home receiver is being installed at a
location 40°N, 75°W to receive from a satellite
cluster at 61.5°. Calculate the look angles for the
antenna. It is hoped to use an 18-inch antenna,
the antenna efficiency being 0.55, and the effect of
surface irregularities may be ignored. The system
noise temperature is 200K. The downlink
frequency may be taken as 12.5GHz, the [EIRP]
as 55dBW, and the transponder bit rate as
40Mb/s. Miscellaneous transmission losses may
be ignored. Calculate the received clear sky
[Eb/N0]
 Problem - 3
• A DBS home receiver is being installed at a
location 60°N, 155°W to receive from a satellite
cluster at 157°. Calculate the look angles for the
antenna. It is hoped to use an 18-inch antenna,
the antenna efficiency being 0.55, and the effect
of surface irregularities may be ignored. The
system noise temperature is 200K. The downlink
frequency may be taken as 12.5GHz, the [EIRP]
as 55dBW, and the transponder bit rate as
40Mb/s. Miscellaneous transmission losses may
be ignored. Calculate the received clear sky
[Eb/N0],
 Problem - 4
• A DBS home receiver is being installed at a location
15°S, 50°W to receive from a satellite cluster at
61.5°W. Calculate the look angles for the antenna.
Calculate also the diameter of antenna needed to
provide a 5-dB margin approximately on the received
[Eb/N0] under clear-sky conditions. An antenna
efficiency of 0.55 may be assumed, and the effect of
surface irregularities may be ignored. The antenna
noise temperature is 70 K, the equivalent noise
temperature at the input of the LNA is 120K, and
miscellaneous transmission losses are 2dB. The
downlink frequency may be taken as 12.5GHz, the
[EIRP] as 55dBW, and the transponder bit rate as
40Mb/s.
 References
• Timothy Pratt, and Charles Bostian, “Satellite
Communications”, Wiley Publications

• Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communications”,

Tata Mcgraw Hill Publications