G321 Structural Geology

03/26/04
Pre-Lab 7: Fold Analysis

Folds are some of the most common structural features developed within rocks. They
occur at all scales (microns to mountain belts) and under all conditions (uppermost brittle
crust, mantle, magma chambers). For the purposes of this lab we are going to ignore the
processes by which folds form, a topic you will cover in some detail in the lecture portion
of the class. Instead, we will focus on the geometric descriptions of these structures.
Folds, like every other aspect of geology, involve a rather large specialized vocabulary.
Thus, we will introduce and define several terms used to describe folds and their
component geometries.

Characteristics, Types, and Parts of Folds

Folds can form in any size, shape, or orientation, and as such, we need to be able to
describe aspects of these structures that are observed in all forms. To begin, let’s imagine
a two dimensional view of a fold perpendicular to the axis as in Figure 1. In this view
folds contain limbs and hinges, where
Hinge Hinge oppositely dipping limbs meet at hinge points.
Point Point A zone of maximum curvature might better
describe the transition from one hinge to the
Li

b Inflection
m

m Hinge
Li Point next and as such a hinge zone might be
b

Zone
designated. Additionally, where limbs are
curved the point where they change from
Figure 1 convex up to convex down, or vice versa, is
known as the inflection point.
In three dimensions you could image an infinite number of hinge points connecting to
form a hinge line. Hinge lines need not be linear or straight but can curve significantly
and are occasionally very irregular. In the case of a straight hinge line it is possible to
specify its orientation in terms of a single trend and plunge. Note that this is a kind of
geometric lineation formed by the
intersection of two planes, not unlike that
ge
Li ne formed by the intersection of a dike and a
Hin
bedding plane, but very different from that
formed by aligned minerals or slicken lines
on a fault surface. In the case where the
hinge line is not straight it is necessary to
make several measurements of the line to
truly characterize the changes it makes from
place to place. It may further be necessary
to subdivide the fold into two or more
domains (i.e. structural zones characterized
by similar strikes/dips and trends/plunges).

Figure 2.
 Knowledge of the
orientation of the hinge line
Pla
n e and any changes it makes
ial
A x along the folded surface is
e e
necessary, but insufficient,
rac fac
Axi
al T
’s S
ur for a complete geometric
rth
E a description of a fold. We
thus need to think about the
complete package of rocks
that are involved in the fold
instead of just a single folded
surface as we have been. In
this way we can image a
series of folded surfaces,
each possessing a line of
hinge points (or hinge line).
If we connect all of these
Figure 3. hinge lines together they
form a surface known as the axial surface. This surface is known as the axial plane if
the surface is indeed planar. We may therefore designate the orientation of this planar
feature with a single strike and dip or more if the surface is not planar. We can also start
to think about how we would show such features as the axial surfaces of a fold on a map,
something you have already done in Rainbow basin. Just like bedding or a dike, the
intersection of a planar or curvi-planar feature such as the axial surface, with the earths
surface (another planar or curvi-planar feature) forms a line or a trace. Thus, when we
are mapping folds we depict the intersection of the axial surface with the earth’s surface
as a single axial trace.
Now that we can designate the orientation of
both the hinge line as well as the axial surface we
can start to distinguish between folds with
different orientations. Figure 4 shows a
commonly used classification scheme devised by
Fleuty (1964) that divides up folds using the
plunge of hinge lines and dip of axial surfaces.
For example, if a fold has an axial surface that
dips 55° and a hinge line that plunges 15° we
would call that fold gently plunging, moderately
inclined.
The interlimb angle, or fold tightness is a
somewhat qualitative means of describing folds.
Figure 4. From Davis and Reynolds
(1997). We can describe folds in this manner as being
gentle, open, tight, or isoclinal. Gentle folds
have interlimb angles of 180° to 170°. Open folds, between 170° and 90°. Tight,
between 90° and 10°, and isoclinal as less than 10°.
Fold size is also a commonly used means of describing fold geometry. Similar to
light and sound waves, we can describe folds in terms of wavelength and amplitude.
 180 Wavelength is measured from crest to crest and amplitude is
170
measured from crest to trough. However, it is a common
90
problem that trains of folds, necessary form measuring
wavelength and amplitude, are not preserved or exposed in a
10
particular area. Thus, you may find it more useful to measure
and describe a fold’s height and width. To do this you must
first determine the location of the medial surface, which is
an imaginary surface that passes through the inflection points
of a folded surface. The height, then, is measured as the
0 distance from the medial surface up to the crest or hinge
point. The width is the distance between the inflection points
measured perpendicular to the hinge line.
Symmetry is another commonly used concept for
describing fold geometry. A fold is said to be symmetric if
the axial surface (or trace) is perpendicular to the medial
Figure 5. from Davis and surface (or trace). The folds depicted in Figure 6a are
Reynolds, 1997. symmetric as the two are perpendicular. However, the folds
in Figure 6b are asymmetric as the angle between the axial and medial surfaces are less
than 90°.
Axial Surfaces

Wavelength
Height
Amplitude

Medial Surface
Width

Medial surface

a. b.
Figure 6.
Perhaps one of the most familiar geometric descriptions of folds is whether it is an
anticline or syncline. Such a distinction requires knowledge of the relative ages of the
units being folded. It is, therefore, more appropriate to use the terms antiform and
synform to describe folds where the limbs dip away and towards the hinge point,
respectively. Alternatively, antiforms are convex upward and synforms are convex
downward. If we know the relative ages of the layers being folded then we can start to
use the former two designations. For example, an antiformal fold the oldest units in the
center or core of the fold is correctly termed an anticline and similarly, a synformal fold
with the youngest units in the core is correctly termed a syncline.

Folds and Stereonets

Determination of the geometric characteristics described above are not always
directly measurable in the field. That is, the scale of some folds may be sufficiently large
that measuring of hinge line or axial surface orientations may not be possible given the
degree of exposure in the area of the fold. Fortunately, however, there is a way around
this problem and of course, it involves stereonets and the attitudinal data you collect in
the field. Unfortunately, perhaps, you have to be attuned to where in the fold your
measurements are coming from, at least in some instances.

Figure 7. From Davis and
Reynolds, 1997.
The trend and plunge of the fold may be
determined simply if you have a strike and dip from
both limbs of a fold. Plot the cyclographic traces of
each of the limbs. The intersection of the two limbs
will be a point (commonly termed b), the trend and
plunge of which is that of the hinge line (fold axis).
Note, however, that we are assuming that our fold is
cylindrical by determining the fold axis in this way.
Another means of determining the trend and plunge
of a fold axis is to plot the poles to your limbs and
draw the great circle that connects both of these
points. This is call a p-circle, the pole to which is
known as the p-axis and corresponds to the trend and
plunge of the axial surface.

Figure 8. From Davis and Reynolds, 1997

Determination of the orientation of the axial surface through stereographic methods
requires the simplifying assumption that the plane bisects the two limbs of the fold is
essentially parallel that of the axial surface. In other word, you will not be determining
the orientation of the true axial surface but rather the orientation of a plane that bisects
the interlimb angle. To determine the orientation of the bisecting surface first plot the p-
circle for your folded surface and locate the pole to that circle (i.e. p-axis). While the two
poles to your fold limbs are on the same great circle count the number of degrees between
them and divide that number by two. Then count that number of degree you just
calculated from one pole towards the next and place another dot on this great circle. Now
you should have four dots on your stereonet, the two poles to the fold limbs, the p-axis,
and the last dot you just plotted _ the distance between the two poles to the limbs of your
fold. Next, rotate your stereonet such that the p-axis and the dot between the two poles
are on the same great circle and draw that cyclographic trace of that great circle. The
orientation of this trace you just made is that of the bisecting surface.

Fold Classification using Dip Isogons

One of the most useful and inherently insightful methods for classifying different
types of folds was developed by John G. Ramsay using a geometric feature known as dip
isogons. Essentially, this classification scheme compares the fold styles of two surfaces
of a folded layer, the outer (convex) surface with the inner (concave) surface. The dip
isogon is a line that connects the points on the two surfaces that have equivalent dip
angles relative to the trace of the axial surface (Figure 9). By constructing the dip isogon
map for a fold one can determine the type of fold by observing whether the dip isogons
converge toward the inner or outer surfaces.
To construct a dip isogon map of your
Tangents to
fold you must first have an axis-normal
o
fold surfaces profile of your fold. Next you will want to
a=20
decide upon the interval of degrees between
each dip isogon you will be drawing.
ta Ta Dip Isogons Typically a dip isogon every 10° is sufficient
Axial Trace

for distinguishing between the different types

of folds. Begin with the point on the two
surfaces where the tangent is oriented
perpendicular to the axial trace of the fold.
Figure 9.
The line that connects these two points is the
dip isogon for a=0°. In this case, a is the angle between the normal to the axial trace and
the tangent to the surface. Two additional measures should be made while constructing
the dip isogon map, orthogonal thickness (ta) and the axial trace thickness (Ta). The
orthogonal thickness is measured perpendicular to the tangents to the fold surfaces and
the axial trace thickness is measured parallel to the axial trace.
Once constructed the dip isogon map can be used to distinguish between three classes
of folds, the first of which is subdivided into three subclasses. If the dip isogons
converge towards the inner surface of the fold it is known as a class 1 fold. For class 1A
folds the orthogonal thickness increases from hinge to limb. For class 1B the orthogonal
thickness remains constant around the fold, this indicates that folded layer’s two surfaces
have remained the same distance apart and we thus refer to this class of folds as being
parallel. Folds of class 1C exhibit a decrease in orthogonal thickness from hinge to
limb. This is also true for folds of both classes 2 and 3. However, for class 2 folds the
dip isogons are all parallel to
the axial trace of the fold, and
for class three they converge
toward the outer surface.

Figure 10. From Twiss and Moores, 1992.

Fold order
In a fold system, smaller folds commonly occur on the limbs of the larger folds. The
largest folds in the system are called first-order folds, the next largest are called second-
order folds, and so forth. The enveloping surfaces associated with lower-order folds
define the next-higher-order folds (fig. 11). However, all the folds of a system have
similar orientations for axial planes and share a common fold axis. Second-order folds
formed in response to shear on the limbs of a first-order fold are sometimes called
parasitic folds.

Figure 11.

Superposed folding and fold interference patterns

Oftentimes we find in folded rocks more than just one fold generation, in which case
younger fold generations refold older generations of folds. This leads to the fact that
refolded folds have folded fold axis and axial planes and complex fold interference
patterns are developed. Although the spectrum of possible interference pattern geometry
is very wide, many of the observed differences are modifications of four major types of
interference patterns. The main features of the three-dimensional geometries are indicated
in figure 12. In each of the four types of patterns the initial fold geometry is indicated in
the parts of the diagram labelled A, and this geometry varies with each of the four types.
The displacement pattern of the superimposed second system is indicated in diagram B
and requires a geometrically fixed reference frame for all of the types.
 Figure 12. From Ramsay & Huber, 1987.

Figure 13 shows a summary of the main types of two-dimensional interference

patterns resulting from horizontal sectioning of the forms shown in figure 12. The four
principal types in their simplest expression occur at the corners of the nine component
boxes (A, C, G and I). Intermediate types are shown in boxes B, D, E, F and H (after
Ramsay, 1967). The type numbers are indicated in the top left hand side of each box.
Type 0 is termed redundant superposition, type 1 is called the dome-basin pattern,
type 2 dome-crescent-mushroom pattern and type 3 is the convergent-divergent
pattern.
Figure 13. From Ramsay & Huber, 1987.