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NCERT Physics Class 11 Part I & II PDF
NCERT Physics Class 11 Part I & II PDF
PART I
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ISBN 81-7450-508-3
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First Edition
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FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change is school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to
teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how
effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience,
rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address
the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at
different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available
for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher
priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science
and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor A.W. Joshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor
Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in
the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will
enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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CHIEF ADVISOR
A.W. Joshi, Professor, Honorary Visiting Scientist, NCRA, Pune (Formerly at
Department of Physics, University of Pune)
MEMBERS
Anuradha Mathur, PGT , Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, Lodhi Road,
New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education, Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, V.N. Purav Marg, Mankhurd, Mumbai
N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Srivastava, Professor (Retd.), Director, CSEC, University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Mohanty, PGT, Sainik School, Bhubaneswar
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Sachivalaya Marg,
Bhubaneswar
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S. Rai Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of
Delhi, Delhi
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sher Singh, PGT, NDMC Navyug School, Lodhi Road, New Delhi
S.N. Prabhakara, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Mysore
Thiyam Jekendra Singh, Professor, Department of Physics, University of Manipur, Imphal
V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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PREFACE
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viii
meanings with their physics meanings. Physics develops intricate and often weird-
looking concepts to explain the behaviour of particles. Finally, it must be
remembered that entire physics is based on observations and experiments, without
which a theory does not get acceptance into the domain of physics.
This book has some features which, we earnestly hope, will enhance its
usefulness for the students. Each chapter is provided with a Summary at its end
for a quick overview of the contents of the chapter. This is followed by Points to
Ponder which points out the likely misconceptions arising in the minds of students,
hidden implications of certain statements/principles given in the chapter and
cautions needed in applying the knowledge gained from the chapter. They also
raise some thought-provoking questions which would make a student think about
life beyond physics. Students will find it interesting to think and apply their mind
on these points. Further, a large number of solved examples are included in the
text in order to clarify the concepts and/or to illustrate the application of these
concepts in everyday real-life situations. Occasionally, historical perspective has
been included to share the excitement of sequential development of the subject of
physics. Some Boxed items are introduced in many chapters either for this purpose
or to highlight some special features of the contents requiring additional attention
of the learners. Finally, a Subject Index has been added at the end of the book for
ease in locating keywords in the book.
The special nature of physics demands, apart from conceptual understanding,
the knowledge of certain conventions, basic mathematical tools, numerical values
of important physical constants, and systems of measurement units covering a
vast range from microscopic to galactic levels. In order to equip the students, we
have included the necessary tools and database in the form of Appendices A-1 to
A-9 at the end of the book. There are also some other appendices at the end of
some chapters giving additional information or applications of matter discussed in
that chapter.
Special attention has been paid for providing illustrative figures. To increase
the clarity, the figures are drawn in two colours. A large number of Exercises are
given at the end of each chapter. Some of these are from real-life situations. Students
are urged to solve these and in doing so, they may find them very educative. Moreover,
some Additional Exercises are given which are more challenging. Answers and
hints to solve some of these are also included. In the entire book, SI units have been
used. A comprehensive account of ‘units and measurement’ is given in Chapter 2 as a
part of prescribed syllabus/curriculum as well as a help in their pursuit of physics.
A box-item in this chapter brings out the difficulty in measuring as simple a thing as
the length of a long curved line. Tables of SI base units and other related units are
given here merely to indicate the presently accepted definitions and to indicate the
high degree of accuracy with which measurements are possible today. The numbers
given here are not to be memorised or asked in examinations.
There is a perception among students, teachers, as well as the general public
that there is a steep gradient between secondary and higher secondary stages.
But a little thought shows that it is bound to be there in the present scenario of
education. Education up to secondary stage is general education where a student
has to learn several subjects – sciences, social sciences, mathematics, languages,
at an elementary level. Education at the higher secondary stage and beyond, borders
on acquiring professional competence, in some chosen fields of endeavour. You
may like to compare this with the following situation. Children play cricket or
badminton in lanes and small spaces outside (or inside) their homes. But then
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ix
some of them want to make it to the school team, then district team, then State
team and then the National team. At every stage, there is bound to be a steep
gradient. Hard work would have to be put in whether students want to pursue
their education in the area of sciences, humanities, languages, music, fine arts,
commerce, finance, architecture, or if they want to become sportspersons or fashion
designers.
Completing this book has only been possible because of the spontaneous
and continuous support of many people. The Textbook Development Team is
thankful to Dr. V. H. Raybagkar for allowing us to use his box item in Chapter
4 and to Dr. F. I. Surve for allowing us to use two of his box items in Chapter 15.
We express also our gratitude to the Director, NCERT, for entrusting us with
the task of preparing this textbook as a part of national effort for improving
science education. The Head, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, was always willing to help us in our endeavour in every
possible way.
The previous text got excellent academic inputs from teachers, students and
experts who sincerely suggested improvement during the past few years. We are
thankful to all those who conveyed these inputs to NCERT. We are also thankful to
the members of the Review Workshop and Editing Workshop organised to discuss
and refine the first draft. We thank the Chairmen and their teams of authors for
the text written by them in 1988, which provided the base and reference for
developing the 2002 version as well as the present version of the textbook.
Occasionally, substantial portions from the earlier versions, particularly those
appreciated by students/teachers, have been adopted/adapted and retained in
the present book for the benefit of coming generation of learners.
We welcome suggestions and comments from our valued users, especially
students and teachers. We wish our young readers a happy journey to the exciting
realm of physics.
A. W. JOSHI
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
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To make the curriculum learner -centred, students should be made to participate and interact
in the learning process directly. Once a week or one out of every six classes would be a good
periodicity for such seminars and mutual interaction. Some suggestions for making the discussion
participatory are given below, with reference to some specific topics in this book.
Students may be divided into groups of five to six. The membership of these groups may be
rotated during the year, if felt necessary.
The topic for discussion can be presented on the board or on slips of paper. Students should
be asked to write their reactions or answers to questions, whichever is asked, on the given
sheets. They should then discuss in their groups and add modifications or comments in those
sheets. These should be discussed either in the same or in a different class. The sheets may also
be evaluated.
We suggest here three possible topics from the book. The first two topics suggested are, in
fact, very general and refer to the development of science over the past four centuries or more.
Students and teachers may think of more such topics for each seminar.
1. Ideas that changed civilisation
Suppose human beings are becoming extinct. A message has to be left for future generations or
alien visitors. Eminent physicist R P Feynmann wanted the following message left for future
beings, if any.
“Matter is made up of atoms”
A lady student and teacher of literature, wanted the following message left:
“Water existed, so human beings could happen”.
Another person thought it should be: “Idea of wheel for motion”
Write down what message each one of you would like to leave for future generations. Then
discuss it in your group and add or modify, if you want to change your mind. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that follows.
2. Reductionism
Kinetic Theory of Gases relates the Big to the Small, the Macro to the Micro. A gas as a system
is related to its components, the molecules. This way of describing a system as a result of the
properties of its components is usually called Reductionism. It explains the behaviour of the
group by the simpler and predictable behaviour of individuals. Macroscopic observations and
microscopic properties have a mutual interdependence in this approach. Is this method useful?
This way of understanding has its limitations outside physics and chemistry, may be even
in these subjects. A painting cannot be discussed as a collection of the properties of chemicals
used in making the canvas and the painting. What emerges is more than the sum of its
components.
Question: Can you think of other areas where such an approach is used?
Describe briefly a system which is fully describable in terms of its components. Describe
one which is not. Discuss with other members of the group and write your views. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that may follow.
3. Molecular approach to heat
Describe what you think will happen in the following case. An enclosure is separated by a
porous wall into two parts. One is filled with nitrogen gas (N2) and the other with CO2. Gases
will diffuse from one side to the other.
Question 1: Will both gases diffuse to the same extent? If not, which will diffuse more. Give
reasons.
Question 2: Will the pressure and temperature be unchanged? If not, what will be the changes
in both. Give reasons.
Write down your answers. Discuss with the group and modify them or add comments.
Give to the teacher and join in the discussion.
Students and teachers will find that such seminars and discussions lead to tremendous
understanding, not only of physics, but also of science and social sciences. They also bring in
some maturity among students.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
PREFACE v
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER x
C H A P T E R 1
PHYSICAL WORLD
1.1 What is physics ? 1
1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 2
1.3 Physics, technology and society 5
1.4 Fundamental forces in nature 6
1.5 Nature of physical laws 10
C H A P T E R 2
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 The international system of units 16
2.3 Measurement of length 18
2.4 Measurement of mass 21
2.5 Measurement of time 22
2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement 22
2.7 Significant figures 27
2.8 Dimensions of physical quantities 31
2.9 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 31
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications 32
C H A P T E R 3
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Position, path length and displacement 39
3.3 Average velocity and average speed 42
3.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed 43
3.5 Acceleration 45
3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 47
3.7 Relative velocity 51
C H A P T E R 4
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Scalars and vectors 65
4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 67
4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method 67
4.5 Resolution of vectors 69
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C H A P T E R 5
LAWS OF MOTION
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Aristotle’s fallacy 90
5.3 The law of inertia 90
5.4 Newton’s first law of motion 91
5.5 Newton’s second law of motion 93
5.6 Newton’s third law of motion 96
5.7 Conservation of momentum 98
5.8 Equilibrium of a particle 99
5.9 Common forces in mechanics 100
5.10 Circular motion 104
5.11 Solving problems in mechanics 105
C H A P T E R 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 116
6.3 Work 116
6.4 Kinetic energy 117
6.5 Work done by a variable force 118
6.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 119
6.7 The concept of potential energy 120
6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 121
6.9 The potential energy of a spring 123
6.10 Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy 126
6.11 Power 128
6.12 Collisions 129
C H A P T E R 7
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Centre of mass 144
7.3 Motion of centre of mass 148
7.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 149
7.5 Vector product of two vectors 150
7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 152
7.7 Torque and angular momentum 154
7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 158
7.9 Moment of inertia 163
7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 164
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C H A P T E R 8
GRAVITATION
8.1 Introduction 183
8.2 Kepler’s laws 184
8.3 Universal law of gravitation 185
8.4 The gravitational constant 189
8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 189
8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 190
8.7 Gravitational potential energy 191
8.8 Escape speed 193
8.9 Earth satellite 194
8.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 195
8.11 Geostationary and polar satellites 196
8.12 Weightlessness 197
APPENDICES 207
ANSWERS 223
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COVER DESIGN
(Adapted from the website of the Nobel Foundation
http://www.nobelprize.org)
BACK COVER
(Adapted from the website of the ISRO
http://www.isro.gov.in)
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CHAPTER ONE
PHYSICAL WORLD
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phenomena*. Classical Physics deals mainly chemical process, etc., are problems of interest
with macroscopic phenomena and includes in thermodynamics.
subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, The microscopic domain of physics deals with
Optics and Thermodynamics. Mechanics the constitution and structure of matter at the
founded on Newton’s laws of motion and the law minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even
of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or
lower scales of length) and their interaction with
equilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformable
different probes such as electrons, photons and
bodies, and general systems of particles. The
propulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases, other elementary particles. Classical physics is
propagation of water waves or sound waves in inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum
air, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load, Theory is currently accepted as the proper
etc., are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamics framework for explaining microscopic
deals with electric and magnetic phenomena phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is
associated with charged and magnetic bodies. beautiful and imposing and you will appreciate
Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted, it more as you pursue the subject.
Fig. 1.1 Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each other’s progress. The alpha scattering
experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom.
Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by You can now see that the scope of physics is
Maxwell in his famous set of equations. The truly vast. It covers a tremendous range of
motion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnitude of physical quantities like length,
magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an ac mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies
voltage (signal), the working of an antenna, the phenomena at the very small scale of length
propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc., -14
(10 m or even less) involving electrons, protons,
are problems of electrodynamics. Optics deals etc.; at the other end, it deals with astronomical
with the phenomena involving light. The working
phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the
of telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibited
entire universe whose extent is of the order of
by thin films, etc., are topics in optics. 26
10 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of
Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, does 40
not deal with the motion of bodies as a whole. 10 or even more. The range of time scales can
Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopic be obtained by dividing the length scales by the
–22
equilibrium and is concerned with changes in speed of light : 10 s to 1018 s. The range of
internal energy, temperature, entropy, etc., of the masses goes from, say, 10–30 kg (mass of an
55
system through external work and transfer of electron) to 10 kg (mass of known observable
heat. The efficiency of heat engines and universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere
refrigerators, the direction of a physical or in the middle of this range.
* Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic
physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research.
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theory of objects falling to the earth under A most significant area to which physics has
gravity. and will contribute is the development of
alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of
1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY the planet are dwindling fast and there is an
The connection between physics, technology urgent need to discover new and affordable
and society can be seen in many examples. The sources of energy. Considerable progress has
discipline of thermodynamics arose from the already been made in this direction (for
need to understand and improve the working of example, in conversion of solar energy,
heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), but
is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution in much more is still to be accomplished.
England in the eighteenth century, which had Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,
great impact on the course of human their major contribution and the country of
civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to origin. You will appreciate from this table the
new physics; at other times physics generates multi-cultural, international character of the
new technology. An example of the latter is the scientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists some
wireless communication technology that followed important technologies and the principles of
the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and physics they are based on. Obviously, these
magnetism in the nineteenth century. The tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to
applications of physics are not always easy to add many names and items to these tables with
foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist the help of your teachers, good books and
Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility websites on science. You will find that this
of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few exercise is very educative and also great fun.
years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress
discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced of science is unstoppable!
fission of uranium, which would serve as the Physics is the study of nature and natural
basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules
weapons. Yet another important example of that are operating in nature, on the basis of
physics giving rise to technology is the silicon observations, experimentation and analysis.
‘chip’ that triggered the computer revolution in Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws
the last three decades of the twentieth century. governing the natural world. What is the nature
Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions
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6 PHYSICS
of physical laws? We shall now discuss the ideas about it. The correct notion of force was
nature of fundamental forces and the laws that arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of
govern the diverse phenomena of the physical motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force
world. for gravitational attraction between two bodies.
We shall learn these matters in subsequent
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*
chapters.
We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our In the macroscopic world, besides the
experience, force is needed to push, carry or gravitational force, we encounter several kinds
throw objects, deform or break them. We also of forces: muscular force, contact forces between
experience the impact of forces on us, like when bodies, friction (which is also a contact force
a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go- parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces
round. Going from this intuitive notion to the exerted by compressed or elongated springs and
proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of
matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in
* Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we
advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the
areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.
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PHYSICAL WORLD 7
contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of to the net attraction/repulsion between the
a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, neighbouring atoms of the spring when the
and so on. There are also forces involving charged spring is elongated/compressed. This net
and magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain attraction/repulsion can be traced to the
again, we have electric and magnetic forces, (unbalanced) sum of electric forces between the
nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, charged constituents of the atoms.
interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. We In principle, this means that the laws for
shall get familiar with some of these forces in later ‘derived’ forces (such as spring force, friction)
parts of this course. are not independent of the laws of fundamental
A great insight of the twentieth century forces in nature. The origin of these derived
physics is that these different forces occurring forces is, however, very complex.
in different contexts actually arise from only a At the present stage of our understanding,
small number of fundamental forces in nature. we know of four fundamental forces in nature,
For example, the elastic spring force arises due which are described in brief here :
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8 PHYSICS
1.4.1 Gravitational Force electric force between two protons, for example,
36
The gravitational force is the force of mutual is 10 times the gravitational force between
attraction between any two objects by virtue of them, for any fixed distance.
their masses. It is a universal force. Every object Matter, as we know, consists of elementary
experiences this force due to every other object charged constituents like electrons and
in the universe. All objects on the earth, for protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so
example, experience the force of gravity due to much stronger than the gravitational force, it
the earth. In particular, gravity governs the dominates all phenomena at atomic and
motion of the moon and artificial satellites around molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we
the earth, motion of the earth and planets shall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thus
around the sun, and, of course, the motion of it is mainly the electromagnetic force that
bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role in governs the structure of atoms and molecules,
the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such the dynamics of chemical reactions and the
as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and mechanical, thermal and other properties of
galactic clusters. materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Force like ‘tension’, ‘friction’, ‘normal force’, ‘spring
force’, etc.
Electromagnetic force is the force between
Gravity is always attractive, while
charged particles. In the simpler case when
electromagnetic force can be attractive or
charges are at rest, the force is given by
Coulomb’s law : attractive for unlike charges and repulsive. Another way of putting it is that mass
repulsive for like charges. Charges in motion comes only in one variety (there is no negative
produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field mass), but charge comes in two varieties :
gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric positive and negative charge. This is what
and magnetic effects are, in general, makes all the difference. Matter is mostly
inseparable – hence the name electromagnetic electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus,
force. Like the gravitational force, electric force is largely zero and gravitational
electromagnetic force acts over large distances force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric
and does not need any intervening medium. It force manifests itself in atmosphere where the
is enormously strong compared to gravity. The atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning.
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PHYSICAL WORLD 9
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10 PHYSICS
theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrial 1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS
and celestial domains under a common law of Physicists explore the universe. Their
gravitation. The experimental discoveries of investigations, based on scientific processes,
Oersted and Faraday showed that electric and range from particles that are smaller than
magnetic phenomena are in general atoms in size to stars that are very far away. In
inseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetism addition to finding the facts by observation and
and optics with the discovery that light is an experimentation, physicists attempt to discover
electromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted to the laws that summarise (often as mathematical
unify gravity and electromagnetism but could equations) these facts.
not succeed in this venture. But this did not In any physical phenomenon governed by
deter physicists from zealously pursuing the different forces, several quantities may change
goal of unification of forces. with time. A remarkable fact is that some special
Recent decades have seen much progress on physical quantities, however, remain constant
this front. The electromagnetic and the weak in time. They are the conserved quantities of
nuclear force have now been unified and are nature. Understanding these conservation
seen as aspects of a single ‘electro-weak’ force. principles is very important to describe the
What this unification actually means cannot observed phenomena quantitatively.
be explained here. Attempts have been (and are For motion under an external conservative
being) made to unify the electro-weak and the force, the total mechanical energy i.e. the sum
strong force and even to unify the gravitational of kinetic and potential energy of a body is a
force with the rest of the fundamental forces. constant. The familiar example is the free fall of
Many of these ideas are still speculative and an object under gravity. Both the kinetic energy
inconclusive. Table 1.4 summarises some of the of the object and its potential energy change
milestones in the progress towards unification continuously with time, but the sum remains
of forces in nature. fixed. If the object is released from rest, the initial
Table 1.4 Progress in unification of different forces/domains in nature
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PHYSICAL WORLD 11
potential energy is completely converted into the the other end, all kinds of violent phenomena
kinetic energy of the object just before it hits occur in the universe all the time. Yet the total
the ground. This law restricted for a conservative energy of the universe (the most ideal isolated
force should not be confused with the general system possible !) is believed to remain
law of conservation of energy of an isolated unchanged.
system (which is the basis of the First Law of Until the advent of Einstein’s theory of
Thermodynamics). relativity, the law of conservation of mass was
The concept of energy is central to physics regarded as another basic conservation law of
and the expressions for energy can be written nature, since matter was thought to be
for every physical system. When all forms of indestructible. It was (and still is) an important
energy e.g., heat, mechanical energy, electrical principle used, for example, in the analysis of
energy etc., are counted, it turns out that energy chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is
is conserved. The general law of conservation of basically a rearrangement of atoms among
energy is true for all forces and for any kind of different molecules. If the total binding energy
transformation between different forms of of the reacting molecules is less than the total
energy. In the falling object example, if you binding energy of the product molecules, the
include the effect of air resistance during the difference appears as heat and the reaction is
fall and see the situation after the object hits exothermic. The opposite is true for energy
the ground and stays there, the total absorbing (endothermic) reactions. However,
mechanical energy is obviously not conserved. since the atoms are merely rearranged but not
The general law of energy conservation, however, destroyed, the total mass of the reactants is the
is still applicable. The initial potential energy same as the total mass of the products in a
of the stone gets transformed into other forms chemical reaction. The changes in the binding
of energy : heat and sound. (Ultimately, sound energy are too small to be measured as changes
after it is absorbed becomes heat.) The total in mass.
energy of the system (stone plus the According to Einstein’s theory, mass m is
surroundings) remains unchanged. equivalent to energy E given by the relation
2
The law of conservation of energy is thought E = mc , where c is speed of light in vacuum.
to be valid across all domains of nature, from In a nuclear process mass gets converted to
the microscopic to the macroscopic. It is energy (or vice-versa). This is the energy which
routinely applied in the analysis of atomic, is released in a nuclear power generation and
nuclear and elementary particle processes. At nuclear explosions.
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12 PHYSICS
* See Chapter 7
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SUMMARY
1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different
contexts and conditions.
2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical
quantities.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to
new physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact
on society.
4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of the
macroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the ‘gravitational force’, the
‘electromagnetic force’, the ‘strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’. Unification
of different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.
5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved
quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of
conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,
etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of
space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.
EXERCISES
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14 PHYSICS
(b) After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to their
dead hero, let free any crab shell caught by them which accidentally had a shape
resembling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of the
crab shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was genetically
propagated. This is an example of evolution by artificial selection.
[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagan’s ‘The Cosmos’ highlights
the fact that often strange and inexplicable facts which on the first sight appear
‘supernatural’ actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think
out other examples of this kind].
1.7 The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuries
ago was triggered by some key scientific and technological advances. What were these
advances ?
1.8 It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, which
will transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areas
of science and technology, which are responsible for this revolution.
1.9 Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece based on your speculation on the science
and technology of the twenty-second century.
1.10 Attempt to formulate your ‘moral’ views on the practice of science. Imagine yourself
stumbling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest but is certain to have
nothing but dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will you
resolve your dilemma ?
1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can be put to good or bad use, depending on the user.
Given below are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whether
the particular application is good, bad or something that cannot be so clearly
categorised :
(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to curb and finally eradicate this disease
from the population. (This has already been successfully done in India).
(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news and
ideas.
(c) Prenatal sex determination
(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency
(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits around the Earth
(f ) Development of nuclear weapons
(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and biological warfare).
(h) Purification of water for drinking
(i) Plastic surgery
(j ) Cloning
1.12 India has had a long and unbroken tradition of great scholarship — in mathematics,
astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitious
and obscurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunately
continue even today — among many educated people too. How will you use your
knowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ?
1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientific
views on a woman’s innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice give
them a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, and
by quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourself
and others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men.
1.14 “It is more important to have beauty in the equations of physics than to have them
agree with experiments”. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.
Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this book which
strike you as beautiful.
1.15 Though the statement quoted above may be disputed, most physicists do have a feeling
that the great laws of physics are at once simple and beautiful. Some of the notable
physicists, besides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,
Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get
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PHYSICAL WORLD 15
access to the general books and writings by these and other great masters of physics.
(See the Bibliography at the end of this book.) Their writings are truly inspiring !
1.16 Textbooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dry
and all too serious and that scientists are absent-minded introverts who never laugh
or grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like any
other group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their lives
with a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientific
work. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoy
reading their books listed in the Bibliography.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
2.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
2.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
2.3 Measurement of length very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
2.4 Measurement of mass
related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
2.5 Measurement of time base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
2.6 Accuracy, precision of units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
instruments and errors in combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
measurement derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
2.7 Significant figures of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
2.8 Dimensions of physical
quantities 2.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
2.9 Dimensional formulae and In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
dimensional equations different systems of units for measurement. Three such
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
applications system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
Summary were as follows :
Exercises • In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
Additional exercises respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 17
* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to
indicate the extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring
techniques get improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units
are revised to keep up with this progress.
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18 PHYSICS
Table 2.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)
Note that when mole is used, the elementary 2.3.1 Measurement of Large Distances
entities must be specified. These entities Large distances such as the distance of a planet
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons,
or a star from the earth cannot be measured
other particles or specified groups of such
directly with a metre scale. An important method
particles.
in such cases is the parallax method.
We employ units for some physical quantities
that can be derived from the seven base units When you hold a pencil in front of you against
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of some specific point on the background (a wall)
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). and look at the pencil first through your left eye
Some SI derived units are given special names A (closing the right eye) and then look at the
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make pencil through your right eye B (closing the left
use of these units with special names and the eye), you would notice that the position of the
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are pencil seems to change with respect to the point
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready on the wall. This is called parallax. The
reference. Other units retained for general use distance between the two points of observation
are given in Table 2.2. is called the basis. In this example, the basis is
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples the distance between the eyes.
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2. To measure the distance D of a far away
General guidelines for using symbols for physical planet S by the parallax method, we observe it
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are from two different positions (observatories) A and
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and B on the Earth, separated by distance AB = b
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for at the same time as shown in Fig. 2.2. We
your guidance and ready reference. measure the angle between the two directions
2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH along which the planet is viewed at these two
You are already familiar with some direct methods points. The ∠ASB in Fig. 2.2 represented by
for the measurement of length. For example, a symbol θ is called the parallax angle or
metre scale is used for lengths from 10–3 m to 102 parallactic angle.
m. A vernier callipers is used for lengths to an b
accuracy of 10 –4 m. A screw gauge and a As the planet is very far away, << 1, and
D
spherometer can be used to measure lengths as
less as to 10 –5 m. To measure lengths beyond these therefore, θ is very small. Then we
ranges, we make use of some special indirect approximately take AB as an arc of length b of a
methods. circle with centre at S and the distance D as
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 19
the radius AS = BS so that AB = b = D θ where AO; but he finds the line of sight of C shifted
θ is in radians. from the original line of sight by an angle θ
= 400 (θ is known as ‘parallax’) estimate
b
D= (2.1) the distance of the tower C from his original
θ position A.
The angle α can be measured from the same two diametrically opposite points A and B
location on the earth. It is the angle between on Earth. The angle θ subtended at the
the two directions when two diametrically moon by the two directions of observation
opposite points of the planet are viewed through is 1o 54′. Given the diameter of the Earth to
the telescope. Since D is known, the diameter d be about 1.276 × 107 m, compute the
of the planet can be determined using Eq. (2.2). distance of the moon from the Earth.
t
Example 2.1 Calculate the angle of Answer We have θ = 1° 54′ = 114′
(a) 10 (degree) (b) 1′ (minute of arc or arcmin)
and (c) 1″(second of arc or arc second) in (
= (114 × 60 )′′ × 4.85 × 10-6 ) rad
radians. Use 360 0=2π rad, 10=60′ and −2
= 3.32 × 10 rad,
1′ = 60 ″
−6
Answer (a) We have 3600 = 2π rad since 1" = 4.85 × 10 rad .
10 = (π /180) rad = 1.745×10–2 rad Also b = AB = 1.276 ×107 m
(b) 1 = 60′ = 1.745×10–2 rad
0
Hence from Eq. (2.1), we have the earth-moon
1′ = 2.908×10–4 rad 2.91×10–4 rad distance,
(c) 1′ = 60″ = 2.908×10–4 rad D = b /θ
1″ = 4.847×10–4 rad 4.85×10–6 rad t 1.276 × 107
t
Example 2.2 A man wishes to estimate =
3.32 × 10-2
the distance of a nearby tower from him.
He stands at a point A in front of the tower = 3.84 × 108 m t
C and spots a very distant object O in line
with AC. He then walks perpendicular to t Example 2.4 The Sun’s angular diameter
AC up to B, a distance of 100 m, and looks is measured to be 1920′′. The distance D of
at O and C again. Since O is very distant, the Sun from the Earth is 1.496 ×1011 m.
the direction BO is practically the same as What is the diameter of the Sun ?
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20 PHYSICS
Answer Sun’s angular diameter α of this solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using
= 1920" alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is
−6 1 3
= 1920 × 4.85 × 10 rad equal to cm of oleic acid/cm of
3
20 × 20
= 9.31 × 10 −3 rad
Sun’s diameter solution. Next we lightly sprinkle some
d =α D lycopodium powder on the surface of water in a
large trough and we put one drop of this solution
= 9.31 × 10−3 × 1.496 × 1011 m
in the water. The oleic acid drop spreads into a
thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular
= 1.39 × 109 m t thickness on water surface. Then, we quickly
measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
2.3.2 Estimation of Very Small Distances: area A. Suppose we have dropped n drops in
Size of a Molecule the water. Initially, we determine the
To measure a very small size, like that of a approximate volume of each drop (V cm3).
molecule (10–8 m to 10–10 m), we have to adopt Volume of n drops of solution
special methods. We cannot use a screw gauge
= nV cm3
or similar instruments. Even a microscope has
certain limitations. An optical microscope uses Amount of oleic acid in this solution
visible light to ‘look’ at the system under
1
investigation. As light has wave like features, nV cm
3
= 20 × 20
the resolution to which an optical microscope
can be used is the wavelength of light (A detailed
This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast
explanation can be found in the Class XII
on the surface of water and forms a very thin
Physics textbook). For visible light the range of
layer of thickness t. If this spreads to form a
wavelengths is from about 4000 Å to 7000 Å
film of area A cm2, then the thickness of the
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m). Hence an optical
film
microscope cannot resolve particles with sizes
smaller than this. Instead of visible light, we can Volume of the film
t=
use an electron beam. Electron beams can be Area of the film
focussed by properly designed electric and
nV
magnetic fields. The resolution of such an or, t= cm (2.3)
electron microscope is limited finally by the fact 20 × 20 A
that electrons can also behave as waves ! (You
will learn more about this in class XII). The If we assume that the film has mono-molecular
wavelength of an electron can be as small as a thickness, then this becomes the size or diameter
fraction of an angstrom. Such electron of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this
microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å have been thickness comes out to be of the order of 10–9 m.
built. They can almost resolve atoms and
Example 2.5 If the size of a nucleus (in
t
molecules in a material. In recent times,
tunnelling microscopy has been developed in the range of 10–15 to 10–14 m) is scaled up
which again the limit of resolution is better than to the tip of a sharp pin, what roughly is
an angstrom. It is possible to estimate the sizes the size of an atom ? Assume tip of the pin
of molecules. to be in the range 10–5m to 10–4m.
A simple method for estimating the molecular
Answer The size of a nucleus is in the range of
size of oleic acid is given below. Oleic acid is a
10–15 m and 10–14 m. The tip of a sharp pin is
soapy liquid with large molecular size of the
taken to be in the range of 10–5 m and 10–4 m.
order of 10–9 m.
Thus we are scaling up by a factor of 1010. An
The idea is to first form mono-molecular layer atom roughly of size 10–10 m will be scaled up to a
of oleic acid on water surface. size of 1 m. Thus a nucleus in an atom is as small
We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to in size as the tip of a sharp pin placed at the centre
make a solution of 20 cm3. Then we take 1 cm3 of a sphere of radius about a metre long. t
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 21
2.3.3 Range of Lengths While dealing with atoms and molecules, the
The sizes of the objects we come across in the kilogram is an inconvenient unit. In this case,
universe vary over a very wide range. These may there is an important standard unit of mass,
vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the called the unified atomic mass unit (u), which
tiny nucleus of an atom to the size of the order has been established for expressing the mass
of 1026 m of the extent of the observable universe. of atoms as
Table 2.3 gives the range and order of lengths 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u
and sizes of some of these objects. = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
We also use certain special length units for
short and large lengths. These are
(
12
)
isotope 6 C including the mass of electrons
= 1.66 × 10–27 kg
1 fermi = 1 f = 10–15 m
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 m Mass of commonly available objects can be
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance determined by a common balance like the one
of the Sun from the Earth) used in a grocery shop. Large masses in the
= 1.496 × 1011 m universe like planets, stars, etc., based on
1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015 m (distance Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
that light travels with velocity of using gravitational method (See Chapter 8). For
3 × 108 m s–1 in 1 year) measurement of small masses of atomic/sub-
1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m (Parsec is the atomic particles etc., we make use of mass
distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit spectrograph in which radius of the trajectory
subtends an angle of 1 arc second) is proportional to the mass of a charged particle
moving in uniform electric and magnetic field.
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS
Mass is a basic property of matter. It does not 2.4.1 Range of Masses
depend on the temperature, pressure or location
The masses of the objects, we come across in
of the object in space. The SI unit of mass is
the universe, vary over a very wide range. These
kilogram (kg). It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the Plank Constant h to be may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg
6.62607015×10–34 when expressed in the unit of of an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg
Js which is equal to kg m 2 s –1, where the of the known universe. Table 2.4 gives the range
metre and the second are defined is terms of C and order of the typical masses of various
and ∆νcs. objects.
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Table 2.4 Range and order of masses ± 1 × 10–15, i.e. 1 part in 1015. This implies that
the uncertainty gained over time by such a
device is less than 1 part in 1015; they lose or
gain no more than 32 µs in one year. In view of
the tremendous accuracy in time measurement,
the SI unit of length has been expressed in terms
the path length light travels in certain interval
of time (1/299, 792, 458 of a second) (Table 2.1).
The time interval of events that we come
across in the universe vary over a very wide
range. Table 2.5 gives the range and order of
some typical time intervals.
You may notice that there is an interesting
coincidence between the numbers appearing
in Tables 2.3 and 2.5. Note that the ratio of the
longest and shortest lengths of objects in our
universe is about 1041. Interestingly enough,
the ratio of the longest and shortest time
intervals associated with the events and objects
2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME in our universe is also about 1041. This number,
To measure any time interval we need a clock. 1041 comes up again in Table 2.4, which lists
We now use an atomic standard of time, which typical masses of objects. The ratio of the
is based on the periodic vibrations produced in largest and smallest masses of the objects in
a cesium atom. This is the basis of the caesium our universe is about (1041)2. Is this a curious
clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in coincidence between these large numbers
the national standards. Such standards are purely accidental ?
available in many laboratories. In the caesium
atomic clock, the second is taken as the time 2.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS
needed for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground Measurement is the foundation of all
state of caesium-133 atom. The vibrations of the experimental science and technology. The result
caesium atom regulate the rate of this caesium of every measurement by any measuring
atomic clock just as the vibrations of a balance instrument contains some uncertainty. This
wheel regulate an ordinary wristwatch or the uncertainty is called error. Every calculated
vibrations of a small quartz crystal regulate a quantity which is based on measured values,
quartz wristwatch. also has an error. We shall distinguish between
The caesium atomic clocks are very accurate. two terms: accuracy and precision. The
accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how
In principle they provide portable standard. The
close the measured value is to the true value of
national standard of time interval ‘second’ as
the quantity. Precision tells us to what resolution
well as the frequency is maintained through four
or limit the quantity is measured.
cesium atomic clocks. A caesium atomic clock
is used at the National Physical Laboratory The accuracy in measurement may depend on
(NPL), New Delhi to maintain the Indian several factors, including the limit or the resolution
standard of time. of the measuring instrument. For example, suppose
In our country, the NPL has the responsibility the true value of a certain length is near 3.678 cm.
of maintenance and improvement of physical In one experiment, using a measuring instrument
standards, including that of time, frequency, etc. of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value is found to
Note that the Indian Standard Time (IST) is be 3.5 cm, while in another experiment using a
linked to this set of atomic clocks. The efficient measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm,
caesium atomic clocks are so accurate that they the length is determined to be 3.38 cm. The first
impart the uncertainty in time realisation as measurement has more accuracy (because it is
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 23
closer to the true value) but less precision (its of a human body, a thermometer placed
resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the under the armpit will always give a
second measurement is less accurate but temperature lower than the actual value of
more precise. Thus every measurement is the body temperature. Other external
approximate due to errors in measurement. In conditions (such as changes in temperature,
general, the errors in measurement can be humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the
broadly classified as (a) systematic errors and experiment may systematically affect the
(b) random errors. measurement.
(c) Personal errors that arise due to an
Systematic errors
individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of
The systematic errors are those errors that the apparatus or individual’s carelessness
tend to be in one direction, either positive or in taking observations without observing
negative. Some of the sources of systematic proper precautions, etc. For example, if you,
errors are : by habit, always hold your head a bit too far
(a) Instrumental errors that arise from the to the right while reading the position of a
errors due to imperfect design or calibration needle on the scale, you will introduce an
of the measuring instrument, zero error in error due to parallax.
the instrument, etc. For example, the Systematic errors can be minimised by
temperature graduations of a thermometer improving experimental techniques, selecting
may be inadequately calibrated (it may read better instruments and removing personal bias
104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP as far as possible. For a given set-up, these
whereas it should read 100 °C); in a vernier errors may be estimated to a certain extent and
callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may the necessary corrections may be applied to the
not coincide with the zero mark of the main readings.
scale, or simply an ordinary metre scale may
be worn off at one end. Random errors
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique The random errors are those errors, which occur
or procedure To determine the temperature irregularly and hence are random with respect
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24 PHYSICS
to sign and size. These can arise due to random as to underestimate the true value of the
and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental quantity.
conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in The magnitude of the difference
temperature, voltage supply, mechanical between the individual measurement and
vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc), personal the true value of the quantity is called the
(unbiased) errors by the observer taking absolute error of the measurement. This
readings, etc. For example, when the same is denoted by |∆a |. In absence of any other
person repeats the same observation, it is very method of knowing true value, we considered
likely that he may get different readings arithmatic mean as the true value. Then the
everytime. errors in the individual measurement values
Least count error from the true value, are
The smallest value that can be measured by the ∆a1 = a1 – amean,
measuring instrument is called its least count. ∆a2 = a2 – amean,
All the readings or measured values are good only .... .... ....
up to this value. .... .... ....
The least count error is the error ∆a n = an – amean
associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example, a vernier callipers has the least The ∆a calculated above may be positive in
count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer may have a certain cases and negative in some other
least count of 0.001 cm. Least count error cases. But absolute error |∆a| will always
belongs to the category of random errors but be positive.
within a limited size; it occurs with both
(b) The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors
systematic and random errors. If we use a metre
is taken as the final or mean absolute error
scale for measurement of length, it may have
of the value of the physical quantity a. It is
graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or
represented by ∆amean.
interval.
Using instruments of higher precision, Thus,
improving experimental techniques, etc., we can
reduce the least count error. Repeating the ∆amean = (|∆a1|+|∆a2 |+|∆a3|+...+ |∆an|)/n
observations several times and taking the (2.6)
arithmetic mean of all the observations, the
n
mean value would be very close to the true value
of the measured quantity. = ∑ |∆ai|/n (2.7)
i =1
2.6.1 Absolute Error, Relative Error and
Percentage Error If we do a single measurement, the value we
get may be in the range amean ± ∆amean
(a) Suppose the values obtained in several
measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an. The i.e. a = amean ± ∆amean
arithmetic mean of these values is taken as
or,
the best possible value of the quantity under
the given conditions of measurement as : amean – ∆amean ≤ a ≤ amean + ∆amean
(2.8)
amean = (a1+a2+a3+...+an ) / n (2.4)
This implies that any measurement of the
or, physical quantity a is likely to lie between
n (amean+ ∆amean ) and (amean− ∆amean ).
a mean = ∑a i /n (2.5)
(c) Instead of the absolute error, we often use
i =1 the relative error or the percentage error
This is because, as explained earlier, it is (δa). The relative error is the ratio of the
reasonable to suppose that individual mean absolute error ∆amean to the mean
measurements are as likely to overestimate value amean of the quantity measured.
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26 PHYSICS
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 27
Then,
Example 2.9 The resistance R = V/I where
t
∆Z/Z = (∆A/A) + (∆A/A) = 2 (∆A/A).
V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2)A. Find the
Hence, the relative error in A2 is two times the
percentage error in R.
error in A.
Answer The percentage error in V is 5% and in In general, if Z = Ap Bq/Cr
I it is 2%. The total error in R would therefore Then,
be 5% + 2% = 7%. t ∆Z/Z = p (∆A/A) + q (∆B/B) + r (∆C/C).
t
Example 2.10 Two resistors of resistances Hence the rule : The relative error in a
R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are physical quantity raised to the power k is the
connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Find k times the relative error in the individual
the equivalent resistance of the (a) series quantity.
combination, (b) parallel combination. Use
for (a) the relation R = R1 + R2, and for (b) Example 2.11 Find the relative error in
t
Z, if Z = A4B1/3/CD3/2.
and
Answer The relative error in Z is ∆Z/Z =
Answer (a) The equivalent resistance of series 4(∆A/A) +(1/3) (∆B/B) + (∆C/C) + (3/2) (∆D/D).
combination t
R = R1 + R2 = (100 ± 3) ohm + (200 ± 4) ohm
Example 2.12 The period of oscillation of
t
66.7
2
66.7
2 Thus, the percentage error in g is
= 3+ 4 100 (∆g/g) = 100(∆L/L) + 2 × 100 (∆T/T )
100 200
= 3% t
= 1.8
2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Then, R ′ = 66.7 ± 1.8 ohm
As discussed above, every measurement
(Here, ∆R is expresed as 1.8 instead of 2 to
involves errors. Thus, the result of
keep in confirmity with the rules of significant
measurement should be reported in a way that
figures.) t indicates the precision of measurement.
Normally, the reported result of measurement
(c) Error in case of a measured quantity
raised to a power is a number that includes all digits in the
number that are known reliably plus the first
Suppose Z = A2, digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus
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28 PHYSICS
the first uncertain digit are known as • The trailing zero(s) in a number with a
significant digits or significant figures. If we decimal point are significant.
say the period of oscillation of a simple [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four
pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are significant figures each.]
reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three (2) There can be some confusion regarding the
significant figures. The length of an object trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to
reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here
are meant to convey the precision of
four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If
certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
reporting the result of measurement that
them explicitly, the reported measurement
includes more digits than the significant digits
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose
is superfluous and also misleading since it would
we change units, then
give a wrong idea about the precision of
measurement. 4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km
The rules for determining the number of Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
significant figures can be understood from the number with no decimal, we would conclude
following examples. Significant figures indicate, erroneously from observation (1) above that the
as already mentioned, the precision of number has two significant figures, while in
measurement which depends on the least count fact, it has four significant figures and a mere
of the measuring instrument. A choice of change of units cannot change the number of
change of different units does not change the significant figures.
number of significant digits or figures in a (3) To remove such ambiguities in
measurement. This important remark makes determining the number of significant
most of the following observations clear: figures, the best way is to report every
(1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four measurement in scientific notation (in the
significant figures. But in different units, the power of 10). In this notation, every number is
same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number
mm or 23080 µm. between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or
All these numbers have the same number of negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four. get an approximate idea of the number, we may
This shows that the location of decimal point is round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
of no consequence in determining the number (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
of significant figures. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
The example gives the following rules : exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the non-zero digits are significant. magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
are significant, no matter where the order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
decimal point is, if at all. earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
on the right of decimal point but to the hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
left of the first non-zero digit are not 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
zeroes are not significant]. of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant. (a) above disappears :
4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has
= 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s)
being not significant.] However, you can also The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation. determination of significant figures. However, all
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 29
zeroes appearing in the base number in the following rules for arithmetic operations with
scientific notation are significant. Each number significant figures ensure that the final result of
in this case has four significant figures. a calculation is shown with the precision that is
Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion consistent with the precision of the input
arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base measured values :
number a. They are always significant. (1) In multiplication or division, the final
result should retain as many significant
(4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
figures as are there in the original number
measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use with the least significant figures.
the rules adopted in the preceding example : Thus, in the example above, density should
• For a number greater than 1, without any be reported to three significant figures.
decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
4.237g -3
significant. D ensity = 3
= 1.69 g cm
• For a number with a decimal, the trailing 2.51 cm
zero(s) are significant. Similarly, if the speed of light is given as
3 × 108 m s-1 (one significant figure) and one
(5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five
decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m
is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
(three significant figures).
end of such number are significant in a
measurement. (2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
there in the number with the least decimal
neither rounded numbers nor numbers
places.
representing measured values are exact and
For example, the sum of the numbers
have infinite number of significant digits. For
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic
d addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise
example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one
2
exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 decimal place. The final result should, therefore,
be rounded off to 663.8 g.
t Similarly, the difference in length can be
or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is
n expressed as :
an exact number.
0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 × 10–3 m.
2.7.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Note that we should not use the rule (1)
Significant Figures applicable for multiplication and division and
The result of a calculation involving approximate write 664 g as the result in the example of
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with addition and 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of
limited number of significant figures) must reflect subtraction. They do not convey the precision
the uncertainties in the original measured values. of measurement properly. For addition and
It cannot be more accurate than the original subtraction, the rule is in terms of decimal
measured values themselves on which the result places.
is based. In general, the final result should not
2.7.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
have more significant figures than the original
data from which it was obtained. Thus, if mass of The result of computation with approximate
an object is measured to be, say, 4.237 g (four numbers, which contain more than one
significant figures) and its volume is measured to uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
be 2.51 cm3, then its density, by mere arithmetic for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
division, is 1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
places. It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
to record the calculated value of density to such a figures is 2.75, while the number 2.743 would
precision when the measurements on which the be 2.74. The rule by convention is that the
value is based, have much less precision. The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
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For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to three square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the
significant figures, cannot properly be evaluated dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current
as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties in [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous
subtraction or addition combine in a different intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol].
fashion (smallest number of decimal places rather The dimensions of a physical quantity are the
than the number of significant figures in any of powers (or exponents) to which the base
the number added or subtracted). quantities are raised to represent that
(3) The relative error of a value of number quantity. Note that using the square brackets
specified to significant figures depends not [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
only on n but also on the number itself. with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
For example, the accuracy in measurement of
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M]
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by
measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
The relative error in 1.02 g is an object is expressed as the product of length,
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 % breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the
= ± 1% dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3].
Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is As the volume is independent of mass and time,
= (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 % it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
= ± 0.1 % zero dimension in time [T°] and three
Finally, remember that intermediate results in dimensions in length.
a multi-step computation should be Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
calculated to one more significant figure in acceleration, can be expressed as
Force = mass × acceleration
every measurement than the number of
= mass × (length)/(time)2
digits in the least precise measurement.
These should be justified by the data and then The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 =
the arithmetic operations may be carried out; [M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in
otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 2.9 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
2.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
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32 PHYSICS
quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are from the thermodynamic temperature. This
the equations, which represent the dimensions simple principle called the principle of
of a physical quantity in terms of the base homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is
quantities. For example, the dimensional extremely useful in checking the correctness of
equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms
mass density [ρ] may be expressed as are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if
we derive an expression for the length (or
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[F] = [M L T–2] appearing in the original mathematical relation,
when all the individual dimensions are
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
simplified, the remaining dimension must be
The dimensional equation can be obtained that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation
from the equation representing the relations of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
between the physical quantities. The equation, when simplified, must be of length/
dimensional formulae of a large number and time, or [L T–1].
wide variety of physical quantities, derived from Dimensions are customarily used as a
the equations representing the relationships
preliminary test of the consistency of an
among other physical quantities and expressed
equation, when there is some doubt about the
in terms of base quantities are given in
Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready correctness of the equation. However, the
reference. dimensional consistency does not guarantee
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent
2.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS of dimensionless quantities or functions. The
APPLICATIONS arguments of special functions, such as the
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
guide the description of physical behaviour is functions must be dimensionless. A pure
of basic importance as only those physical number, ratio of similar physical quantities,
quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical [x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides [x0 ] = [L]
of a mathematical equation must have the same [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
dimensions. = [L]
[(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
2.10.1 Checking the Dimensional
= [L]
Consistency of Equations
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 33
test of consistency of units, but has the (b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
advantage that we need not commit ourselves right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
to a particular choice of units, and we need not two quantities of different dimensions have been
worry about conversions among multiples and added. Since the kinetic energy K has the
sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
mind that if an equation fails this consistency are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments
test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the
not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct correct formula. For this, one must turn to the
equation need not be actually an exact actual definition of kinetic energy (see Chapter
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong 6). The correct formula for kinetic energy is given
(incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be by (b). t
wrong.
2.10.2 Deducing Relation among the
Physical Quantities
Example 2.15 Let us consider an equation
t
The method of dimensions can sometimes be
1
m v2 = m g h used to deduce relation among the physical
2 quantities. For this we should know the
where m is the mass of the body, v its dependence of the physical quantity on other
velocity, g is the acceleration due to quantities (upto three physical quantities or
gravity and h is the height. Check linearly independent variables) and consider it
whether this equation is dimensionally as a product type of the dependence. Let us take
correct. an example.
J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and Answer The dependence of time period T on
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
written as :
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below
can you rule out on the basis of T = k lx gy mz
dimensional arguments (m stands for the where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
mass of the body) : and z are the exponents.
(a) K = m2 v3 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 have
(c) K = ma [Lo Mo T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(d) K = (3/16)mv2
= Lx+y T–2y Mz
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma
On equating the dimensions on both sides,
Answer Every correct formula or equation must we have
have the same dimensions on both sides of the x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
equation. Also, only quantities with the same
1 1
physical dimensions can be added or So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on 2 2
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for Then, T = k l g
½ –½
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SUMMARY
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EXERCISES
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36 PHYSICS
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
2.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m,
and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant
figures.
2.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
2.13 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows :
P = a 3 b 2/ ( c d )
The percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%,
respectively. What is the percentage error in the quantity P ? If the value of P calculated
using the above relation turns out to be 3.763, to what value should you round off
the result ?
2.14 A book with many printing errors contains four different formulas for the displacement
y of a particle undergoing a certain periodic motion :
(a) y = a sin 2π t/T
(b) y = a sin vt
(c) y = (a/T) sin t/a
(d) y = (a 2 ) (sin 2 πt / T + cos 2 πt / T )
(a = maximum displacement of the particle, v = speed of the particle. T = time-period
of motion). Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional grounds.
2.15 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .
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2.20 The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 light years away. How much is this
distance in terms of parsecs? How much parallax would this star (named Alpha
Centauri) show when viewed from two locations of the Earth six months apart in its
orbit around the Sun ?
2.21 Precise measurements of physical quantities are a need of science. For example, to
ascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must have an accurate method to find its
positions at closely separated instants of time. This was the actual motivation behind
the discovery of radar in World War II. Think of different examples in modern science
where precise measurements of length, time, mass etc. are needed. Also, wherever
you can, give a quantitative idea of the precision needed.
2.22 Just as precise measurements are necessary in science, it is equally important to be
able to make rough estimates of quantities using rudimentary ideas and common
observations. Think of ways by which you can estimate the following (where an
estimate is difficult to obtain, try to get an upper bound on the quantity) :
(a) the total mass of rain-bearing clouds over India during the Monsoon
(b) the mass of an elephant
(c) the wind speed during a storm
(d) the number of strands of hair on your head
(e) the number of air molecules in your classroom.
2.23 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.
2.24 When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million kilometers from the Earth,
its angular diameter is measured to be 35.72" of arc. Calculate the diameter of
Jupiter.
Additional Exercises
2.25 A man walking briskly in rain with speed v must slant his umbrella forward making
an angle θ with the vertical. A student derives the following relation between θ and
v : tan θ = v and checks that the relation has a correct limit: as v →0, θ → 0, as
expected. (We are assuming there is no strong wind and that the rain falls vertically
for a stationary man). Do you think this relation can be correct ? If not, guess the
correct relation.
2.26 It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if allowed to run for 100 years, free from any
disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. What does this imply for the accuracy
of the standard cesium clock in measuring a time-interval of 1 s ?
2.27 Estimate the average mass density of a sodium atom assuming its size to be about
2.5 Å. (Use the known values of Avogadro’s number and the atomic mass of sodium).
Compare it with the mass density of sodium in its crystalline phase : 970 kg m–3. Are
the two densities of the same order of magnitude ? If so, why ?
2.28 The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi : 1 f = 10–15 m. Nuclear
sizes obey roughly the following empirical relation :
r = r0 A1/3
where r is the radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and ro is a constant equal to
about, 1.2 f. Show that the rule implies that nuclear mass density is nearly constant
for different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of sodium nucleus. Compare it with
the average mass density of a sodium atom obtained in Exercise. 2.27.
2.29 A LASER is a source of very intense, monochromatic, and unidirectional beam of
light. These properties of a laser light can be exploited to measure long distances.
The distance of the Moon from the Earth has been already determined very precisely
using a laser as a source of light. A laser light beamed at the Moon takes 2.56 s to
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return after reflection at the Moon’s surface. How much is the radius of the lunar
orbit around the Earth ?
2.30 A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses ultrasonic waves to detect and locate
objects under water. In a submarine equipped with a SONAR, the time delay between
generation of a probe wave and the reception of its echo after reflection from an
enemy submarine is found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the enemy submarine?
(Speed of sound in water = 1450 m s–1).
2.31 The farthest objects in our Universe discovered by modern astronomers are so distant
that light emitted by them takes billions of years to reach the Earth. These objects
(known as quasars) have many puzzling features, which have not yet been satisfactorily
explained. What is the distance in km of a quasar from which light takes 3.0 billion
years to reach us ?
2.32 It is a well known fact that during a total solar eclipse the disk of the moon almost
completely covers the disk of the Sun. From this fact and from the information you
can gather from examples 2.3 and 2.4, determine the approximate diameter of the
moon.
2.33 A great physicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac) loved playing with numerical values of
Fundamental constants of nature. This led him to an interesting observation. Dirac
found that from the basic constants of atomic physics (c, e, mass of electron, mass of
proton) and the gravitational constant G, he could arrive at a number with the
dimension of time. Further, it was a very large number, its magnitude being close to
the present estimate on the age of the universe (~15 billion years). From the table of
fundamental constants in this book, try to see if you too can construct this number
(or any other interesting number you can think of ). If its coincidence with the age of
the universe were significant, what would this imply for the constancy of fundamental
constants?
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CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
3.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
3.2 Position, path length and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
displacement down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
3.3 Average velocity and average place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
speed hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
3.4 Instantaneous velocity and itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
speed within its local group of galaxies.
3.5 Acceleration Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
3.6 Kinematic equations for does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
uniformly accelerated motion learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
3.7 Relative velocity concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
Summary ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
Points to ponder line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
Exercises rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
Additional exercises equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
Appendix 3.1 nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 5.
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a rectangular coordinate system consisting of with the path of the car’s motion and origin of
three mutually perpenducular axes, labelled X-, the axis as the point from where the car started
Y-, and Z- axes. The point of intersection of these moving, i.e. the car was at x = 0 at t = 0 (Fig. 3.1).
three axes is called origin (O) and serves as the Let P, Q and R represent the positions of the car
reference point. The coordinates (x, y. z) of an at different instants of time. Consider two cases
object describe the position of the object with of motion. In the first case, the car moves from
O to P. Then the distance moved by the car is
respect to this coordinate system. To measure
OP = +360 m. This distance is called the path
time, we position a clock in this system. This
length traversed by the car. In the second
coordinate system along with a clock constitutes
case, the car moves from O to P and then moves
a frame of reference.
back from P to Q. During this course of motion,
If one or more coordinates of an object change the path length traversed is OP + PQ = + 360 m
with time, we say that the object is in motion. + (+120 m) = + 480 m. Path length is a scalar
Otherwise, the object is said to be at rest with quantity — a quantity that has a magnitude
respect to this frame of reference. only and no direction (see Chapter 4).
The choice of a set of axes in a frame of
reference depends upon the situation. For Displacement
example, for describing motion in one dimension, It is useful to define another quantity
we need only one axis. To describe motion in displacement as the change in position. Let
two/three dimensions, we need a set of two/ x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1
three axes. and t2. Then its displacement, denoted by ∆x, in
Description of an event depends on the frame time ∆t = (t2 - t1), is given by the difference
of reference chosen for the description. For between the final and initial positions :
example, when you say that a car is moving on ∆x = x2 – x1
a road, you are describing the car with respect (We use the Greek letter delta (∆) to denote a
to a frame of reference attached to you or to the change in a quantity.)
ground. But with respect to a frame of reference If x2 > x1, ∆x is positive; and if x2 < x1, ∆x is
attached with a person sitting in the car, the negative.
car is at rest. Displacement has both magnitude and
direction. Such quantities are represented by
To describe motion along a straight line, we
vectors. You will read about vectors in the next
can choose an axis, say X-axis, so that it chapter. Presently, we are dealing with motion
coincides with the path of the object. We then along a straight line (also called rectilinear
measure the position of the object with reference motion) only. In one-dimensional motion, there
to a conveniently chosen origin, say O, as shown are only two directions (backward and forward,
in Fig. 3.1. Positions to the right of O are taken upward and downward) in which an object can
as positive and to the left of O, as negative. move, and these two directions can easily be
Following this convention, the position specified by + and – signs. For example,
coordinates of point P and Q in Fig. 3.1 are +360 displacement of the car in moving from O to P is :
m and +240 m. Similarly, the position coordinate ∆x = x2 – x1 = (+360 m) – 0 m = +360 m
of point R is –120 m.
The displacement has a magnitude of 360 m and
Path length is directed in the positive x direction as indicated
Consider the motion of a car along a straight by the + sign. Similarly, the displacement of the
line. We choose the x-axis such that it coincides car from P to Q is 240 m – 360 m = – 120 m. The
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 41
negative sign indicates the direction of then returns to O, the final position coincides
displacement. Thus, it is not necessary to use with the initial position and the displacement
vector notation for discussing motion of objects is zero. However, the path length of this journey
in one-dimension. is OP + PO = 360 m + 360 m = 720 m.
The magnitude of displacement may or may Motion of an object can be represented by a
not be equal to the path length traversed by position-time graph as you have already learnt
an object. For example, for motion of the car about it. Such a graph is a powerful tool to
from O to P, the path length is +360 m and the
represent and analyse different aspects of
displacement is +360 m. In this case, the
motion of an object. For motion along a straight
magnitude of displacement (360 m) is equal to
line, say X-axis, only x-coordinate varies with
the path length (360 m). But consider the motion
of the car from O to P and back to Q. In this time and we have an x-t graph. Let us first
case, the path length = (+360 m) + (+120 m) = + consider the simple case in which an object is
480 m. However, the displacement = (+240 m) – stationary, e.g. a car standing still at x = 40 m.
(0 m) = + 240 m. Thus, the magnitude of The position-time graph is a straight line parallel
displacement (240 m) is not equal to the path to the time axis, as shown in Fig. 3.2(a).
length (480 m). If an object moving along the straight line
The magnitude of the displacement for a covers equal distances in equal intervals of
course of motion may be zero but the time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a
corresponding path length is not zero. For straight line. Fig. 3.2(b) shows the position-time
example, if the car starts from O, goes to P and graph of such a motion.
Fig. 3.2 Position-time graph of (a) stationary object, and (b) an object in uniform motion.
#
x
(m)
t (s)
Fig. 3.3 Position-time graph of a car.
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Now, let us consider the motion of a car that Consider the motion of the car in Fig. 3.3. The
starts from rest at time t = 0 s from the origin O portion of the x-t graph between t = 0 s and t = 8
and picks up speed till t = 10 s and thereafter s is blown up and shown in Fig. 3.4. As seen
moves with uniform speed till t = 18 s. Then the from the plot, the average velocity of the car
brakes are applied and the car stops at between time t = 5 s and t = 7 s is :
t = 20 s and x = 296 m. The position-time graph x 2 − x1 ( 27.4 − 10.0 ) m
for this case is shown in Fig. 3.3. We shall refer v= = = 8.7 m s –1
t 2 − t1 (7 − 5 ) s
to this graph in our discussion in the following
sections. Geometrically, this is the slope of the straight
line P1P2 connecting the initial position P1 to
3.3 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE the final position P2 as shown in Fig. 3.4.
SPEED The average velocity can be positive or negative
When an object is in motion, its position depending upon the sign of the displacement. It
changes with time. But how fast is the position is zero if the displacement is zero. Fig. 3.5 shows
changing with time and in what direction? To the x-t graphs for an object, moving with positive
describe this, we define the quantity average velocity (Fig. 3.5a), moving with negative velocity
velocity. Average velocity is defined as the (Fig. 3.5b) and at rest (Fig. 3.5c).
change in position or displacement (∆x) divided
by the time intervals (∆t), in which the
displacement occurs :
x 2 − x1 ∆x
v= = (3.1)
t 2 − t1 ∆t
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 43
is equal to the average speed. This is not always 3.4 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED
the case, as you will see in the following example.
The average velocity tells us how fast an object
t has been moving over a given time interval but
Example 3.1 A car is moving along a
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
straight line, say OP in Fig. 3.1. It moves
instants of time during that interval. For this,
from O to P in 18 s and returns from P to Q
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
in 6.0 s. What are the average velocity
velocity v at an instant t.
and average speed of the car in going (a)
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
from O to P ? and (b) from O to P and back
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
to Q ?
∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
Answer (a) ∆x
v = lim (3.3a)
Displacement ∆t → 0 ∆t
Average velocity =
Time interval
dx (3.3b)
=
dt
+ 360 m
v= = + 20 m s −1 lim
where the symbol ∆t →0 stands for the operation
18 s
of taking limit as ∆tg0 of the quantity on its
Path length right. In the language of calculus, the quantity
Average speed =
Time interval on the right hand side of Eq. (3.3a) is the
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and
360 m dx
= = 20 m s −1 is denoted by (see Appendix 3.1). It is the
18 s dt
rate of change of position with respect to time,
Thus, in this case the average speed is equal to
the magnitude of the average velocity. at that instant.
(b) In this case, We can use Eq. (3.3a) for obtaining the value
of velocity at an instant either graphically or
Displacement +240 m
Average velocity = = numerically. Suppose that we want to obtain
Time interval (18 + 6.0) s graphically the value of velocity at time t = 4 s
(point P) for the motion of the car represented
=+10 m s-1 in Fig. 3.3. The figure has been redrawn in
Fig. 3.6 choosing different scales to facilitate the
Path length OP + PQ
Average speed = =
Time interval ∆t
=
(360 +120 ) m
= 20 m s-1
24 s
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44 PHYSICS
calculation. Let us take ∆t = 2 s centred at instant for motion of the car shown in Fig. 3.3.
t = 4 s. Then, by the definition of the average For this case, the variation of velocity with time
velocity, the slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 3.6) gives is found to be as shown in Fig. 3.7.
the value of average velocity over the interval
3 s to 5 s. Now, we decrease the value of ∆t from
2 s to 1 s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its
slope gives the value of the average velocity over
the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit ∆t → 0,
the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
time curve at the point P and the velocity at t =
4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at that
point. It is difficult to show this process
graphically. But if we use numerical method
to obtain the value of the velocity, the
meaning of the limiting process becomes
clear. For the graph shown in
Fig. 3.6, x = 0.08 t3. Table 3.1 gives the value of
∆x/∆t calculated for ∆t equal to 2.0 s, 1.0 s, 0.5
s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t = 4.0 s. The
second and third columns give the value of t1= Fig. 3.7 Velocity–time graph corresponding to motion
shown in Fig. 3.3.
∆t ∆t The graphical method for the determination
t − and t 2 = t + and the fourth and
2 2 of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
the fifth columns give the corresponding values convenient method. For this, we must carefully
plot the position–time graph and calculate the
3
of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1 and x (t2) = 0.08 t 23 . The value of average velocity as ∆t becomes smaller
sixth column lists the difference ∆x = x (t2) – x and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value
(t1) and the last column gives the ratio of ∆x and of velocity at different instants if we have data
∆t, i.e. the average velocity corresponding to the of positions at different instants or exact
value of ∆t listed in the first column. expression for the position as a function of time.
We see from Table 3.1 that as we decrease Then, we calculate ∆x/∆t from the data for
the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of decreasing the value of ∆t and find the limiting
the average velocity approaches the limiting value as we have done in Table 3.1 or use
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at differential calculus for the given expression and
dx dx
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this calculate at different instants as done in
dt dt
manner, we can calculate velocity at each the following example.
∆x
Table 3.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
∆t
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 45
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46 PHYSICS
that the acceleration is nonuniform over the (b) An object is moving in positive direction
period 0 s to 10 s. It is zero between 10 s and with a negative acceleration, for example,
18 s and is constant with value –12 m s –2 motion of the car in Fig 3.3 between
between 18 s and 20 s. When the acceleration t = 18 s and 20 s.
is uniform, obviously, it equals the average (c) An object is moving in negative direction
acceleration over that period. with a negative acceleration, for example
Since velocity is a quantity having both the motion of a car moving from O in Fig.
magnitude and direction, a change in velocity 3.1 in negative x-direction with
may involve either or both of these factors. increasing speed.
Acceleration, therefore, may result from a (d) An object is moving in positive direction
change in speed (magnitude), a change in till time t1, and then turns back with the
direction or changes in both. Like velocity, same negative acceleration, for example
acceleration can also be positive, negative or the motion of a car from point O to point
zero. Position-time graphs for motion with Q in Fig. 3.1 till time t1 with decreasing
positive, negative and zero acceleration are speed and turning back and moving with
shown in Figs. 3.9 (a), (b) and (c), respectively. the same negative acceleration.
Note that the graph curves upward for positive An interesting feature of a velocity-time graph
acceleration; downward for negative for any moving object is that the area under the
acceleration and it is a straight line for zero curve represents the displacement over a
acceleration. As an exercise, identify in Fig. 3.3, given time interval. A general proof of this
the regions of the curve that correspond to these
three cases.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted to
motion with constant acceleration. In this case,
the average acceleration equals the constant
value of acceleration during the interval. If the
velocity of an object is vo at t = 0 and v at time t,
we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (3.6)
t −0
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 49
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 51
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52 PHYSICS
This shows: vBA = – vAB (3.14c) Fig. 3.17 Position-time graphs of two objects with
unequal velocities, showing the time of
meeting.
Now we consider some special cases :
(a) If vB = vA, vB – vA = 0. Then, from Eq. (3.13), xB
(t) – xA (t) = xB (0) – xA (0). Therefore, the two
objects stay at a constant distance (xB (0) – xA
(0)) apart, and their position–time graphs are
straight lines parallel to each other as shown
in Fig. 3.16. The relative velocity vAB or vBA is
zero in this case.
(b) If vA > vB, vB – vA is negative. One graph is
steeper than the other and they meet at a
common point. For example, suppose vA = 20 m s-1 t(s)
and xA (0) = 10 m; and vB = 10 m s-1, xB (0) = 40
m; then the time at which they meet is t = 3 s
(Fig. 3.17). At this instant they are both at a Fig. 3.18 Position-time graphs of two objects with
position xA (t) = xB (t) = 70 m. Thus, object A velocities in opposite directions, showing
the time of meeting.
overtakes object B at this time. In this case,vBA
= 10 m s–1 – 20 m s–1 = – 10 m s–1 = – vAB. t
Example 3.9 Two parallel rail tracks run
(c) Suppose vA and vB are of opposite signs. For
north-south. Train A moves north with a
example, if in the above example object A is speed of 54 km h–1, and train B moves south
moving with 20 m s–1 starting at xA(0) = 10 m with a speed of 90 km h–1. What is the
and object B is moving with – 10 m s–1 starting (a) velocity of B with respect to A ?,
at xB (0) = 40 m, the two objects meet at t = 1 s (b) velocity of ground with respect to B ?,
(Fig. 3.18). The velocity of B relative to A, and
vBA = [–10 – (20)] m s–1 = –30 m s–1 = – vAB. In this (c) velocity of a monkey running on the
case, the magnitude of vBA or vAB ( = 30 m s–1) is roof of the train A against its motion
greater than the magnitude of velocity of A or (with a velocity of 18 km h–1 with
that of B. If the objects under consideration are respect to the train A) as observed by
a man standing on the ground ?
two trains, then for a person sitting on either of
the two, the other train seems to go very fast.
Note that Eq. (3.14) are valid even if vA and vB Answer Choose the positive direction of x-axis
represent instantaneous velocities. to be from south to north. Then,
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 53
SUMMARY
1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
2. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
3. Displacement is the change in position : ∆x = x2 – x1. Path length is greater or equal to
the magnitude of the displacement between the same points.
4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal
in equal intervals of time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform.
5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs :
∆x
v=
∆t
On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line
connecting the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :
∆x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :
∆v
a=
∆t
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval ∆t goes to zero :
∆ v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
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54 PHYSICS
parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at
1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same
as the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points;
the path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. In one dimension,
the two quantities are equal only if the object does not change its direction during the
course of motion. In all other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of
displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if
the path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first
specify this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
4. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
5. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
6. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero
acceleration. For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost
point but the acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to
gravity.
7. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (3.11)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
8. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (3.3) and (3.5)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (3.11)) are true only
for motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant
during the course of motion.
EXERCISES
3.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
3.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 3.19. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).
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Fig. 3.19
3.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
3.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1
m long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically
and otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the
start.
3.5 A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h–1 ejects its products of combustion
at the speed of 1500 km h–1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of the
latter with respect to an observer on the ground ?
3.6 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
3.7 Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are moving on two parallel tracks with a
uniform speed of 72 km h–1 in the same direction, with A ahead of B. The driver of
B decides to overtake A and accelerates by 1 m s–2. If after 50 s, the guard of B just
brushes past the driver of A, what was the original distance between them ?
3.8 On a two-lane road, car A is travelling with a speed of 36 km h–1. Two cars B and
C approach car A in opposite directions with a speed of 54 km h–1 each. At a
certain instant, when the distance AB is equal to AC, both being 1 km, B decides
to overtake A before C does. What minimum acceleration of car B is required to
avoid an accident ?
3.9 Two towns A and B are connected by a regular bus service with a bus leaving in
either direction every T minutes. A man cycling with a speed of 20 km h–1 in the
direction A to B notices that a bus goes past him every 18 min in the direction of
his motion, and every 6 min in the opposite direction. What is the period T of the
bus service and with what speed (assumed constant) do the buses ply on the
road?
3.10 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its
motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 57
3.11 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.
3.12 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
3.13 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity is either greater than or equal to the first.
When is the equality sign true ? [For simplicity, consider one-dimensional
motion only].
3.14 A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a
speed of 5 km h–1. Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back
home with a speed of 7.5 km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to
50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ? [Note: You will appreciate from this exercise why it
is better to define average speed as total path length divided by time, and not
as magnitude of average velocity. You would not like to tell the tired man on
his return home that his average speed was zero !]
3.15 In Exercises 3.13 and 3.14, we have carefully distinguished between average speed
and magnitude of average velocity. No such distinction is necessary when we
consider instantaneous speed and magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. Why ?
3.16 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 3.20) carefully and state, with reasons, which of
these cannot possibly represent one-dimensional motion of a particle.
Fig. 3.20
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58 PHYSICS
Fig. 3.22
3.20 Figure 3.23 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter14).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.
Fig. 3.23
Fig. 3.24
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 59
Additional Exercises
3.23 A three-wheeler starts from rest, accelerates uniformly with 1 m s–2 on a straight
road for 10 s, and then moves with uniform velocity. Plot the distance covered by
the vehicle during the nth second (n = 1,2,3….) versus n. What do you expect this
plot to be during accelerated motion : a straight line or a parabola ?
3.24 A boy standing on a stationary lift (open from above) throws a ball upwards with
the maximum initial speed he can, equal to 49 m s–1. How much time does the ball
take to return to his hands? If the lift starts moving up with a uniform speed of
5 m s-1 and the boy again throws the ball up with the maximum speed he can, how
long does the ball take to return to his hands ?
3.25 On a long horizontally moving belt (Fig. 3.26), a child runs to and fro with a speed
–1
9 km h (with respect to the belt) between his father and mother located 50 m apart
on the moving belt. The belt moves with a speed of 4 km h–1. For an observer on a
stationary platform outside, what is the
(a) speed of the child running in the direction of motion of the belt ?.
(b) speed of the child running opposite to the direction of motion of the belt ?
(c) time taken by the child in (a) and (b) ?
Which of the answers alter if motion is viewed by one of the parents ?
Fig. 3.26
3.26 Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from the edge of a cliff 200 m high with
initial speeds of 15 m s–1 and 30 m s–1. Verify that the graph shown in Fig. 3.27
correctly represents the time variation of the relative position of the second stone
with respect to the first. Neglect air resistance and assume that the stones do not
rebound after hitting the ground. Take g = 10 m s–2. Give the equations for the
linear and curved parts of the plot.
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60 PHYSICS
Fig. 3.27
3.27 The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown in
Fig. 3.28. Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between (a) t = 0 s to 10 s,
(b) t = 2 s to 6 s.
Fig. 3.28
What is the average speed of the particle over the intervals in (a) and (b) ?
3.28 The velocity-time graph of a particle in one-dimensional motion is shown in
Fig. 3.29 :
Fig. 3.29
Which of the following formulae are correct for describing the motion of the particle
over the time-interval t1 to t2:
(a) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + v (t1) (t2 – t1) +(½) a (t2 – t1)2
(b) v(t2 ) = v(t1) + a (t2 – t1)
(c) vaverage = (x(t2) – x(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(d) aaverage = (v(t2) – v(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(e) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + vaverage (t2 – t1) + (½) aaverage (t2 – t1)2
(f) x(t2 ) – x(t1) = area under the v-t curve bounded by the t-axis and the dotted line
shown.
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 61
Differential Calculus
Using the concept of ‘differential coefficient’ or ‘derivative’, we can easily define velocity and
acceleration. Though you will learn in detail in mathematics about derivatives, we shall introduce
this concept in brief in this Appendix so as to facilitate its use in describing physical quantities
involved in motion.
Suppose we have a quantity y whose value depends upon a single variable x, and is expressed
by an equation defining y as some specific function of x. This is represented as:
y = f (x) (1)
This relationship can be visualised by drawing a graph of function y = f (x) regarding y and x as
Cartesian coordinates, as shown in Fig. 3.30 (a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.30
Consider the point P on the curve y = f (x) whose coordinates are (x, y) and another point Q
where coordinates are (x + ∆x, y + ∆y). The slope of the line joining P and Q is given by:
∆y (y + ∆y ) − y
tanθ = = (2)
∆x ∆x
Suppose now that the point Q moves along the curve towards P. In this process, ∆y and ∆x
∆y
decrease and approach zero; though their ratio will not necessarily vanish. What happens
∆x
to the line PQ as ∆y→ 0, ∆x→ 0. You can see that this line becomes a tangent to the curve at
point P as shown in Fig. 3.30(b). This means that tan θ approaches the slope of the tangent at
P, denoted by m:
∆y (y + ∆y ) − y
m = lim = lim (3)
∆x ∆x → 0
∆x → 0 ∆x
The limit of the ratio ∆y/∆x as ∆x approaches zero is called the derivative of y with respect to x
and is written as dy/dx. It represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the
point (x, y).
Since y = f (x) and y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x), we can write the definition of the derivative as:
dy df ( x ) ∆y f ( x + ∆x ) – f ( x )
= = lim = lim
dx dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
Given below are some elementary formulae for derivatives of functions. In these u (x) and v (x)
represent arbitrary functions of x, and a and b denote constant quantities that are independent
of x. Derivatives of some common functions are also listed .
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62 PHYSICS
d (a u ) du du du dx
=a ; = .
dx dx dt dx dt
d(uv) dv du d (u / v ) 1 du dv
=u +v ; = 2 –u
dx dx dx dx v dx dx
du du dx
=
dv dv dx
d d
(sin x ) = cos x ;
dx
(cos x ) = – sin x
dx
d d
(tan x ) = sec2 x ; (cot x ) = – cos ec 2 x
dx dx
d
(sec x) = tan x sec x ;
d
(cosec 2 x ) = – cot x co sec x
dx dx
d du d 1
(u )n = n u n –1 ; ( ln u) =
dx dx du u
d u
(e ) = eu
du
Fig. 3.31
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 63
To calculate the area under this curve [Fig. 3.31 (ii)], let us employ the following trick. Divide the
interval on x-axis from a to b into a large number (N) of small intervals: x0(=a) to x1, x1 to x2 ; x2 to x3,
................................ xN-1 to xN (=b). The area under the curve is thus divided into N strips. Each strip
is approximately a rectangle, since the variation of F(x) over a strip is negligible. The area of the ith
strip shown [Fig. 3.31(ii)] is then approximately
where ∆x is the width of the strip which we have taken to be the same for all the strips. You may
wonder whether we should put F(xi-1) or the mean of F(xi) and F(xi-1) in the above expression. If we
take N to be very very large (N→∞ ), it does not really matter, since then the strip will be so thin that
the difference between F(xi) and F(xi-1) is vanishingly small. The total area under the curve then is:
N N
A= ∑
i =1
∆Ai = ∑ F (x )∆x
i =1
i
The limit of this sum as N→∞ is known as the integral of F(x) over x from a to b. It is given a special
symbol as shown below:
b
A=
∫ F (x )dx
a
The integral sign ∫ looks like an elongated S, reminding us that it basically is the limit of the sum
of an infinite number of terms.
A most significant mathematical fact is that integration is, in a sense, an inverse of differentiation.
dg(x )
Suppose we have a function g (x) whose derivative is f (x), i.e. f ( x ) =
dx
The function g (x) is known as the indefinite integral of f (x) and is denoted as:
g( x ) =
∫ f (x )dx
An integral with lower and upper limits is known as a definite integral. It is a number. Indefinite
integral has no limits; it is a function.
∫ f (x ) dx = g(x )
b
a
≡ g(b ) – g(a )
a
2
As an example, suppose f (x) = x and we wish to determine the value of the definite integral from
x =1 to x = 2. The function g (x) whose derivative is x2 is x3/3. Therefore,
2 2
x3 8 1 7
∫
1
x 2 dx =
3
1
= – =
3 3 3
Clearly, to evaluate definite integrals, we need to know the corresponding indefinite integrals. Some
common indefinite integrals are
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64 PHYSICS
1
∫ ( x )dx = ln x ( x > 0)
This introduction to differential and integral calculus is not rigorous and is intended to convey to
you the basic notions of calculus.
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CHAPTER FOUR
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
4.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
4.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
4.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
4.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
4.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
4.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
4.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
4.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
4.9 Relative velocity in two in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
dimensions discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
4.10 Projectile motion the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
4.11 Uniform circular motion motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Summary
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
Points to ponder
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.
Exercises
Additional exercises 4.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS
In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
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66 PHYSICS
just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 4.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 4.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented
r by an arrow placed r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 4.2.2 Equality of Vectors
4.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 4.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 4.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated
* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.
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MOTION IN A PLANE 67
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 4.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.
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68 PHYSICS
arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 4.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (4.1) vector”.
The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 4.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (4.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (4.2) It is shown in Fig 4.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 4.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (4.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 4.6(b)]. In Fig.4.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (4.4) equivalent.
Fig. 4.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.
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MOTION IN A PLANE 69
Fig. 4.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.
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70 PHYSICS
Fig. 4.9 (a) Unit vectors i , j and k lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of i and j .
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MOTION IN A PLANE 71
(
R = ( A x + B x ) i + Ay + By j ) (4.19b)
Since R = R x i + Ry j (4.20)
we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (4.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A i + A j + A k
x y z
B = B x i + By j + B z k
(d)
R = A + B = R x i + Ry j + Rz k
Fig. 4.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (4.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (4.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (4.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 (4.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a i + a j + a k
x y z
r = x i + y j + z k (4.17)
b = b x i + by j + bz k
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x i + c y j + c z k (4.23a)
4.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (4.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors
Example 4.2 Find the magnitude and
t
by combining their respective components.
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with direction of the resultant of two vectors A
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x i + Ay j (4.18)
* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.
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72 PHYSICS
t
Example 4.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.
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MOTION IN A PLANE 73
4.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 4.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 4.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (4.25)
and is directed from P to P′ .
r = x i + y j
We can write Eq. (4.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' i + y' j − x i + y j )
= i∆x + j∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (4.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x i + ∆y j ∆x ∆y
v= = = i +j (4.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 4.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (4.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 4.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 4.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and
Fig. 4.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.
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74 PHYSICS
a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x i + v y j ) = ∆v x
i +
∆v y
j (4.31a)
consequently, the direction of the acceleration
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 4.15(d)],
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t the average acceleration becomes the
instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
Or, a = a x i + a y j . (4.31b) as shown.
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MOTION IN A PLANE 75
x (m)
Fig. 4.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.
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1 2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?
= v0t + at
2 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
1 2 At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at (4.34a)
2 dr
Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
It can be easily verified that the derivative of dt
dr At t = 6 s, v = 23.0i + 12.0 j
Eq. (4.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(4.33a) and it also
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o. speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 . t
Equation (4.34a) can be written in component
form as 4.9 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO
DIMENSIONS
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a xt 2 The concept of relative velocity, introduced in
2 section 3.7 for motion along a straight line, can
1 be easily extended to include motion in a plane
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (4.34b) or in three dimensions. Suppose that two objects
2
A and B are moving with velocities vA and vB
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(4.34b) is that (each with respect to some common frame of
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated reference, say ground.). Then, velocity of object
independently of each other. That is, motion in A relative to that of B is :
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
vAB = vA – vB (4.35a)
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
motions with constant acceleration along two and similarly, the velocity of object B relative to
perpendicular directions. This is an important that of A is :
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects vBA = vB – vA
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three Therefore, vAB = – vBA (4.35b)
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular and, v AB = v BA (4.35c)
directions is convenient in many physical t
situations, as we shall see in section 4.10 for Example 4.6 Rain is falling vertically with
projectile motion. a speed of 35 m s–1. A woman rides a bicycle
with a speed of 12 m s–1 in east to west
direction. What is the direction in which
t Example 4.5 A particle starts from origin
she should hold her umbrella ?
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves
in x-y plane under action of a force which Answer In Fig. 4.16 vr represents the velocity
produces a constant acceleration of of rain and vb , the velocity of the bicycle, the
(3.0i$ +2.0j$ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the woman is riding. Both these velocities are with
respect to the ground. Since the woman is riding
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant
a bicycle, the velocity of rain as experienced by
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ?
(
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2 )
( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
Fig. 4.16
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 her is the velocity of rain relative to the velocity
y (t ) = +1.0 t 2 of the bicycle she is riding. That is vrb = vr – vb
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78 PHYSICS
y = ( tan θ o ) x −
g
x2 ( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
hm =
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (4.40) Or, (4.42)
2g
Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (4.40) Horizontal range of a projectile
is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
from its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
where it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the
(Fig. 4.18).
horizontal range, R. It is the distance travelled
during the time of flight Tf . Therefore, the range
R is
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf )
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g
2
v0 sin 2θ 0
Or, R= (4.43a)
g
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Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y- Neglecting air resistance - what does
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the the assumption really mean?
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity While treating the topic of projectile motion,
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the we have stated that we assume that the
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- air resistance has no effect on the motion
components of the motion can be treated of the projectile. You must understand what
the statement really means. Friction, force
independently. The equations of motion are :
due to viscosity, air resistance are all
x (t) = xo + vox t
dissipative forces. In the presence of any of
y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
such forces opposing motion, any object will
Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
lose some part of its initial energy and
vox = 15 m s-1. consequently, momentum too. Thus, a
The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m. projectile that traverses a parabolic path
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2. would certainly show deviation from its
This gives t =10 s. idealised trajectory in the presence of air
The velocity components are vx = vox and resistance. It will not hit the ground with
vy = voy – g t the same speed with which it was projected
so that when the stone hits the ground : from it. In the absence of air resistance, the
vox = 15 m s–1 x-component of the velocity remains
voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1 constant and it is only the y-component that
Therefore, the speed of the stone is undergoes a continuous change. However,
in the presence of air resistance, both of
v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 t these would get affected. That would mean
that the range would be less than the one
t
Example 4.9 A cricket ball is thrown at a given by Eq. (4.43). Maximum height
speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above attained would also be less than that
the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum predicted by Eq. (4.42). Can you then,
height, (b) the time taken by the ball to anticipate the change in the time of flight?
return to the same level, and (c) the In order to avoid air resistance, we will
distance from the thrower to the point have to perform the experiment in vacuum
where the ball returns to the same level. or under low pressure, which is not easy.
When we use a phrase like ‘neglect air
resistance’, we imply that the change in
parameters such as range, height etc. is
Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
much smaller than their values without air
(v0 sinθo )2 (28 sin 30°)2 resistance. The calculation without air
hm = = m
2g 2 ( 9.8 ) resistance is much simpler than that with
air resistance.
14 × 14
= = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8 4.11 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
(b) The time taken to return to the same level is When an object follows a circular path at a
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8 constant speed, the motion of the object is called
= 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
(c) The distance from the thrower to the point refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
where the ball returns to the same level is throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
(v sin 2θ )
2 moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
o o 28 × 28 × sin 60o R as shown in Fig. 4.19. Since the velocity of the
R= = = 69 m
g 9.8 object is changing continuously in direction, the
object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
t magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.
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Fig. 4.19 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 4.19(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 4.19(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 4.19a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 4.19 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
∆v ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v a = , the =
∆t v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 4.19(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 4.19(c), ∆t 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆r ≅ v∆t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = lim ∆t → 0 ∆t
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :
* In the limit ∆t0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.
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MOTION IN A PLANE 81
v v
2 2
ω R
2
ac = v = v2/R (4.44) ac = =
2
=ω R
R
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (4.47)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time the
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (4.48)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (4.49)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. t
Example 4.10 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 4.19) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(4.45) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (4.46) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 t
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SUMMARY
1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A =λa +µb
where λ and µ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i, j, k
are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A i + A j x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ, Ay=A sin θ and A = A = A x2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = Rx i + Ry j , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = Ay + By
12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x i + y j and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
∆r = r′− r
= ( x ′ − x ) i + (y ′ − y ) j
= ∆x i + ∆y j
13. If an object undergoes a displacement ∆r in time ∆t, its average velocity is given by
∆r
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
∆t
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MOTION IN A PLANE 83
as ∆t tends to zero :
∆r dr
v = lim = . It can be written in unit vector notation as :
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
dx dy dz
v = v x i + v y j + v z k
where vx = ,v = ,v =
dt y dt z dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′in time ∆t, then its average acceleration
v − v' ∆v
is given by: a = =
∆t ∆t
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as ∆t 0 :
lim ∆v dv
a= =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
In component form, we have : a = a i + a j + a k
x
y z
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v ot + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + vox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ay t 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t
v y = v oy + a y t
gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (v o cos θo )
2
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84 PHYSICS
2
(vo sinqo )
hm =
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν, v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν2R
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (4.33a) and (4.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1 − v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.
EXERCISES
4.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
4.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
4.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
4.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
4.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
4.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| −|b||
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4.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 4.21. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?
Fig. 4.21
4.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
4.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
4.12 Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30 m s-1. A woman rides a bicycle with a speed
of 10 m s-1 in the north to south direction. What is the direction in which she should
hold her umbrella ?
4.13 A man can swim with a speed of 4.0 km/h in still water. How long does he take to
cross a river 1.0 km wide if the river flows steadily at 3.0 km/h and he makes his
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MOTION IN A PLANE 87
strokes normal to the river current? How far down the river does he go when he
reaches the other bank ?
4.14 In a harbour, wind is blowing at the speed of 72 km/h and the flag on the mast of a boat
anchored in the harbour flutters along the N-E direction. If the boat starts moving at a
speed of 51 km/h to the north, what is the direction of the flag on the mast of the boat ?
4.15 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
4.16 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?
4.17 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
4.18 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
4.19 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector
( )
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0i + 2.0 j m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
4.22 i and j are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors i + j , and i − j ? What are the components of a vector
A= 2 i + 3j along the directions of i + j and i − j ? [You may use graphical method]
4.23 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
4.24 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
4.25 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s apart is 30°, what is the
speed of the aircraft ?
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Additional Exercises
4.26 A vector has magnitude and direction. Does it have a location in space ? Can it vary
with time ? Will two equal vectors a and b at different locations in space necessarily
have identical physical effects ? Give examples in support of your answer.
4.27 A vector has both magnitude and direction. Does it mean that anything that has
magnitude and direction is necessarily a vector ? The rotation of a body can be specified
by the direction of the axis of rotation, and the angle of rotation about the axis. Does
that make any rotation a vector ?
4.28 Can you associate vectors with (a) the length of a wire bent into a loop, (b) a plane
area, (c) a sphere ? Explain.
4.29 A bullet fired at an angle of 30° with the horizontal hits the ground 3.0 km away. By
adjusting its angle of projection, can one hope to hit a target 5.0 km away ? Assume
the muzzle speed to be fixed, and neglect air resistance.
4.30 A fighter plane flying horizontally at an altitude of 1.5 km with speed 720 km/h passes
directly overhead an anti-aircraft gun. At what angle from the vertical should the gun
be fired for the shell with muzzle speed 600 m s-1 to hit the plane ? At what minimum
altitude should the pilot fly the plane to avoid being hit ? (Take g = 10 m s-2 ).
4.31 A cyclist is riding with a speed of 27 km/h. As he approaches a circular turn on the
road of radius 80 m, he applies brakes and reduces his speed at the constant rate of
0.50 m/s every second. What is the magnitude and direction of the net acceleration of
the cyclist on the circular turn ?
4.32 (a) Show that for a projectile the angle between the velocity and the x-axis as a function
of time is given by
v0y − gt
θ (t ) = tan -1
vox
(b) Shows that the projection angle θ0 for a projectile launched from the origin is
given by
4h
θ 0 = tan-1 m
R
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CHAPTER FIVE
LAWS OF MOTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the
motion of a particle in space quantitatively. We saw that
5.1 Introduction uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas
5.2 Aristotle’s fallacy non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in
5.3 The law of inertia addition. So far, we have not asked the question as to what
5.4 Newton’s first law of motion governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this
5.5 Newton’s second law of
basic question.
motion Let us first guess the answer based on our common
5.6 Newton’s third law of motion experience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.
To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an upward
5.7 Conservation of momentum
push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a
5.8 Equilibrium of a particle strong wind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a
5.9 Common forces in mechanics flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some external
5.10 Circular motion agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.
5.11 Solving problems in Likewise, an external force is needed also to retard or stop
mechanics motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined plane by
Summary applying a force against the direction of its motion.
Points to ponder In these examples, the external agency of force (hands,
Exercises wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not
Additional exercises always necessary. A stone released from the top of a building
accelerates downward due to the gravitational pull of the
earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.
This shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and
magnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from a
distance.
In short, a force is required to put a stationary body in
motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is
needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may
not be in contact with the body.
So far so good. But what if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.
a skater moving straight with constant speed on a horizontal
ice slab) ? Is an external force required to keep a body in
uniform motion?
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5.2 ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY true law of nature for forces and motion, one has
The question posed above appears to be simple. to imagine a world in which uniform motion is
However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed, the possible with no frictional forces opposing. This
correct answer to this question given by Galileo is what Galileo did.
in the seventeenth century was the foundation 5.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA
of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined
birth of modern science.
plane. Objects (i) moving down an inclined plane
The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322
accelerate, while those (ii) moving up retard.
B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving,
(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is an
something external is required to keep it moving.
intermediate situation. Galileo concluded that
According to this view, for example, an arrow
an object moving on a frictionless horizontal
shot from a bow keeps flying since the air behind
plane must neither have acceleration nor
the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of
retardation, i.e. it should move with constant
an elaborate framework of ideas developed by
velocity (Fig. 5.1(a)).
Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.
Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now
known to be wrong and need not concern us.
For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of
motion may be phrased thus: An external force
is required to keep a body in motion.
(i) (ii) (iii)
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as we shall
Fig. 5.1(a)
see. However, it is a natural view that anyone
Another experiment by Galileo leading to the
would hold from common experience. Even a
same conclusion involves a double inclined plane.
small child playing with a simple (non-electric)
A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls
toy-car on a floor knows intuitively that it needs down and climbs up the other. If the planes are
to constantly drag the string attached to the toy- smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the
car with some force to keep it going. If it releases same as the initial height (a little less but never
the string, it comes to rest. This experience is greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is
common to most terrestrial motion. External absent, the final height of the ball is the same
forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in as its initial height.
motion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually If the slope of the second plane is decreased
come to rest. and the experiment repeated, the ball will still
What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The reach the same height, but in doing so, it will
answer is: a moving toy car comes to rest because travel a longer distance. In the limiting case, when
the external force of friction on the car by the floor the slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a
opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.
has to apply an external force on the car in the In other words, its motion never ceases. This is,
direction of motion. When the car is in uniform of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 5.1(b)).
motion, there is no net external force acting on it:
the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)
by the floor. The corollary is: if there were no friction,
the child would not be required to apply any force
to keep the toy car in uniform motion.
The opposing forces such as friction (solids)
and viscous forces (for fluids) are always present
in the natural world. This explains why forces
by external agencies are necessary to overcome
the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform
motion. Now we understand where Aristotle Fig. 5.1(b) The law of inertia was inferred by Galileo
went wrong. He coded this practical experience from observations of motion of a ball on a
in the form of a basic argument. To get at the double inclined plane.
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In practice, the ball does come to a stop after accomplished almost single-handedly by Isaac
moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane, Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.
because of the opposing force of friction which Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the
can never be totally eliminated. However, if there foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
were no friction, the ball would continue to move of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of
with a constant velocity on the horizontal plane. inertia was his starting point which he
Galileo thus, arrived at a new insight on formulated as the first law of motion:
motion that had eluded Aristotle and those who Every body continues to be in its state
followed him. The state of rest and the state of of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
uniform linear motion (motion with constant line unless compelled by some external
velocity) are equivalent. In both cases, there is force to act otherwise.
Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of
motion, was thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the force
of wind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as when a potter’s rod strikes the wheel; persistent
tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;
transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhaps
comes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, was thought to
be opposed by contact with objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air
resistance. It was correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotational
and vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent
particles. A falling leaf in the wind may have downward motion as a whole (patan) and also rotational
and vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a
definite (small) displacement. There was considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of
motion and units of length and time. It was known that the position of a particle in space can be
indicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept
of ‘instantaneous motion’ (tatkaliki gati), which anticipated the modern notion of instantaneous
velocity using Differential Calculus. The difference between a wave and a current (of water) was clearly
understood; a current is a motion of particles of water under gravity and fluidity while a wave results
from the transmission of vibrations of water particles.
no net force acting on the body. It is incorrect to The state of rest or uniform linear motion both
assume that a net force is needed to keep a body imply zero acceleration. The first law of motion can,
in uniform motion. To maintain a body in therefore, be simply expressed as:
uniform motion, we need to apply an external If the net external force on a body is zero, its
force to ecounter the frictional force, so that acceleration is zero. Acceleration can be non
the two forces sum up to zero net external zero only if there is a net external force on
force. the body.
To summarise, if the net external force is zero,
a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a Two kinds of situations are encountered in the
body in motion continues to move with a uniform application of this law in practice. In some
velocity. This property of the body is called examples, we know that the net external force
inertia. Inertia means ‘resistance to change’. on the object is zero. In that case we can
A body does not change its state of rest or conclude that the acceleration of the object is
uniform motion, unless an external force zero. For example, a spaceship out in
compels it to change that state. interstellar space, far from all other objects and
with all its rockets turned off, has no net
5.4 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION external force acting on it. Its acceleration,
Galileo’s simple, but revolutionary ideas according to the first law, must be zero. If it is
dethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A new in motion, it must continue to move with a
mechanics had to be developed. This task was uniform velocity.
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Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, Italy in 1564 was a key figure in the scientific revolution
in Europe about four centuries ago. Galileo proposed the concept of acceleration.
From experiments on motion of bodies on inclined planes or falling freely, he
contradicted the Aristotelian notion that a force was required to keep a body in
motion, and that heavier bodies fall faster than lighter bodies under gravity. He
thus arrived at the law of inertia that was the starting point of the subsequent
epochal work of Isaac Newton.
Galileo’s discoveries in astronomy were equally revolutionary. In 1609, he designed
his own telescope (invented earlier in Holland) and used it to make a number of
startling observations : mountains and depressions on the surface of the moon;
dark spots on the sun; the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus. He concluded
that the Milky Way derived its luminosity because of a large number of stars not visible to the naked eye.
In his masterpiece of scientific reasoning : Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo advocated
the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Copernicus, which eventually got universal
acceptance.
With Galileo came a turning point in the very method of scientific inquiry. Science was no longer
merely observations of nature and inferences from them. Science meant devising and doing experiments
to verify or refute theories. Science meant measurement of quantities and a search for mathematical
relations between them. Not undeservedly, many regard Galileo as the father of modern science.
More often, however, we do not know all the normal force R must be equal and opposite to the
forces to begin with. In that case, if we know weight W ”.
that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either
at rest or in uniform linear motion), we can infer
from the first law that the net external force on
the object must be zero. Gravity is everywhere.
For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every
object experiences gravitational force due to the
earth. Also objects in motion generally experience
friction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, an
object is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it is
not because there are no forces acting on it, but Fig. 5.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
because the various external forces cancel out moving with uniform velocity. The net force
i.e. add up to zero net external force. is zero in each case.
Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surface Consider the motion of a car starting from
Fig. (5.2(a)). It is subject to two external forces :
rest, picking up speed and then moving on a
the force due to gravity (i.e. its weight W) acting
smooth straight road with uniform speed (Fig.
downward and the upward force on the book by
(5.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is no
the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjusting
net force acting on it. During pick-up, it
force. This is an example of the kind of situation
mentioned above. The forces are not quite known accelerates. This must happen due to a net
fully but the state of motion is known. We observe external force. Note, it has to be an external force.
the book to be at rest. Therefore, we conclude The acceleration of the car cannot be accounted
from the first law that the magnitude of R equals for by any internal force. This might sound
that of W. A statement often encountered is : surprising, but it is true. The only conceivable
“Since W = R, forces cancel and, therefore, the book external force along the road is the force of
is at rest”. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct friction. It is the frictional force that accelerates
statement is : “Since the book is observed to be at the car as a whole. (You will learn about friction
rest, the net external force on it must be zero, in section 5.9). When the car moves with
according to the first law. This implies that the constant velocity, there is no net external force.
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The property of inertia contained in the First It relates the net external force to the
law is evident in many situations. Suppose we acceleration of the body.
are standing in a stationary bus and the driver Momentum
starts the bus suddenly. We get thrown Momentum of a body is defined to be the product
backward with a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch of its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted
with the floor. If there were no friction, we would by p:
remain where we were, while the floor of the bus p=mv (5.1)
would simply slip forward under our feet and the
Momentum is clearly a vector quantity. The
back of the bus would hit us. However,
following common experiences indicate the
fortunately, there is some friction between the
importance of this quantity for considering the
feet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,
effect of force on motion.
i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictional
force would be enough to accelerate our feet • Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small
along with the bus. But our body is not strictly car) and a heavy weight vehicle (say a loaded
a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allows some truck) are parked on a horizontal road. We all
relative displacement between different parts. know that a much greater force is needed to
What this means is that while our feet go with push the truck than the car to bring them to
the bus, the rest of the body remains where it is the same speed in same time. Similarly, a
due to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, we greater opposing force is needed to stop a
are thrown backward. As soon as that happens, heavy body than a light body in the same time,
however, the muscular forces on the rest of the if they are moving with the same speed.
body (by the feet) come into play to move the body • If two stones, one light and the other heavy,
along with the bus. A similar thing happens are dropped from the top of a building, a
when the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop due person on the ground will find it easier to catch
to the friction which does not allow relative the light stone than the heavy stone. The
motion between the feet and the floor of the bus. mass of a body is thus an important
But the rest of the body continues to move parameter that determines the effect of force
forward due to inertia. We are thrown forward. on its motion.
The restoring muscular forces again come into • Speed is another important parameter to
play and bring the body to rest. consider. A bullet fired by a gun can easily
t pierce human tissue before it stops, resulting
Example 5.1 An astronaut accidentally in casualty. The same bullet fired with
gets separated out of his small spaceship moderate speed will not cause much damage.
accelerating in inter stellar space at a Thus for a given mass, the greater the speed,
constant rate of 100 m s–2. What is the the greater is the opposing force needed to stop
acceleration of the astronaut the instant after the body in a certain time. Taken together,
he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that the product of mass and velocity, that is
there are no nearby stars to exert momentum, is evidently a relevant variable
gravitational force on him.) of motion. The greater the change in the
momentum in a given time, the greater is the
Answer Since there are no nearby stars to exert
force that needs to be applied.
gravitational force on him and the small
• A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ball
spaceship exerts negligible gravitational
coming in with great speed far more easily
attraction on him, the net force acting on the
than a novice, who can hurt his hands in the
astronaut, once he is out of the spaceship, is
act. One reason is that the cricketer allows a
zero. By the first law of motion the acceleration
longer time for his hands to stop the ball. As
of the astronaut is zero. t
you may have noticed, he draws in the hands
5.5 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION backward in the act of catching the ball (Fig.
The first law refers to the simple case when the 5.3). The novice, on the other hand, keeps
net external force on a body is zero. The second his hands fixed and tries to catch the ball
law of motion refers to the general situation when almost instantly. He needs to provide a much
there is a net external force acting on the body. greater force to stop the ball instantly, and
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this hurts.The conclusion is clear: force not This force is provided by our hand through
only depends on the change in momentum, the string. Experience suggests that our hand
but also on how fast the change is brought needs to exert a greater force if the stone is
about. The same change in momentum rotated at greater speed or in a circle of
brought about in a shorter time needs a smaller radius, or both. This corresponds to
greater applied force. In short, the greater the greater acceleration or equivalently a greater
rate of change of momentum, the greater is rate of change in momentum vector. This
the force. suggests that the greater the rate of change
in momentum vector the greater is the force
applied.
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The retarding force, by the second law of ordinary forces. Newtonian mechanics has no
motion, is such distinction. Impulsive force is like any other
= 0.04 kg × 6750 m s-2 = 270 N force – except that it is large and acts for a short
time.
The actual resistive force, and therefore,
retardation of the bullet may not be uniform. The t
Example 5.4 A batsman hits back a ball
answer therefore, only indicates the average straight in the direction of the bowler without
resistive force. t changing its initial speed of 12 m s–1.
t
Example 5.3 The motion of a particle of If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determine
the impulse imparted to the ball. (Assume
1 2 linear motion of the ball)
mass m is described by y = ut + gt . Find
2
the force acting on the particle. Answer Change in momentum
Answer We know = 0.15 × 12–(–0.15×12)
1 2 = 3.6 N s,
y = ut + gt
2 Impulse = 3.6 N s,
Now, in the direction from the batsman to the bowler.
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always occur in pairs. Further, the mutual forces comes before reaction i.e action is the cause
between two bodies are always equal and and reaction the effect. There is no cause-
opposite. This idea was expressed by Newton in effect relation implied in the third law. The
the form of the third law of motion. force on A by B and the force on B by A act
To every action, there is always an equal and at the same instant. By the same reasoning,
opposite reaction. any one of them may be called action and the
other reaction.
Newton’s wording of the third law is so crisp and 3. Action and reaction forces act on different
beautiful that it has become a part of common bodies, not on the same body. Consider a pair
language. For the same reason perhaps, of bodies A and B. According to the third law,
misconceptions about the third law abound. Let
us note some important points about the third FAB = – FBA (5.8)
law, particularly in regard to the usage of the (force on A by B) = – (force on B by A)
terms : action and reaction.
1. The terms action and reaction in the third law Thus if we are considering the motion of any
mean nothing else but ‘force’. Using different one body (A or B), only one of the two forces is
terms for the same physical concept relevant. It is an error to add up the two forces
can sometimes be confusing. A simple and claim that the net force is zero.
and clear way of stating the third law is as However, if you are considering the system
follows : of two bodies as a whole, FAB and FBA are
internal forces of the system (A + B). They add
Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a up to give a null force. Internal forces in a
body A by B is equal and opposite to the
body or a system of particles thus cancel away
force on the body B by A.
in pairs. This is an important fact that
2. The terms action and reaction in the third law enables the second law to be applicable to a
may give a wrong impression that action body or a system of particles (See Chapter 7).
Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, England in 1642, the year Galileo died.
His extraordinary mathematical ability and mechanical aptitude remained hidden
from others in his school life. In 1662, he went to Cambridge for undergraduate
studies. A plague epidemic in 1665 forced the university town to close and Newton
had to return to his mother’s farm. There in two years of solitude, his dormant
creativity blossomed in a deluge of fundamental discoveries in mathematics and
physics : binomial theorem for negative and fractional exponents, the beginning of
calculus, the inverse square law of gravitation, the spectrum of white light, and so
on. Returning to Cambridge, he pursued his investigations in optics and devised a
reflecting telescope.
In 1684, encouraged by his friend Edmund Halley, Newton embarked on writing what was to be one of
the greatest scientific works ever published : The Principia Mathematica. In it, he enunciated the three
laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation, which explained all the three Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion. The book was packed with a host of path-breaking achievements : basic principles of
fluid mechanics, mathematics of wave motion, calculation of masses of the earth, the sun and other
planets, explanation of the precession of equinoxes, theory of tides, etc. In 1704, Newton brought out
another masterpiece Opticks that summarized his work on light and colour.
The scientific revolution triggered by Copernicus and steered vigorously ahead by Kepler and Galileo
was brought to a grand completion by Newton. Newtonian mechanics unified terrestrial and celestial
phenomena. The same mathematical equation governed the fall of an apple to the ground and the
motion of the moon around the earth. The age of reason had dawned.
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FAB ∆t = p′A − p A and In other words, the resultant of any two forces
say F1 and F2, obtained by the parallelogram
FBA ∆t = p′B − p B law of forces must be equal and opposite to the
(where we have taken a common interval of time third force, F3. As seen in Fig. 5.7, the three
for both forces i.e. the time for which the two forces in equilibrium can be represented by the
sides of a triangle with the vector arrows taken
bodies are in contact.)
in the same sense. The result can be
Since FAB = − FBA by the third law, generalised to any number of forces. A particle
is in equilibrium under the action of forces F1,
p′A − p A = −( p′B − p B ) F2,... Fn if they can be represented by the sides
of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows directed
i.e. p′A + p′B = p A + p B (5.9)
in the same sense.
which shows that the total final momentum of Equation (5.11) implies that
the isolated system equals its initial momentum.
F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
Notice that this is true whether the collision is
F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
elastic or inelastic. In elastic collisions, there is
a second condition that the total initial kinetic F1z + F2z + F3z = 0 (5.12)
energy of the system equals the total final kinetic where F1x, F1y and F1z are the components of F1
energy (See Chapter 6). along x, y and z directions respectively.
t
Example 5.6 See Fig. 5.8. A mass of 6 kg
5.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE is suspended by a rope of length 2 m
from the ceiling. A force of 50 N in the
Equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to horizontal direction is applied at the mid-
the situation when the net external force on the point P of the rope, as shown. What is the
particle is zero.* According to the first law, this angle the rope makes with the vertical in
means that, the particle is either at rest or in equilibrium ? (Take g = 10 m s-2). Neglect
uniform motion. the mass of the rope.
If two forces F1 and F2, act on a particle,
equilibrium requires
F1 = − F2 (5.10)
i.e. the two forces on the particle must be equal
and opposite. Equilibrium under three
concurrent forces F1, F2 and F3 requires that
the vector sum of the three forces is zero.
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 (5.11) (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.8
* Equilibrium of a body requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net external force) but also rotational
equilibrium (zero net external torque), as we shall see in Chapter 7.
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Answer Figures 5.8(b) and 5.8(c) are known as other types of supports), there are mutual
free-body diagrams. Figure 5.8(b) is the free-body contact forces (for each pair of bodies) satisfying
diagram of W and Fig. 5.8(c) is the free-body the third law. The component of contact force
diagram of point P. normal to the surfaces in contact is called
Consider the equilibrium of the weight W. normal reaction. The component parallel to the
Clearly,T2 = 6 × 10 = 60 N. surfaces in contact is called friction. Contact
forces arise also when solids are in contact with
Consider the equilibrium of the point P under
the action of three forces - the tensions T1 and fluids. For example, for a solid immersed in a
T2, and the horizontal force 50 N. The horizontal fluid, there is an upward bouyant force equal to
and vertical components of the resultant force the weight of the fluid displaced. The viscous
must vanish separately : force, air resistance, etc are also examples of
contact forces (Fig. 5.9).
T1 cos θ = T2 = 60 N
Two other common forces are tension in a
T1 sin θ = 50 N string and the force due to spring. When a spring
which gives that is compressed or extended by an external force,
a restoring force is generated. This force is
usually proportional to the compression or
Note the answer does not depend on the length elongation (for small displacements). The spring
of the rope (assumed massless) nor on the point force F is written as F = – k x where x is the
at which the horizontal force is applied. t displacement and k is the force constant. The
negative sign denotes that the force is opposite
5.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS to the displacement from the unstretched state.
In mechanics, we encounter several kinds of For an inextensible string, the force constant is
forces. The gravitational force is, of course, very high. The restoring force in a string is called
pervasive. Every object on the earth experiences tension. It is customary to use a constant tension
the force of gravity due to the earth. Gravity also T throughout the string. This assumption is true
governs the motion of celestial bodies. The for a string of negligible mass.
gravitational force can act at a distance without In Chapter 1, we learnt that there are four
the need of any intervening medium. fundamental forces in nature. Of these, the weak
All the other forces common in mechanics are and strong forces appear in domains that do not
contact forces.* As the name suggests, a contact concern us here. Only the gravitational and
force on an object arises due to contact with some electrical forces are relevant in the context of
other object: solid or fluid. When bodies are in mechanics. The different contact forces of
contact (e.g. a book resting on a table, a system mechanics mentioned above fundamentally arise
of rigid bodies connected by rods, hinges and from electrical forces. This may seem surprising
* We are not considering, for simplicity, charged and magnetic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are
electrical and magnetic non-contact forces.
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since we are talking of uncharged and non- exist by itself. When there is no applied force,
magnetic bodies in mechanics. At the microscopic there is no static friction. It comes into play the
level, all bodies are made of charged constituents moment there is an applied force. As the applied
(nuclei and electrons) and the various contact force F increases, fs also increases, remaining
forces arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular equal and opposite to the applied force (up to a
collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be certain limit), keeping the body at rest. Hence, it
traced to the electrical forces between the charged is called static friction. Static friction opposes
constituents of different bodies. The detailed impending motion. The term impending motion
means motion that would take place (but does
microscopic origin of these forces is, however,
not actually take place) under the applied force,
complex and not useful for handling problems in
if friction were absent.
mechanics at the macroscopic scale. This is why
We know from experience that as the applied
they are treated as different types of forces with force exceeds a certain limit, the body begins to
their characteristic properties determined move. It is found experimentally that the limiting
empirically.
value of static friction f s ( ) max
is independent of
5.9.1 Friction the area of contact and varies with the normal
Let us return to the example of a body of mass m force(N) approximately as :
at rest on a horizontal table. The force of gravity (f )
s max
= µs N (5.13)
(mg) is cancelled by the normal reaction force
where µ s is a constant of proportionality
(N) of the table. Now suppose a force F is applied
depending only on the nature of the surfaces in
horizontally to the body. We know from
contact. The constant µs is called the coefficient
experience that a small applied force may not of static friction. The law of static friction may
be enough to move the body. But if the applied thus be written as
force F were the only external force on the body, fs ≤ µs N (5.14)
it must move with acceleration F/m, however
small. Clearly, the body remains at rest because ( )
If the applied force F exceeds f s max the body
some other force comes into play in the begins to slide on the surface. It is found
horizontal direction and opposes the applied experimentally that when relative motion has
force F, resulting in zero net force on the body. started, the frictional force decreases from the
This force fs parallel to the surface of the body in
contact with the table is known as frictional
( )
static maximum value f s max . Frictional force
force, or simply friction (Fig. 5.10(a)). The that opposes relative motion between surfaces
subscript stands for static friction to distinguish in contact is called kinetic or sliding friction and
it from kinetic friction fk that we consider later is denoted by fk . Kinetic friction, like static
friction, is found to be independent of the area
(Fig. 5.10(b)). Note that static friction does not
of contact. Further, it is nearly independent of
the velocity. It satisfies a law similar to that for
static friction:
f k = µk N (5.15)
where µk′ the coefficient of kinetic friction,
depends only on the surfaces in contact. As
mentioned above, experiments show that µk is
Fig. 5.10 Static and sliding friction: (a) Impending less than µs . When relative motion has begun,
motion of the body is opposed by static the acceleration of the body according to the
friction. When external force exceeds the second law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving with
maximum limit of static friction, the body constant velocity, F = fk. If the applied force on
begins to move. (b) Once the body is in the body is removed, its acceleration is – fk /m
motion, it is subject to sliding or kinetic friction and it eventually comes to a stop.
which opposes relative motion between the The laws of friction given above do not have
two surfaces in contact. Kinetic friction is the status of fundamental laws like those for
usually less than the maximum value of static
gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. They
friction.
are empirical relations that are only
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102 PHYSICS
approximately true. Yet they are very useful in Answer The forces acting on a block of mass m
practical calculations in mechanics. at rest on an inclined plane are (i) the weight
Thus, when two bodies are in contact, each mg acting vertically downwards (ii) the normal
experiences a contact force by the other. Friction, force N of the plane on the block, and (iii) the
by definition, is the component of the contact force static frictional force fs opposing the impending
parallel to the surfaces in contact, which opposes motion. In equilibrium, the resultant of these
impending or actual relative motion between the forces must be zero. Resolving the weight mg
two surfaces. Note that it is not motion, but along the two directions shown, we have
relative motion that the frictional force opposes. m g sin θ = fs , m g cos θ = N
Consider a box lying in the compartment of a train
As θ increases, the self-adjusting frictional force
that is accelerating. If the box is stationary
fs increases until at θ = θmax, fs achieves its
relative to the train, it is in fact accelerating along
with the train. What forces cause the acceleration maximum value, f s ( ) max
= µs N.
of the box? Clearly, the only conceivable force in
the horizontal direction is the force of friction. If Therefore,
there were no friction, the floor of the train would
tan θmax = µs or θmax = tan–1 µs
slip by and the box would remain at its initial
position due to inertia (and hit the back side of When θ becomes just a little more than θmax ,
the train). This impending relative motion is there is a small net force on the block and it
opposed by the static friction fs. Static friction begins to slide. Note that θmax depends only on
provides the same acceleration to the box as that µs and is independent of the mass of the block.
of the train, keeping it stationary relative to the
train. For θmax = 15°,
t µs = tan 15°
Example 5.7 Determine the maximum = 0.27 t
acceleration of the train in which a box t
lying on its floor will remain stationary, Example 5.9 What is the acceleration of
given that the co-efficient of static friction the block and trolley system shown in a
between the box and the train’s floor is Fig. 5.12(a), if the coefficient of kinetic friction
0.15. between the trolley and the surface is 0.04?
What is the tension in the string? (Take g =
Answer Since the acceleration of the box is due 10 m s-2). Neglect the mass of the string.
to the static friction,
ma = fs ≤ µs N = µs m g
i.e. a ≤ µs g
∴ amax = µs g = 0.15 x 10 m s–2
= 1.5 m s–2 t
t
Example 5.8 See Fig. 5.11. A mass of 4 kg
rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is
gradually inclined until at an angle θ = 15°
with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the surface ?
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12
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LAWS OF MOTION 103
Answer As the string is inextensible, and the is the reason why discovery of the wheel has
pully is smooth, the 3 kg block and the 20 kg been a major milestone in human history.
trolley both have same magnitude of Rolling friction again has a complex origin,
acceleration. Applying second law to motion of though somewhat different from that of static
the block (Fig. 5.12(b)), and sliding friction. During rolling, the surfaces
30 – T = 3a in contact get momentarily deformed a little, and
Apply the second law to motion of the trolley (Fig. this results in a finite area (not a point) of the
5.12(c)), body being in contact with the surface. The net
effect is that the component of the contact force
T – fk = 20 a.
parallel to the surface opposes motion.
Now fk = µk N,
We often regard friction as something
Here µk = 0.04, undesirable. In many situations, like in a
N = 20 x 10 machine with different moving parts, friction
= 200 N. does have a negative role. It opposes relative
Thus the equation for the motion of the trolley is motion and thereby dissipates power in the form
T – 0.04 x 200 = 20 a Or T – 8 = 20a. of heat, etc. Lubricants are a way of reducing
22 kinetic friction in a machine. Another way is to
These equations give a = m s –2 = 0.96 m s-2 use ball bearings between two moving parts of a
23
and T = 27.1 N. t machine [Fig. 5.13(a)]. Since the rolling friction
between ball bearings and the surfaces in
Rolling friction contact is very small, power dissipation is
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without reduced. A thin cushion of air maintained
slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no between solid surfaces in relative motion is
another effective way of reducing friction (Fig.
friction, in principle. At every instant, there is
5.13(a)).
just one point of contact between the body and
In many practical situations, however, friction
the plane and this point has no motion relative
is critically needed. Kinetic friction that
to the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or dissipates power is nevertheless important for
static friction is zero and the body should quickly stopping relative motion. It is made use
continue to roll with constant velocity. We know, of by brakes in machines and automobiles.
in practice, this will not happen and some Similarly, static friction is important in daily
resistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur, life. We are able to walk because of friction. It
i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied force is impossible for a car to move on a very slippery
is needed. For the same weight, rolling friction road. On an ordinary road, the friction between
is much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of the tyres and the road provides the necessary
magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This external force to accelerate the car.
Fig. 5.13 Some ways of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed between moving parts of a machine.
(b) Compressed cushion of air between surfaces in relative motion.
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104 PHYSICS
5.10 CIRCULAR MOTION is the static friction that provides the centripetal
acceleration. Static friction opposes the
We have seen in Chapter 4 that acceleration of
impending motion of the car moving away from
a body moving in a circle of radius R with uniform
the circle. Using equation (5.14) & (5.16) we get
speed v is v2/R directed towards the centre.
the result
According to the second law, the force f providing
c
this acceleration is : mv 2
f = ≤ µs N
mv 2 R
fc = (5.16)
R µ s RN
v2 ≤ = µ s Rg [∵ N = mg]
where m is the mass of the body. This force m
directed forwards the centre is called the which is independent of the mass of the car.
centripetal force. For a stone rotated in a circle This shows that for a given value of µs and R,
by a string, the centripetal force is provided by there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the tension in the string. The centripetal force the car possible, namely
for motion of a planet around the sun is the
v max = µs Rg (5.18)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road.
gravitational force on the planet due to the sun. Motion of a car on a banked road
For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal
We can reduce the contribution of friction to the
road, the centripetal force is the force of friction.
circular motion of the car if the road is banked
The circular motion of a car on a flat and
(Fig. 5.14(b)). Since there is no acceleration along
banked road give interesting application of the
the vertical direction, the net force along this
laws of motion.
direction must be zero. Hence,
Motion of a car on a level road
N cos θ = mg + f sin θ (5.19a)
Three forces act on the car (Fig. 5.14(a):
(i) The weight of the car, mg The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
(ii) Normal reaction, N components of N and f.
(iii) Frictional force, f mv 2
As there is no acceleration in the vertical N sin θ + f cos θ = (5.19b)
R
direction
N – mg = 0 But f ≤ µs N
N = mg (5.17)
Thus to obtain v we put
The centripetal force required for circular motion max
is along the surface of the road, and is provided f = µs N .
by the component of the contact force between
Then Eqs. (5.19a) and (5.19b) become
road and the car tyres along the surface. This
by definition is the frictional force. Note that it N cos θ = mg + µs N sin θ (5.20a)
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106 PHYSICS
method in solved examples. To handle a typical the net force on the block must be zero i.e.,
problem in mechanics systematically, one R = 20 N. Using third law the action of the
should use the following steps : block (i.e. the force exerted on the floor by
(i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the the block) is equal to 20 N and directed
various parts of the assembly of bodies, the vertically downwards.
links, supports, etc. (b) The system (block + cylinder) accelerates
(ii) Choose a convenient part of the assembly downwards with 0.1 m s-2. The free-body
as one system. diagram of the system shows two forces on
(iii) Draw a separate diagram which shows this the system : the force of gravity due to the
system and all the forces on the system by earth (270 N); and the normal force R ′ by the
the remaining part of the assembly. Include floor. Note, the free-body diagram of the
also the forces on the system by other system does not show the internal forces
agencies. Do not include the forces on the between the block and the cylinder. Applying
environment by the system. A diagram of the second law to the system,
this type is known as ‘a free-body diagram’.
270 – R′ = 27 × 0.1N
(Note this does not imply that the system
ie. R′ = 267.3 N
under consideration is without a net force).
(iv) In a free-body diagram, include information
about forces (their magnitudes and
directions) that are either given or you are
sure of (e.g., the direction of tension in a
string along its length). The rest should be
treated as unknowns to be determined using
laws of motion.
(v) If necessary, follow the same procedure for
another choice of the system. In doing so,
employ Newton’s third law. That is, if in the
free-body diagram of A, the force on A due to
B is shown as F, then in the free-body
diagram of B, the force on B due to A should
be shown as –F.
The following example illustrates the above
procedure :
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LAWS OF MOTION 107
directed upwards (not shown in the gravity on the mass in (a) or (b) and the normal
figure). force on the mass by the floor are not action-
(ii) the force on the floor by the system reaction pairs. These forces happen to be equal
(action); the force on the system by the and opposite for (a) since the mass is at rest.
floor (reaction). In addition, for (b), the They are not so for case (b), as seen already.
force on the block by the cylinder and The weight of the system is 270 N, while the
the force on the cylinder by the block normal force R′ is 267.3 N. t
also constitute an action-reaction pair. The practice of drawing free-body diagrams is
The important thing to remember is that an of great help in solving problems in mechanics.
action-reaction pair consists of mutual forces It allows you to clearly define your system and
which are always equal and opposite between consider all forces on the system due to objects
two bodies. Two forces on the same body which that are not part of the system itself. A number
happen to be equal and opposite can never of exercises in this and subsequent chapters will
constitute an action-reaction pair. The force of help you cultivate this practice.
SUMMARY
1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
2. Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and
arrived at the law of inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is the same law rephrased
thus: “Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First Law
is “If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”.
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :
p = mv
4. Newton’s second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
dp
F=k =kma
dt
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant
of proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
dp
F= = ma
dt
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided F
is the total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system as
a whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant.
That is the Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the
history of motion.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum.
The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a
measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short,
one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during
the action of the impulsive force.
6. Newton’s third law of motion:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction
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108 PHYSICS
( )
f s ≤ fs
max
= µs R
f =µ R
k k
µs (co-efficient of static friction) and µk (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are
constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found
experimentally that µk is less than µs .
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Force is not always in the direction of motion. Depending on the situation, F
may be along v, opposite to v, normal to v or may make some other angle with
v. In every case, it is parallel to acceleration.
2. If v = 0 at an instant, i.e. if a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that
force or acceleration are necessarily zero at that instant. For example, when a
ball thrown upward reaches its maximum height, v = 0 but the force continues
to be its weight mg and the acceleration is not zero but g.
3. Force on a body at a given time is determined by the situation at the location of
the body at that time. Force is not ‘carried’ by the body from its earlier history of
motion. The moment after a stone is released out of an accelerated train, there is
no horizontal force (or acceleration) on the stone, if the effects of the surrounding
air are neglected. The stone then has only the vertical force of gravity.
4. In the second law of motion F = m a, F stands for the net force due to all
material agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. ma should
not be regarded as yet another force, besides F.
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LAWS OF MOTION 109
5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It is
simply a name given to the force that provides inward radial acceleration to a
body in circular motion. We should always look for some material force like
tension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal force
in any circular motion.
6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit µs N (fs ≤ µs N). Do not put
fs= µs N without being sure that the maximum value of static friction is coming
into play.
7. The familiar equation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is in
equilibrium. The two forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in an
accelerated lift). The equality of mg and R has no connection with the third
law.
8. The terms ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ in the third Law of Motion simply stand for
simultaneous mutual forces between a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning in
ordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reaction
act on different bodies.
9. The different terms like ‘friction’, ‘normal reaction’ ‘tension’, ‘air resistance’,
‘viscous drag’, ‘thrust’, ‘buoyancy’, ‘weight’, ‘centripetal force’ all stand for ‘force’
in different contexts. For clarity, every force and its equivalent terms
encountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase ‘force on A by B’.
10. For applying the second law of motion, there is no conceptual distinction between
inanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human also
requires an external force to accelerate. For example, without the external
force of friction, we cannot walk on the ground.
11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused with the
subjective concept of the ‘feeling of force’. On a merry-go-around, all parts of
our body are subject to an inward force, but we have a feeling of being pushed
outward – the direction of impending motion.
EXERCISES
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110 PHYSICS
5.4 One end of a string of length l is connected to a particle of mass m and the
other to a small peg on a smooth horizontal table. If the particle moves in a
circle with speed v the net force on the particle (directed towards the centre)
is :
mv2 mv2
(i) T, (ii) T − , (iii) T + , (iv) 0
l l
T is the tension in the string. [Choose the correct alternative].
5.5 A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop ?
5.6 A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1
to 3.5 m s-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains
unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the force ?
5.7 A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N.
Give the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
5.8 The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child
standing in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just
in time to save the child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle ?
The mass of the three-wheeler is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
5.9 A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
5.10 A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to
the north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south
for 30 s. Take the instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the
body at that time to be x = 0, and predict its position at t = –5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
5.11 A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a
stone is dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from
the ground). What are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t =
11s ? (Neglect air resistance.)
5.12 A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is
set into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1.
What is the trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one
of its extreme positions, (b) at its mean position.
5.13 A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving
(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1,
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2,
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2.
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it hurtled
down freely under gravity ?
5.14 Figure 5.16 shows the position-time graph of a particle of mass 4 kg. What is
the (a) force on the particle for t < 0, t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) impulse at t = 0 and
t = 4 s ? (Consider one-dimensional motion only).
Fig. 5.16
5.15 Two bodies of masses 10 kg and 20 kg respectively kept on a smooth, horizontal
surface are tied to the ends of a light string. A horizontal force F = 600 N is
applied to (i) A, (ii) B along the direction of string. What is the tension in the
string in each case?
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LAWS OF MOTION 111
5.16 Two masses 8 kg and 12 kg are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible
string that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses, and
the tension in the string when the masses are released.
5.17 A nucleus is at rest in the laboratory frame of reference. Show that if it disintegrates
into two smaller nuclei the products must move in opposite directions.
5.18 Two billiard balls each of mass 0.05 kg moving in opposite directions with speed 6 m s-1
collide and rebound with the same speed. What is the impulse imparted to each ball due
to the other ?
5.19 A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gun of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of the
shell is 80 m s-1, what is the recoil speed of the gun ?
5.20 A batsman deflects a ball by an angle of 45° without changing its initial speed which is
equal to 54 km/h. What is the impulse imparted to the ball ? (Mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.)
5.21 A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round in a circle of radius
1.5 m with a speed of 40 rev./min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the
string ? What is the maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if
the string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N ?
5.22 If, in Exercise 5.21, the speed of the stone is increased beyond the maximum permissible
value, and the string breaks suddenly, which of the following correctly describes the
trajectory of the stone after the string breaks :
(a) the stone moves radially outwards,
(b) the stone flies off tangentially from the instant the string breaks,
(c) the stone flies off at an angle with the tangent whose magnitude depends on the
speed of the particle ?
5.23 Explain why
(a) a horse cannot pull a cart and run in empty space,
(b) passengers are thrown forward from their seats when a speeding bus stops
suddenly,
(c) it is easier to pull a lawn mower than to push it,
(d) a cricketer moves his hands backwards while holding a catch.
Additional Exercises
5.24 Figure 5.17 shows the position-time graph of a body of mass 0.04 kg. Suggest a
suitable physical context for this motion. What is the time between two consecutive
impulses received by the body ? What is the magnitude of each impulse ?
Fig. 5.17
5.25 Figure 5.18 shows a man standing stationary with respect to a horizontal conveyor
belt that is accelerating with 1 m s-2. What is the net force on the man? If the
coefficient of static friction between the man’s shoes and the belt is 0.2, up to what
acceleration of the belt can the man continue to be stationary relative to the belt ?
(Mass of the man = 65 kg.)
Fig. 5.18
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112 PHYSICS
5.26 A stone of mass m tied to the end of a string revolves in a vertical circle of radius R.
The net forces at the lowest and highest points of the circle directed vertically
downwards are : [Choose the correct alternative]
(a) mg – T1 mg + T2
(b) mg + T1 mg – T2
2
(c) mg + T1 – (m v ) / R
1
mg – T2 + (m v 21 ) / R
(d) mg – T1 – (m v 21 ) / R mg + T2 + (m v 21 ) / R
T1 and v1 denote the tension and speed at the lowest point. T2 and v2 denote
corresponding values at the highest point.
5.27 A helicopter of mass 1000 kg rises with a vertical acceleration of 15 m s-2. The crew
and the passengers weigh 300 kg. Give the magnitude and direction of the
(a) force on the floor by the crew and passengers,
(b) action of the rotor of the helicopter on the surrounding air,
(c) force on the helicopter due to the surrounding air.
5.28 A stream of water flowing horizontally with a speed of 15 m s-1 gushes out of a tube of
cross-sectional area 10-2 m2, and hits a vertical wall nearby. What is the force exerted
on the wall by the impact of water, assuming it does not rebound ?
5.29 Ten one-rupee coins are put on top of each other on a table. Each coin has a mass m.
Give the magnitude and direction of
(a) the force on the 7th coin (counted from the bottom) due to all the coins on its top,
(b) the force on the 7th coin by the eighth coin,
(c) the reaction of the 6th coin on the 7th coin.
5.30 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop at a speed of 720 km/h with its wings banked
at 15°. What is the radius of the loop ?
5.31 A train runs along an unbanked circular track of radius 30 m at a speed of 54 km/h.
The mass of the train is 106 kg. What provides the centripetal force required for this
purpose — The engine or the rails ? What is the angle of banking required to prevent
wearing out of the rail ?
5.32 A block of mass 25 kg is raised by a 50 kg man in two different ways as shown in
Fig. 5.19. What is the action on the floor by the man in the two cases ? If the floor
yields to a normal force of 700 N, which mode should the man adopt to lift the block
without the floor yielding ?
Fig. 5.19
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LAWS OF MOTION 113
5.35 A block of mass 15 kg is placed on a long trolley. The coefficient of static friction
between the block and the trolley is 0.18. The trolley accelerates from rest with
0.5 m s-2 for 20 s and then moves with uniform velocity. Discuss the motion of the
block as viewed by (a) a stationary observer on the ground, (b) an observer moving with
the trolley.
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CHAPTER SIX
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘work’, ‘energy’ and ‘power’ are frequently used
in everyday language. A farmer ploughing the field, a
6.1 Introduction construction worker carrying bricks, a student studying for
a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautiful
6.2 Notions of work and kinetic
landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, however,
energy : The work-energy
theorem the word ‘Work’ covers a definite and precise meaning.
Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 hours a
6.3 Work
day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a
6.4 Kinetic energy
long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Energy is
6.5 Work done by a variable thus our capacity to do work. In Physics too, the term ‘energy’
force
is related to work in this sense, but as said above the term
6.6 The work-energy theorem for ‘work’ itself is defined much more precisely. The word ‘power’
a variable force
is used in everyday life with different shades of meaning. In
6.7 The concept of potential karate or boxing we talk of ‘powerful’ punches. These are
energy delivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is close to
6.8 The conservation of the meaning of the word ‘power’ used in physics. We shall
mechanical energy find that there is at best a loose correlation between the
6.9 The potential energy of a physical definitions and the physiological pictures these
spring terms generate in our minds. The aim of this chapter is to
6.10 Various forms of energy : the develop an understanding of these three physical quantities.
law of conservation of energy Before we proceed to this task, we need to develop a
6.11 Power mathematical prerequisite, namely the scalar product of two
6.12 Collisions vectors.
Summary 6.1.1 The Scalar Product
Points to ponder
We have learnt about vectors and their use in Chapter 4.
Exercises
Physical quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
Additional exercises
force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt how vectors are
Appendix 6.1
added or subtracted. We now need to know how vectors are
multiplied. There are two ways of multiplying vectors which
we shall come across : one way known as the scalar product
gives a scalar from two vectors and the other known as the
vector product produces a new vector from two vectors. We
shall look at the vector product in Chapter 7. Here we take
up the scalar product of two vectors. The scalar product or
dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (read
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 115
A dot B) is defined as
A = A x i + Ay j + Az k
A.B = A B cos θ (6.1a)
B = B x i + By j + Bz k
where θ is the angle between the two vectors as
shown in Fig. 6.1(a). Since A, B and cos θ are their scalar product is
scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar
quantity. Each vector, A and B, has a direction
(
A.B = A x ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k )(
ˆ . B ˆi + B ˆj + B k
x y z
ˆ )
but their scalar product does not have a = A x B x + Ay By + Az B z (6.1b)
direction.
From the definition of scalar product and
From Eq. (6.1a), we have (Eq. 6.1b) we have :
(i) A . A = A x A x + Ay Ay + A z A z
A .B = A (B cos θ )
= B (A cos θ ) Or,
2 2
A = A x + Ay + A z
2 2
(6.1c)
Geometrically, B cos θ is the projection of B onto since A .A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A2.
A in Fig.6.1 (b) and A cos θ is the projection of A (ii) A .B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.
onto B in Fig. 6.1 (c). So, A.B is the product of
the magnitude of A and the component of B along u Example 6.1 Find the angle between force
A. Alternatively, it is the product of the F = (3 ˆi + 4 ˆj - 5 k
ˆ ) unit and displacement
magnitude of B and the component of A along B.
d = (5 ˆi + 4 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ ) unit. Also find the
Equation (6.1a) shows that the scalar product
follows the commutative law : projection of F on d.
A.B = B.A Answer F.d = Fx d x + Fy d y + Fz d z
Scalar product obeys the distributive = 3 (5) + 4 (4) + (– 5) (3)
law: = 16 unit
A . (B + C) = A .B + A.C Hence F.d = F d cos θ = 16 unit
Fig. 6.1 (a) The scalar product of two vectors A and B is a scalar : A. B = A B cos θ. (b) B cos θ is the projection
of B onto A. (c) A cos θ is the projection of A onto B.
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 117
The work done by the force is defined to be Table 6.1 Alternative Units of Work/Energy in J
the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of this displacement. Thus
W = (F cos θ )d = F.d (6.4)
We see that if there is no displacement, there
is no work done even if the force is large. Thus,
when you push hard against a rigid brick wall,
the force you exert on the wall does no work. Yet t
Example 6.3 A cyclist comes to a skidding
your muscles are alternatively contracting and stop in 10 m. During this process, the force
relaxing and internal energy is being used up on the cycle due to the road is 200 N and
and you do get tired. Thus, the meaning of work is directly opposed to the motion. (a) How
in physics is different from its usage in everyday much work does the road do on the cycle ?
language. (b) How much work does the cycle do on
the road ?
No work is done if :
(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the
example above. A weightlifter holding a 150 Answer Work done on the cycle by the road is
kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s the work done by the stopping (frictional) force
does no work on the load during this time. on the cycle due to the road.
(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth (a) The stopping force and the displacement make
horizontal table is not acted upon by a an angle of 180o (π rad) with each other.
horizontal force (since there is no friction), but Thus, work done by the road,
may undergo a large displacement. Wr = Fd cosθ
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually
= 200 × 10 × cos π
perpendicular. This is so since, for θ = π/2 rad
(= 90o), cos (π/2) = 0. For the block moving on = – 2000 J
a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational It is this negative work that brings the cycle
force mg does no work since it acts at right to a halt in accordance with WE theorem.
angles to the displacement. If we assume that (b) From Newton’s Third Law an equal and
the moon’s orbits around the earth is opposite force acts on the road due to the
perfectly circular then the earth’s cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However, the
gravitational force does no work. The moon’s road undergoes no displacement. Thus,
instantaneous displacement is tangential work done by cycle on the road is zero. t
while the earth’s force is radially inwards and The lesson of Example 6.3 is that though the
θ = π/2. force on a body A exerted by the body B is always
Work can be both positive and negative. If θ is equal and opposite to that on B by A (Newton’s
between 0o and 90o, cos θ in Eq. (6.4) is positive. Third Law); the work done on A by B is not
If θ is between 90o and 180o, cos θ is negative. necessarily equal and opposite to the work done
In many examples the frictional force opposes on B by A.
displacement and θ = 180o. Then the work done
6.4 KINETIC ENERGY
by friction is negative (cos 180o = –1).
From Eq. (6.4) it is clear that work and energy As noted earlier, if an object of mass m has
have the same dimensions, [ML2T–2]. The SI unit velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
of these is joule (J), named after the famous British
1 1
physicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since K = m v. v = mv 2 (6.5)
work and energy are so widely used as physical 2 2
concepts, alternative units abound and some of Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic
these are listed in Table 6.1. energy of an object is a measure of the work an
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118 PHYSICS
object can do by the virtue of its motion. This This is illustrated in Fig. 6.3(a). Adding
notion has been intuitively known for a long time. successive rectangular areas in Fig. 6.3(a) we
The kinetic energy of a fast flowing stream get the total work done as
has been used to grind corn. Sailing xf
ships employ the kinetic energy of the wind. Table
6.2 lists the kinetic energies for various
W≅ ∑F (x )∆x
xi
(6.6)
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 119
∫ dK = ∫ Fdx
Ki xi
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120 PHYSICS
not available explicitly. Another observation is that are like ‘compressed springs’. They possess a
Newton’s second law for two or three dimensions large amount of potential energy. An earthquake
is in vector form whereas the work-energy results when these fault lines readjust. Thus,
theorem is in scalar form. In the scalar form, potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue
information with respect to directions contained of the position or configuration of a body. The
in Newton’s second law is not present. body left to itself releases this stored energy in
t the form of kinetic energy. Let us make our notion
Example 6.6 A block of mass m = 1 kg, of potential energy more concrete.
moving on a horizontal surface with speed The gravitational force on a ball of mass m is
vi = 2 m s–1 enters a rough patch ranging mg . g may be treated as a constant near the earth
from x = 0.10 m to x = 2.01 m. The retarding surface. By ‘near’ we imply that the height h of
force Fr on the block in this range is inversely the ball above the earth’s surface is very small
proportional to x over this range, compared to the earth’s radius RE (h <<RE) so that
−k we can ignore the variation of g near the earth’s
Fr = for 0.1 < x < 2.01 m surface*. In what follows we have taken the
x
= 0 for x < 0.1m and x > 2.01 m upward direction to be positive. Let us raise the
where k = 0.5 J. What is the final kinetic ball up to a height h. The work done by the external
energy and speed vf of the block as it agency against the gravitational force is mgh. This
crosses this patch ? work gets stored as potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy of an object, as a
function of the height h, is denoted by V(h) and it
Answer From Eq. (6.8a) is the negative of work done by the gravitational
force in raising the object to that height.
2.01
( −k ) dx
K f = Ki + ∫ x
V (h) = mgh
0.1 If h is taken as a variable, it is easily seen that
the gravitational force F equals the negative of
1
= mvi2 − k ln (x ) 2.01
0.1
the derivative of V(h) with respect to h. Thus,
2
d
F =− V(h) = −m g
1 dh
= mvi2 − k ln (2.01/0.1)
2 The negative sign indicates that the
= 2 − 0.5 ln (20.1) gravitational force is downward. When released,
the ball comes down with an increasing speed.
= 2 − 1.5 = 0.5 J Just before it hits the ground, its speed is given
v f = 2K f /m = 1 m s−1 by the kinematic relation,
v2 = 2gh
This equation can be written as
Here, note that ln is a symbol for the natural
logarithm to the base e and not the logarithm to 1
the base 10 [ln X = loge X = 2.303 log10 X]. t m v2 = m g h
2
6.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY which shows that the gravitational potential
energy of the object at height h, when the object
The word potential suggests possibility or is released, manifests itself as kinetic energy of
capacity for action. The term potential energy the object on reaching the ground.
brings to one’s mind ‘stored’ energy. A stretched Physically, the notion of potential energy is
bow-string possesses potential energy. When it applicable only to the class of forces where work
is released, the arrow flies off at a great speed. done against the force gets ‘stored up’ as energy.
The earth’s crust is not uniform, but has When external constraints are removed, it
discontinuities and dislocations that are called manifests itself as kinetic energy. Mathematically,
fault lines. These fault lines in the earth’s crust (for simplicity, in one dimension) the potential
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 121
energy V(x) is defined if the force F(x) can be which means that K + V, the sum of the kinetic
written as and potential energies of the body is a constant.
dV Over the whole path, xi to xf, this means that
F (x ) = − Ki + V(xi ) = Kf + V(xf ) (6.11)
dx
This implies that The quantity K +V(x), is called the total
mechanical energy of the system. Individually
xf Vf
the kinetic energy K and the potential energy
∫ F(x) dx = − ∫ dV = Vi − V f V(x) may vary from point to point, but the sum
xi Vi
is a constant. The aptness of the term
The work done by a conservative force such as ‘conservative force’ is now clear.
gravity depends on the initial and final positions Let us consider some of the definitions of a
only. In the previous chapter we have worked conservative force.
on examples dealing with inclined planes. If an l A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived
object of mass m is released from rest, from the from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation
top of a smooth (frictionless) inclined plane of given by Eq. (6.9). The three-dimensional
height h, its speed at the bottom generalisation requires the use of a vector
is 2gh irrespective of the angle of inclination. derivative, which is outside the scope of this
Thus, at the bottom of the inclined plane it book.
acquires a kinetic energy, mgh. If the work done l The work done by the conservative force
depends only on the end points. This can be
or the kinetic energy did depend on other factors
seen from the relation,
such as the velocity or the particular path taken
W = Kf – Ki = V (xi ) – V(xf )
by the object, the force would be called non-
which depends on the end points.
conservative.
l A third definition states that the work done
The dimensions of potential energy are
by this force in a closed path is zero. This is
[ML2T –2] and the unit is joule (J), the same as
once again apparent from Eq. (6.11) since
kinetic energy or work. To reiterate, the change
xi = xf .
in potential energy, for a conservative force,
∆V is equal to the negative of the work done by Thus, the principle of conservation of total
the force mechanical energy can be stated as
∆V = − F(x) ∆x (6.9) The total mechanical energy of a system is
In the example of the falling ball considered in conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
this section we saw how potential energy was conservative.
converted to kinetic energy. This hints at an The above discussion can be made more
important principle of conservation in mechanics, concrete by considering the example of the
which we now proceed to examine. gravitational force once again and that of the
spring force in the next section. Fig. 6.5 depicts
6.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL a ball of mass m being dropped from a cliff of
ENERGY height H.
For simplicity we demonstrate this important
principle for one-dimensional motion. Suppose
that a body undergoes displacement ∆x under
the action of a conservative force F. Then from
the WE theorem we have,
∆K = F(x) ∆x
If the force is conservative, the potential energy
function V(x) can be defined such that
− ∆V = F(x) ∆x
The above equations imply that Fig. 6.5 The conversion of potential energy to kinetic
∆K + ∆V = 0 energy for a ball of mass m dropped from a
∆(K + V ) = 0 (6.10) height H.
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The total mechanical energies E0, Eh, and EH Answer (i) There are two external forces on
of the ball at the indicated heights zero (ground the bob : gravity and the tension (T ) in the
level), h and H, are string. The latter does no work since the
EH = mgH (6.11 a) displacement of the bob is always normal to the
string. The potential energy of the bob is thus
1
Eh = mgh + mvh2 (6.11 b) associated with the gravitational force only. The
2 total mechanical energy E of the system is
E0 = (1/2) mvf2 (6.11 c)
conserved. We take the potential energy of the
The constant force is a special case of a spatially system to be zero at the lowest point A. Thus,
dependent force F(x). Hence, the mechanical at A :
energy is conserved. Thus
EH = E0 1 2
1 E= mv0 (6.12)
or, mgH = mv 2f 2
2
v f = 2gH [Newton’s Second Law]
a result that was obtained in section 3.7 for a
where TA is the tension in the string at A. At the
freely falling body.
highest point C, the string slackens, as the
Further,
tension in the string (TC ) becomes zero.
EH = Eh
which implies, Thus, at C
1
v 2h = 2 g(H − h) (6.11 d) E= mvc2 + 2mgL (6.13)
2
and is a familiar result from kinematics.
At the height H, the energy is purely potential. mvc2
It is partially converted to kinetic at height h and mg = [Newton’s Second Law] (6.14)
L
is fully kinetic at ground level. This illustrates
the conservation of mechanical energy. where vC is the speed at C. From Eqs. (6.13) and
(6.14)
Example 6.7 A bob of mass m is suspended
t
by a light string of length L . It is imparted a 5
E =
mgL
horizontal velocity vo at the lowest point A 2
such that it completes a semi-circular Equating this to the energy at A
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string
becoming slack only on reaching the topmost 5 m 2
mgL = v0
point, C. This is shown in Fig. 6.6. Obtain an 2 2
expression for (i) vo; (ii) the speeds at points or, v0 = 5 gL
B and C; (iii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
(KB/KC) at B and C. Comment on the nature (ii) It is clear from Eq. (6.14)
of the trajectory of the bob after it reaches vC = gL
the point C.
At B, the energy is
1
E= mv 2B + mgL
2
Equating this to the energy at A and employing
the result from (i), namely v 02 = 5 gL ,
1 1
mv 2B + mgL = mv02
2 2
5
= m gL
Fig. 6.6 2
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 123
∴ v B = 3gL k xm2
W =+ (6.16)
2
(iii) The ratio of the kinetic energies at B and C
is :
1 2
mv
KB 2 B 3
= =
KC 1 2 1
mvC
2
At point C, the string becomes slack and the
velocity of the bob is horizontal and to the left. If
the connecting string is cut at this instant, the
bob will execute a projectile motion with
horizontal projection akin to a rock kicked
horizontally from the edge of a cliff. Otherwise
the bob will continue on its circular path and
complete the revolution. t
6.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
The spring force is an example of a variable force
which is conservative. Fig. 6.7 shows a block
attached to a spring and resting on a smooth
horizontal surface. The other end of the spring
is attached to a rigid wall. The spring is light
and may be treated as massless. In an ideal
spring, the spring force Fs is proportional to
x where x is the displacement of the block from
the equilibrium position. The displacement could
be either positive [Fig. 6.7(b)] or negative
[Fig. 6.7(c)]. This force law for the spring is called
Hooke’s law and is mathematically stated as
Fs = − kx
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its
unit is N m-1. The spring is said to be stiff if k is
large and soft if k is small. Fig. 6.7 Illustration of the spring force with a block
Suppose that we pull the block outwards as in attached to the free end of the spring.
Fig. 6.7(b). If the extension is xm, the work done by (a) The spring force Fs is zero when the
the spring force is displacement x from the equilibrium position
is zero. (b) For the stretched spring x > 0
xm xm and Fs < 0 (c) For the compressed spring
Ws = ∫ Fs dx = − ∫ kx dx x < 0 and Fs > 0.(d) The plot of Fs versus x.
0 0 The area of the shaded triangle represents
the work done by the spring force. Due to the
2
k xm opposing signs of Fs and x, this work done is
=− (6.15)
2 2
negative, Ws = −kx m / 2.
This expression may also be obtained by
considering the area of the triangle as in The same is true when the spring is
Fig. 6.7(d). Note that the work done by the compressed with a displacement xc (< 0). The
external pulling force F is positive since it
overcomes the spring force. spring force does work Ws = − kx c2 / 2 while the
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external force F does work + kx c2 / 2 . If the block and vice versa, however, the total mechanical
energy remains constant. This is graphically
is moved from an initial displacement xi to a depicted in Fig. 6.8.
final displacement xf , the work done by the
spring force Ws is
xf
k x i2 k x 2f
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = − (6.17)
xi
2 2
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 125
= 1.25 × 104 J
We obtain
xm = 2.00 m
We note that we have idealised the situation.
The spring is considered to be massless. The
surface has been considered to possess
negligible friction. t
We conclude this section by making a few Fig. 6.9 The forces acting on the car.
remarks on conservative forces.
(i) Information on time is absent from the above 1
discussions. In the example considered ∆K = Kf − Ki = 0 − m v 2
2
above, we can calculate the compression, but The work done by the net force is
not the time over which the compression
1
occurs. A solution of Newton’s Second Law W =− kx m2 − µm g x m
for this system is required for temporal 2
information. Equating we have
(ii) Not all forces are conservative. Friction, for
1 1
example, is a non-conservative force. The m v 2 = k x m2 + µm g x m
2 2
principle of conservation of energy will have
to be modified in this case. This is illustrated Now µmg = 0.5 × 103 × 10 = 5 × 103 N (taking
in Example 6.9. g =10.0 m s -2). After rearranging the above
(iii) The zero of the potential energy is arbitrary. equation we obtain the following quadratic
equation in the unknown xm.
It is set according to convenience. For the
spring force we took V(x) = 0, at x = 0, i.e. the k x m2 + 2µm g x m − m v 2 = 0
unstretched spring had zero potential
energy. For the constant gravitational force
mg, we took V = 0 on the earth’s surface. In
a later chapter we shall see that for the force
due to the universal law of gravitation, the where we take the positive square root since
zero is best defined at an infinite distance xm is positive. Putting in numerical values we
from the gravitational source. However, once obtain
the zero of the potential energy is fixed in a xm = 1.35 m
given discussion, it must be consistently which, as expected, is less than the result in
adhered to throughout the discussion. You Example 6.8.
cannot change horses in midstream ! If the two forces on the body consist of a
conservative force Fc and a non-conservative
t
Example 6.9 Consider Example 6.8 taking force Fnc , the conservation of mechanical energy
the coefficient of friction, µ, to be 0.5 and formula will have to be modified. By the WE
calculate the maximum compression of the theorem
spring. (Fc+ Fnc ) ∆x = ∆K
But Fc ∆x = − ∆V
Answer In presence of friction, both the spring Hence, ∆(K + V) = Fnc ∆x
force and the frictional force act so as to oppose ∆E = Fnc ∆x
the compression of the spring as shown in where E is the total mechanical energy. Over
Fig. 6.9. the path this assumes the form
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather Ef − Ei = Wnc
than the conservation of mechanical energy. where W nc is the total work done by the
The change in kinetic energy is non-conservative forces over the path. Note that
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unlike the conservative force, Wnc depends on Chemical energy arises from the fact that the
the particular path i to f. t molecules participating in the chemical reaction
have different binding energies. A stable chemical
6.10 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY : THE LAW compound has less energy than the separated parts.
OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY A chemical reaction is basically a rearrangement
In the previous section we have discussed of atoms. If the total energy of the reactants is more
mechanical energy. We have seen that it can be than the products of the reaction, heat is released
classified into two distinct categories : one based and the reaction is said to be an exothermic
on motion, namely kinetic energy; the other on reaction. If the reverse is true, heat is absorbed and
configuration (position), namely potential energy. the reaction is endothermic. Coal consists of
Energy comes in many a forms which transform carbon and a kilogram of it when burnt releases
into one another in ways which may not often about 3 × 107 J of energy.
be clear to us. Chemical energy is associated with the forces
6.10.1 Heat that give rise to the stability of substances. These
forces bind atoms into molecules, molecules into
We have seen that the frictional force is not a
polymeric chains, etc. The chemical energy
conservative force. However, work is associated
with the force of friction, Example 6.5. A block of arising from the combustion of coal, cooking gas,
mass m sliding on a rough horizontal surface wood and petroleum is indispensable to our daily
with speed v0 comes to a halt over a distance x0. existence.
The work done by the force of kinetic friction f 6.10.3 Electrical Energy
over x 0 is –f x0. By the work-energy theorem
The flow of electrical current causes bulbs to
m vo2/2 = f x 0 . If we confine our scope to glow, fans to rotate and bells to ring. There are
mechanics, we would say that the kinetic energy laws governing the attraction and repulsion of
of the block is ‘lost’ due to the frictional force. charges and currents, which we shall learn
On examination of the block and the table we later. Energy is associated with an electric
would detect a slight increase in their current. An urban Indian household consumes
temperatures. The work done by friction is not about 200 J of energy per second on an average.
‘lost’, but is transferred as heat energy. This
raises the internal energy of the block and the 6.10.4 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
table. In winter, in order to feel warm, we Till the end of the nineteenth century, physicists
generate heat by vigorously rubbing our palms believed that in every physical and chemical
together. We shall see later that the internal process, the mass of an isolated system is
energy is associated with the ceaseless, often conserved. Matter might change its phase, e.g.
random, motion of molecules. A quantitative idea glacial ice could melt into a gushing stream, but
of the transfer of heat energy is obtained by matter is neither created nor destroyed; Albert
noting that 1 kg of water releases about 42000 J Einstein (1879-1955) however, showed that mass
of energy when it cools by10 °C. and energy are equivalent and are related by
6.10.2 Chemical Energy the relation
One of the greatest technical achievements of E = m c2 (6.20)
humankind occurred when we discovered how where c, the speed of light in vacuum is
to ignite and control fire. We learnt to rub two approximately 3 ×108 m s–1. Thus, a staggering
flint stones together (mechanical energy), got amount of energy is associated with a mere
them to heat up and to ignite a heap of dry leaves kilogram of matter
(chemical energy), which then provided E = 1× (3 ×108)2 J = 9 ×1016 J.
sustained warmth. A matchstick ignites into a This is equivalent to the annual electrical output
bright flame when struck against a specially of a large (3000 MW) power generating station.
prepared chemical surface. The lighted
matchstick, when applied to a firecracker, 6.10.5 Nuclear Energy
results in a spectacular display of sound and The most destructive weapons made by man, the
light. fission and fusion bombs are manifestations of
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6.10.6 The Principle of Conservation of The work dW done by a force F for a displacement
Energy dr is dW = F.dr. The instantaneous power can
also be expressed as
We have seen that the total mechanical energy
dr
of the system is conserved if the forces doing work P = F.
on it are conservative. If some of the forces dt
involved are non-conservative, part of the = F.v (6.22)
mechanical energy may get transformed into
where v is the instantaneous velocity when the
other forms such as heat, light and sound.
force is F.
However, the total energy of an isolated system Power, like work and energy, is a scalar
does not change, as long as one accounts for all quantity. Its dimensions are [ML2T –3]. In the SI,
forms of energy. Energy may be transformed from its unit is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s–1.
one form to another but the total energy of an The unit of power is named after James Watt,
isolated system remains constant. Energy can one of the innovators of the steam engine in the
neither be created, nor destroyed. eighteenth century.
Since the universe as a whole may be viewed There is another unit of power, namely the
as an isolated system, the total energy of the horse-power (hp)
universe is constant. If one part of the universe
1 hp = 746 W
loses energy, another part must gain an equal
This unit is still used to describe the output of
amount of energy. automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
The principle of conservation of energy cannot We encounter the unit watt when we buy
be proved. However, no violation of this principle electrical goods such as bulbs, heaters and
has been observed. The concept of conservation refrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is on for 10
and transformation of energy into various forms hours uses 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy.
links together various branches of physics, 100 (watt) × 10 (hour)
chemistry and life sciences. It provides a = 1000 watt hour
unifying, enduring element in our scientific =1 kilowatt hour (kWh)
pursuits. From engineering point of view all = 103 (W) × 3600 (s)
electronic, communication and mechanical = 3.6 × 106 J
devices rely on some forms of energy Our electricity bills carry the energy
transformation. consumption in units of kWh. Note that kWh is
6.11 POWER a unit of energy and not of power.
Often it is interesting to know not only the work
u Example 6.11 An elevator can carry a
done on an object, but also the rate at which
maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator +
this work is done. We say a person is physically
passengers) is moving up with a constant
fit if he not only climbs four floors of a building
speed of 2 m s–1. The frictional force opposing
but climbs them fast. Power is defined as the
the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
time rate at which work is done or energy is
minimum power delivered by the motor to
transferred.
the elevator in watts as well as in horse
The average power of a force is defined as the
power.
ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 129
Answer The downward force on the elevator is by the second particle. F21 is likewise the force
F = m g + Ff = (1800 × 10) + 4000 = 22000 N exerted on the second particle by the first particle.
Now from Newton’s third law, F12 = − F21. This
The motor must supply enough power to balance implies
this force. Hence,
∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0
P = F. v = 22000 × 2 = 44000 W = 59 hp t
The above conclusion is true even though the
6.12 COLLISIONS forces vary in a complex fashion during the
In physics we study motion (change in position). collision time ∆t. Since the third law is true at
At the same time, we try to discover physical every instant, the total impulse on the first object
quantities, which do not change in a physical is equal and opposite to that on the second.
process. The laws of momentum and energy On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of
conservation are typical examples. In this the system is not necessarily conserved. The
section we shall apply these laws to a commonly impact and deformation during collision may
encountered phenomena, namely collisions. generate heat and sound. Part of the initial kinetic
Several games such as billiards, marbles or energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
carrom involve collisions.We shall study the A useful way to visualise the deformation during
collision of two masses in an idealised form. collision is in terms of a ‘compressed spring’. If
Consider two masses m1 and m2. The particle the ‘spring’ connecting the two masses regains
m1 is moving with speed v1i , the subscript ‘i’ its original shape without loss in energy, then
implying initial. We can cosider m2 to be at rest. the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final
No loss of generality is involved in making such kinetic energy but the kinetic energy during the
a selection. In this situation the mass m 1 collision time ∆t is not constant. Such a collision
collides with the stationary mass m2 and this is called an elastic collision. On the other hand
is depicted in Fig. 6.10. the deformation may not be relieved and the two
bodies could move together after the collision. A
collision in which the two particles move together
after the collision is called a completely inelastic
collision. The intermediate case where the
deformation is partly relieved and some of the
initial kinetic energy is lost is more common and
is appropriately called an inelastic collision.
6.12.2 Collisions in One Dimension
Consider first a completely inelastic collision
Fig. 6.10 Collision of mass m1, with a stationary mass m2.
in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 6.10,
The masses m 1 and m 2 fly-off in different
θ1 =θ2 = 0
directions. We shall see that there are
relationships, which connect the masses, the m1v1i = (m1+m2)vf (momentum conservation)
velocities and the angles.
m1
vf = v1i (6.23)
6.12.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions m1 + m 2
In all collisions the total linear momentum is
The loss in kinetic energy on collision is
conserved; the initial momentum of the system
is equal to the final momentum of the system. 1 1
One can argue this as follows. When two objects ∆K = m1v1i2 − (m1 + m 2 )v 2f
2 2
collide, the mutual impulsive forces acting over
the collision time ∆t cause a change in their 1 1 m12
respective momenta : = m1v12i − v12i [using Eq. (6.23)]
2 2 m1 + m 2
∆p1 = F12 ∆t
∆p2 = F21 ∆t 1 m1
= m1v12i 1 −
where F12 is the force exerted on the first particle 2 m1 + m 2
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130 PHYSICS
(m 1 − m 2 )
1 m1m 2 2 v1 f = v1i (6.27)
= v1i m1 + m 2
2 m1 + m 2
2m1v1i
which is a positive quantity as expected. and v2 f = (6.28)
m1 + m 2
Consider next an elastic collision. Using the Thus, the ‘unknowns’ {v1f, v2f} are obtained in
above nomenclature with θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, the terms of the ‘knowns’ {m1, m2, v1i}. Special cases
momentum and kinetic energy conservation of our analysis are interesting.
equations are
Case I : If the two masses are equal
m1v1i = m1v1f + m2v2f (6.24)
v1f = 0
v2f = v1i
m v =m v
2
1 1i
2
1 1f +m v 2
2 2f (6.25)
The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the
From Eqs. (6.24) and (6.25) it follows that, second mass with its initial speed on collision.
m 1v1i (v 2 f − v1i ) = m1v1 f (v 2 f − v1 f ) Case II : If one mass dominates, e.g. m2 > > m1
v1f ~ − v1i v2f ~ 0
or, v 2 f (v1i − v1 f ) = v12i − v12f The heavier mass is undisturbed while the
lighter mass reverses its velocity.
= (v1i − v1 f )(v1i + v1 f )
Example 6.12 Slowing down of neutrons:
t
Hence, ∴ v 2 f = v1i + v1 f (6.26) In a nuclear reactor a neutron of high
speed (typically 107 m s–1) must be slowed
Substituting this in Eq. (6.24), we obtain
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 131
to 103 m s–1 so that it can have a high 6.12.3 Collisions in Two Dimensions
probability of interacting with isotope 235 Fig. 6.10 also depicts the collision of a moving
92 U
mass m1 with the stationary mass m2. Linear
and causing it to fission. Show that a
momentum is conserved in such a collision.
neutron can lose most of its kinetic energy
in an elastic collision with a light nuclei Since momentum is a vector this implies three
like deuterium or carbon which has a mass equations for the three directions {x, y, z}.
of only a few times the neutron mass. The Consider the plane determined by the final
material making up the light nuclei, usually velocity directions of m1 and m2 and choose it to
heavy water (D2O) or graphite, is called a be the x-y plane. The conservation of the
moderator. z-component of the linear momentum implies
that the entire collision is in the x-y plane. The
Answer The initial kinetic energy of the neutron x- and y-component equations are
is m1v1i = m1v1f cos θ 1 + m2v2f cos θ 2 (6.29)
1 0 = m1v1f sin θ1 − m2v2f sin θ2 (6.30)
K1i = m1v12i
2
One knows {m1, m2, v1i} in most situations. There
while its final kinetic energy from Eq. (6.27) are thus four unknowns {v1f , v2f , θ1 and θ2}, and
m − m2 2
2 only two equations. If θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, we regain
1 1
K1 f = m 1v12f = m1 1 v1i Eq. (6.24) for one dimensional collision.
2 2 m1 + m 2
If, further the collision is elastic,
1 1 1
The fractional kinetic energy lost is m1v1i 2 = m1v1 f 2 + m 2v2 f 2 (6.31)
2 2 2
2
K1 f m − m2 We obtain an additional equation. That still
f1 = = 1
K1i m 1 + m 2 leaves us one equation short. At least one of
while the fractional kinetic energy gained by the the four unknowns, say θ 1, must be made known
moderating nuclei K2f /K1i is for the problem to be solvable. For example, θ1
can be determined by moving a detector in an
f2 = 1 − f1 (elastic collision) angular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given
4m1m 2 {m1, m2, v1i , θ1} we can determine {v1f , v2f , θ2}
= from Eqs. (6.29)-(6.31).
(m1 + m 2 )2 t
Example 6.13 Consider the collision
One can also verify this result by substituting depicted in Fig. 6.10 to be between two
from Eq. (6.28). billiard balls with equal masses m1 = m2.
For deuterium m 2 = 2m 1 and we obtain The first ball is called the cue while the
f1 = 1/9 while f2 = 8/9. Almost 90% of the second ball is called the target. The
neutron’s energy is transferred to deuterium. For billiard player wants to ‘sink’ the target
carbon f1 = 71.6% and f2 = 28.4%. In practice, ball in a corner pocket, which is at an
however, this number is smaller since head-on angle θ2 = 37°. Assume that the collision
collisions are rare. t is elastic and that friction and rotational
If the initial velocities and final velocities of motion are not important. Obtain θ 1.
both the bodies are along the same straight line, Answer From momentum conservation, since
then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or the masses are equal
head-on collision. In the case of small spherical
bodies, this is possible if the direction of travel v1i = v1f + v 2f
of body 1 passes through the centre of body 2
which is at rest. In general, the collision is two-
or ( )(
v 1i 2 = v1 f + v 2 f ⋅ v1 f + v 2 f )
dimensional, where the initial velocities and the
final velocities lie in a plane. = v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 + 2v1 f .v2 f
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132 PHYSICS
= {v 1f
2
+ v 2 f 2 + 2v1 f v 2 f cos (θ1 + 37° ) } (6.32)
The matter simplifies greatly if we consider
spherical masses with smooth surfaces, and
Since the collision is elastic and m1 = m2 it follows assume that collision takes place only when the
from conservation of kinetic energy that bodies touch each other. This is what happens
in the games of marbles, carrom and billiards.
v1i 2 = v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 (6.33)
In our everyday world, collisions take place only
Comparing Eqs. (6.32) and (6.33), we get when two bodies touch each other. But consider
a comet coming from far distances to the sun, or
cos (θ1 + 37°) = 0 alpha particle coming towards a nucleus and
or θ1 + 37° = 90° going away in some direction. Here we have to
deal with forces involving action at a distance.
Thus, θ1 = 53° Such an event is called scattering. The velocities
This proves the following result : when two equal and directions in which the two particles go away
masses undergo a glancing elastic collision with depend on their initial velocities as well as the
one of them at rest, after the collision, they will type of interaction between them, their masses,
move at right angles to each other. t shapes and sizes.
SUMMARY
1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the work
done by the net force on the body.
Kf - Ki = Wnet
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an object is path independent and
depends only on the end points {xi, xj}, or (ii) the work done by the force is zero for an
arbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function V(x)
such that
dV (x )
F (x ) = −
dx
xf
or Vi − V f = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xi
4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical
energy of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is
V(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.
6. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
1
V (x ) = k x2
2
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is a scalar
quantity given by : A.B = AB cos θ, where θ is the angle between A and B. It can be
positive, negative or zero depending upon the value of θ. The scalar product of two
vectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector and component
of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors :
ˆi ⋅ ˆi = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = k
ˆ ⋅k
ˆ = 1 and ˆi ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ k
ˆ =k
ˆ ⋅ ˆi = 0
Scalar products obey the commutative and the distributive laws.
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 133
POINTS TO PONDER
1. The phrase ‘calculate the work done’ is incomplete. We should refer (or imply
clearly by context) to the work done by a specific force or a group of forces on a
given body over a certain displacement.
2. Work done is a scalar quantity. It can be positive or negative unlike mass and
kinetic energy which are positive scalar quantities. The work done by the friction
or viscous force on a moving body is negative.
3. For two bodies, the sum of the mutual forces exerted between them is zero from
Newton’s Third Law,
F12 + F21 = 0
But the sum of the work done by the two forces need not always cancel, i.e.
W12 + W21 ≠ 0
However, it may sometimes be true.
4. The work done by a force can be calculated sometimes even if the exact nature of
the force is not known. This is clear from Example 6.2 where the WE theorem is
used in such a situation.
5. The WE theorem is not independent of Newton’s Second Law. The WE theorem
may be viewed as a scalar form of the Second Law. The principle of conservation
of mechanical energy may be viewed as a consequence of the WE theorem for
conservative forces.
6. The WE theorem holds in all inertial frames. It can also be extended to non-
inertial frames provided we include the pseudoforces in the calculation of the
net force acting on the body under consideration.
7. The potential energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is always
undetermined upto a constant. For example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitational potential energy mgh,
the zero of the potential energy is chosen to be the ground. For the spring
potential energy kx2/2 , the zero of the potential energy is the equilibrium position
of the oscillating mass.
8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated potential
energy. For example, work done by friction over a closed path is not zero and no
potential energy can be associated with friction.
9. During a collision : (a) the total linear momentum is conserved at each instant of
the collision ; (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even if the collision is elastic)
applies after the collision is over and does not hold at every instant of the collision.
In fact the two colliding objects are deformed and may be momentarily at rest
with respect to each other.
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134 PHYSICS
EXERCISES
6.1 The sign of work done by a force on a body is important to understand. State carefully
if the following quantities are positive or negative:
(a) work done by a man in lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the
bucket.
(b) work done by gravitational force in the above case,
(c) work done by friction on a body
sliding down an inclined plane,
(d) work done by an applied force on
a body moving on a rough
horizontal plane with uniform
velocity,
(e) work done by the resistive force of
air on a vibrating pendulum in
bringing it to rest.
6.2 A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest
moves under the action of an applied
horizontal force of 7 N on a table with
coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.
Compute the
(a) work done by the applied force in
10 s,
(b) work done by friction in 10 s,
(c) work done by the net force on the
body in 10 s,
(d) change in kinetic energy of the
body in 10 s,
and interpret your results.
6.3 Given in Fig. 6.11 are examples of some
potential energy functions in one
dimension. The total energy of the
particle is indicated by a cross on the
ordinate axis. In each case, specify the
regions, if any, in which the particle
cannot be found for the given energy.
Also, indicate the minimum total
energy the particle must have in each
case. Think of simple physical contexts
for which these potential energy shapes
are relevant.
Fig. 6.11
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 135
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136 PHYSICS
(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) for an inelastic collision ?
(d) If the potential energy of two billiard balls depends only on the separation distance
between their centres, is the collision elastic or inelastic ? (Note, we are talking
here of potential energy corresponding to the force during collision, not gravitational
potential energy).
6.9 A body is initially at rest. It undergoes one-dimensional motion with constant
acceleration. The power delivered to it at time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
6.10 A body is moving unidirectionally under the influence of a source of constant power.
Its displacement in time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
6.11 A body constrained to move along the z-axis of a coordinate system is subject to a
constant force F given by
F = −ˆi + 2 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ N
Fig. 6.14
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 137
Fig. 6.16
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138 PHYSICS
6.26 A 1 kg block situated on a rough incline is connected to a spring of spring constant 100
N m–1 as shown in Fig. 6.17. The block is released from rest with the spring in the
unstretched position. The block moves 10 cm down the incline before coming to rest.
Find the coefficient of friction between the block and the incline. Assume that the
spring has a negligible mass and the pulley is frictionless.
Fig. 6.17
6.27 A bolt of mass 0.3 kg falls from the ceiling of an elevator moving down with an uniform
speed of 7 m s–1. It hits the floor of the elevator (length of the elevator = 3 m) and does
not rebound. What is the heat produced by the impact ? Would your answer be different
if the elevator were stationary ?
6.28 A trolley of mass 200 kg moves with a uniform speed of 36 km/h on a frictionless track.
A child of mass 20 kg runs on the trolley from one end to the other (10 m away) with a
speed of 4 m s–1 relative to the trolley in a direction opposite to the its motion, and
jumps out of the trolley. What is the final speed of the trolley ? How much has the
trolley moved from the time the child begins to run ?
6.29 Which of the following potential energy curves in Fig. 6.18 cannot possibly describe the
elastic collision of two billiard balls ? Here r is the distance between centres of the balls.
Fig. 6.18
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 139
Show that the two-body decay of this type must necessarily give an electron of fixed
energy and, therefore, cannot account for the observed continuous energy distribution
in the β-decay of a neutron or a nucleus (Fig. 6.19).
Fig. 6.19
[Note: The simple result of this exercise was one among the several arguments advanced by W.
Pauli to predict the existence of a third particle in the decay products of β-decay. This
particle is known as neutrino. We now know that it is a particle of intrinsic spin ½ (like
e—, p or n), but is neutral, and either massless or having an extremely small mass
(compared to the mass of electron) and which interacts very weakly with matter. The
correct decay process of neutron is : n g p + e – + ν ]
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The table below lists the approximate power expended by an adult human of mass 60 kg.
Table 6.4 Approximate power consumption
Consider a person walking with constant speed v0. The mechanical work he does may be estimated simply
with the help of the work-energy theorem. Assume :
(a) The major work done in walking is due to the acceleration and deceleration of the legs with each stride
(See Fig. 6.20).
(b) Neglect air resistance.
(c) Neglect the small work done in lifting the legs against gravity.
(d) Neglect the swinging of hands etc. as is common in walking.
As we can see in Fig. 6.20, in each stride the leg is brought from rest to a speed, approximately equal to the
speed of walking, and then brought to rest again.
Fig. 6.20 An illustration of a single stride in walking. While the first leg is maximally off the round, the second leg
is on the ground and vice-versa
The work done by one leg in each stride is m l v 02 by the work-energy theorem. Here ml is the mass of the leg.
Note m l v 02 /2 energy is expended by one set of leg muscles to bring the foot from rest to speed v0 while an
additional m l v 02 /2 is expended by a complementary set of leg muscles to bring the foot to rest from speed v0.
Hence work done by both legs in one stride is (study Fig. 6.20 carefully)
Ws =2m l v02 (6.34)
Assuming mass of the leg ml = 10 kg and slow running with a speed of 10 km in a hour which translates to
approximately 3 m s-1, we obtain
Ws = 180 J / stride
If we take a stride to be 2 m long, the person covers 1.5 strides per second at his speed of 3 m s-1. Thus the
power expended
= 270 W
We must bear in mind that this is a lower estimate since several avenues of power loss (e.g. swinging of hands,
air resistance etc.) have been ignored. The interesting point is that we did not worry about the forces involved.
The forces, mainly friction and those exerted on the leg by the muscles of the rest of the body, are hard to
estimate. Static friction does no work and we bypassed the impossible task of estimating the work done by the
muscles by taking recourse to the work-energy theorem. We can also see the advantage of a wheel. The wheel
permits smooth locomotion without the continual starting and stopping in mammalian locomotion.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier chapters we primarily considered the motion
of a single particle. (A particle is ideally represented as a
7.1 Introduction point mass having no size.) We applied the results of our
7.2 Centre of mass study even to the motion of bodies of finite size, assuming
7.3 Motion of centre of mass that motion of such bodies can be described in terms of the
7.4 Linear momentum of a motion of a particle.
system of particles Any real body which we encounter in daily life has a
7.5 Vector product of two finite size. In dealing with the motion of extended bodies
vectors (bodies of finite size) often the idealised model of a particle is
7.6 Angular velocity and its inadequate. In this chapter we shall try to go beyond this
relation with linear velocity inadequacy. We shall attempt to build an understanding of
7.7 Tor que and angular the motion of extended bodies. An extended body, in the
momentum first place, is a system of particles. We shall begin with the
7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body consideration of motion of the system as a whole. The centre
7.9 Moment of inertia of mass of a system of particles will be a key concept here.
7.10 Theorems of perpendicular We shall discuss the motion of the centre of mass of a system
and parallel axes of particles and usefulness of this concept in understanding
7.11 Kinematics of rotational the motion of extended bodies.
motion about a fixed axis A large class of problems with extended bodies can be
7.12 Dynamics of r otational solved by considering them to be rigid bodies. Ideally a
motion about a fixed axis rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and
7.13 Angular momentum in case unchanging shape. The distances between all pairs of
of rotation about a fixed axis particles of such a body do not change. It is evident from
7.14 Rolling motion this definition of a rigid body that no real body is truly rigid,
since real bodies deform under the influence of forces. But in
Summary many situations the deformations are negligible. In a number
Points to Ponder of situations involving bodies such as wheels, tops, steel
Exercises beams, molecules and planets on the other hand, we can ignore
Additional exercises that they warp (twist out of shape), bend or vibrate and treat
them as rigid.
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In order to understand what this ‘something Let us try to understand what rotation is,
else’ is, let us take a rigid body so constrained what characterises rotation. You may notice that
that it cannot have translational motion. The in rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis,
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 143
Axis of
rotation
from blades
Fig. 7.4 A rigid body rotation about the z-axis (Each
point of the body such as P 1 or
P2 describes a circle with its centre (C1
or C2) on the axis of rotation. The radius of
the circle (r1or r 2 ) is the perpendicular
distance of the point (P1 or P2 ) from the
axis. A point on the axis like P3 remains
stationary).
every particle of the body moves in a circle, Fig. 7.5 (b) An oscillating table fan with rotating
blades. The pivot of the fan, point O, is
which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis
fixed. The blades of the fan are under
and has its centre on the axis. Fig. 7.4 shows rotational motion, whereas, the axis of
the rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed rotation of the fan blades is oscillating.
axis (the z-axis of the frame of reference). Let P1
In some examples of rotation, however, the
be a particle of the rigid body, arbitrarily chosen axis may not be fixed. A prominent example of
and at a distance r1 from fixed axis. The particle this kind of rotation is a top spinning in place
P1 describes a circle of radius r1 with its centre [Fig. 7.5(a)]. (We assume that the top does not
C1 on the fixed axis. The circle lies in a plane slip from place to place and so does not have
perpendicular to the axis. The figure also shows translational motion.) We know from experience
another particle P2 of the rigid body, P2 is at a that the axis of such a spinning top moves
distance r2 from the fixed axis. The particle P2 around the vertical through its point of contact
moves in a circle of radius r2 and with centre C2 with the ground, sweeping out a cone as shown
on the axis. This circle, too, lies in a plane in Fig. 7.5(a). (This movement of the axis of the
perpendicular to the axis. Note that the circles top around the vertical is termed precession.)
described by P1 and P2 may lie in different planes; Note, the point of contact of the top with
both these planes, however, are perpendicular ground is fixed. The axis of rotation of the top
to the fixed axis. For any particle on the axis at any instant passes through the point of
like P 3 , r = 0. Any such particle remains contact. Another simple example of this kind of
stationary while the body rotates. This is rotation is the oscillating table fan or a pedestal
expected since the axis of rotation is fixed. fan [Fig.7.5(b)]. You may have observed that the
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144 PHYSICS
axis of rotation of such a fan has an oscillating Thus, for us rotation will be about a fixed axis
(sidewise) movement in a horizontal plane about only unless stated otherwise.
the vertical through the point at which the axis The rolling motion of a cylinder down an
is pivoted (point O in Fig. 7.5(b)). inclined plane is a combination of rotation about
While the fan rotates and its axis moves a fixed axis and translation. Thus, the
sidewise, this point is fixed. Thus, in more ‘something else’ in the case of rolling motion
general cases of rotation, such as the rotation which we referred to earlier is rotational motion.
of a top or a pedestal fan, one point and not You will find Fig. 7.6(a) and (b) instructive from
one line, of the rigid body is fixed. In this case this point of view. Both these figures show
the axis is not fixed, though it always passes motion of the same body along identical
through the fixed point. In our study, however, translational trajectory. In one case, Fig. 7.6(a),
we mostly deal with the simpler and special case the motion is a pure translation; in the other
of rotation in which one line (i.e. the axis) is fixed. case [Fig. 7.6(b)] it is a combination of
translation and rotation. (You may try to
reproduce the two types of motion shown, using
a rigid object like a heavy book.)
We now recapitulate the most important
observations of the present section: The motion
of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in
some way is either a pure translation or a
combination of translation and rotation. The
motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed
Fig. 7.6(a) Motion of a rigid body which is pure
in some way is rotation. The rotation may be
translation.
about an axis that is fixed (e.g. a ceiling fan) or
moving (e.g. an oscillating table fan [Fig.7.5(b)]).
We shall, in the present chapter, consider
rotational motion about a fixed axis only.
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 145
∑ mi x i
Here M = ∑mi is the total mass of the
m x + m 2 x 2 + ... + m n x n
X= 1 1 = i= 1
=
∑ mx
i i
(7.2) system. The index i runs from 1 to n; mi is the
m1 + m 2 +... + m n
∑
n
mi ∑m i mass of the ith particle and the position of the
i= 1 ith particle is given by (xi, yi, zi).
where x1, x2,...xn are the distances of the Eqs. (7.4a), (7.4b) and (7.4c) can be
particles from the origin; X is also measured from combined into one equation using the notation
the same origin. The symbol ∑ (the Greek letter of position vectors. Let ri be the position vector
sigma) denotes summation, in this case over n of the ith particle and R be the position vector of
particles. The sum the centre of mass:
∑ mi =M r = x i + y j + z k
i i i
i
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3
be the centre of mass then ∑ mi ri = 0 for the
X = (7.3a) given system of particles.
m1 + m 2 + m 3
A rigid body, such as a metre stick or a
m 1y1 + m 2y2 + m 3y3 flywheel, is a system of closely packed particles;
Y = (7.3b) Eqs. (7.4a), (7.4b), (7.4c) and (7.4d) are
m1 + m 2 + m 3
therefore, applicable to a rigid body. The number
For the particles of equal mass m = m1 = m2 of particles (atoms or molecules) in such a body
= m3, is so large that it is impossible to carry out the
m (x1 + x 2 + x 3 ) x1 + x 2 + x 3 summations over individual particles in these
X = = equations. Since the spacing of the particles is
3m 3
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small, we can treat the body as a continuous Let us consider a thin rod, whose width and
distribution of mass. We subdivide the body into breath (in case the cross section of the rod is
n small elements of mass; ∆m1, ∆m2... ∆mn; the rectangular) or radius (in case the cross section
ith element ∆mi is taken to be located about the of the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller than
point (xi, yi, zi). The coordinates of the centre of its length. Taking the origin to be at the
mass are then approximately given by geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be
along the length of the rod, we can say that on
X =
∑ (∆m i )x i , Y = ∑ (∆m i )yi , Z = ∑ (∆m i )zi account of reflection symmetry, for every
∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i ∑ ∆m i element dm of the rod at x, there is an element
of the same mass dm located at –x (Fig. 7.8).
As we make n bigger and bigger and each
∆m i smaller and smaller, these expressions
The net contribution of every such pair to
become exact. In that case, we denote the sums
over i by integrals. Thus, the integral and hence the integral itself
is zero. From Eq. (7.6), the point for which the
∑ ∆m i → ∫ dm = M , integral itself is zero, is the centre of mass.
Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thin
∑ ( ∆m i )x i → ∫ x dm , rod coincides with its geometric centre. This can
be understood on the basis of reflection symmetry.
∑ ( ∆m i )yi → ∫ y dm , The same symmetry argument will apply to
homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even
and ∑ (∆m i )zi → ∫ z dm thick rods of circular or rectangular cross
Here M is the total mass of the body. The section. For all such bodies you will realise that
coordinates of the centre of mass now are for every element dm at a point (x, y, z ) one can
1 1 1 always take an element of the same mass at
X=
M ∫ x dm , Y =
M ∫ y dm and Z = M ∫ z dm (7.5a) the point (–x, –y, –z ). (In other words, the origin
is a point of reflection symmetry for these
The vector expression equivalent to these
bodies.) As a result, the integrals in Eq. (7.5 a)
three scalar expressions is
all are zero. This means that for all the above
1 bodies, their centre of mass coincides with their
M∫
R= r dm (7.5b)
geometric centre.
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin
of our coordinate system, u Example 7.1 Find the centre of mass of
three particles at the vertices of an
R= 0
equilateral triangle. The masses of the
i.e., ∫ r dm = 0 particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g
respectively. Each side of the equilateral
or ∫ x dm = ∫ y dm = ∫ z dm = 0 (7.6) triangle is 0.5m long.
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 147
With the x – and y–axes chosen as shown in Fig. concurrence of the medians, i.e. on the centroid
7.9, the coordinates of points O, A and B forming G of the triangle. t
the equilateral triangle are respectively (0,0),
(0.5,0), (0.25,0.25 3 ). Let the masses 100 g, u Example 7.3 Find the centre of mass of a
150g and 200g be located at O, A and B be uniform L-shaped lamina (a thin flat plate)
respectively. Then, with dimensions as shown. The mass of
the lamina is 3 kg.
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3
X =
m1 + m 2 + m 3 Answer Choosing the X and Y axes as shown
in Fig. 7.11 we have the coordinates of the
100 (0 ) + 150(0.5) + 200(0.25) gm vertices of the L-shaped lamina as given in the
=
(100 + 150 + 200) g figure. We can think of the
L-shape to consist of 3 squares each of length
75 + 50 125 5 1m. The mass of each square is 1kg, since the
= m= m= m
450 450 18 lamina is uniform. The centres of mass C1, C2
and C3 of the squares are, by symmetry, their
100(0) + 150(0) + 200(0.25 3) gm geometric centres and have coordinates (1/2,1/2),
Y = (3/2,1/2), (1/2,3/2) respectively. We take the
450 g
masses of the squares to be concentrated at
these points. The centre of mass of the whole
50 3 3 1
= m= m= m L shape (X, Y) is the centre of mass of these
450 9 3 3 mass points.
The centre of mass C is shown in the figure.
Note that it is not the geometric centre of the
triangle OAB. Why? t
Fig. 7.11
Hence
X =
[1(1/ 2) + 1(3 / 2) + 1(1/2)] kg m 5
= m
Fig. 7.10 (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6
By symmetry each strip has its centre of [1(1/2) + 1(1/2) + 1(3 / 2)] kg m 5
mass at its midpoint. If we join the midpoint of Y = = m
all the strips we get the median LP. The centre (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6
of mass of the triangle as a whole therefore, has The centre of mass of the L-shape lies on
to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we can argue the line OD. We could have guessed this without
that it lies on the median MQ and NR. This calculations. Can you tell why? Suppose, the
means the centre of mass lies on the point of three squares that make up the L shaped lamina
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of Fig. 7.11 had different masses. How will you Thus, the total mass of a system of particles
then determine the centre of mass of the lamina? times the acceleration of its centre of mass is
t the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
system of particles.
7.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS Note when we talk of the force F1 on the first
Equipped with the definition of the centre of particle, it is not a single force, but the vector
mass, we are now in a position to discuss its sum of all the forces on the first particle; likewise
physical importance for a system of n particles. for the second particle etc. Among these forces
We may rewrite Eq.(7.4d) as on each particle there will be external forces
exerted by bodies outside the system and also
MR = ∑ m i ri = m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ... + m n rn (7.7) internal forces exerted by the particles on one
Differentiating the two sides of the equation another. We know from Newton’s third law that
with respect to time we get these internal forces occur in equal and opposite
dR dr dr dr pairs and in the sum of forces of Eq. (7.10),
M = m1 1 + m 2 2 + ... + m n n their contribution is zero. Only the external
dt dt dt dt
forces contribute to the equation. We can then
rewrite Eq. (7.10) as
or
MA = Fext (7.11)
M V = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (7.8)
where Fext represents the sum of all external
where v1 ( = dr1 /dt ) is the velocity of the first
forces acting on the particles of the system.
particle v 2 ( = dr 2 dt ) is the velocity of the Eq. (7.11) states that the centre of mass
of a system of particles moves as if all the
second particle etc. and V = dR / dt is the mass of the system was concentrated at the
velocity of the centre of mass. Note that we centre of mass and all the external forces
assumed the masses m 1, m 2, ... etc. do not were applied at that point.
change in time. We have therefore, treated them Notice, to determine the motion of the centre
as constants in differentiating the equations of mass no knowledge of internal forces of the
with respect to time. system of particles is required; for this purpose
Differentiating Eq.(7.8) with respect to time, we need to know only the external forces.
we obtain To obtain Eq. (7.11) we did not need to
specify the nature of the system of particles.
dV dv1 dv 2 dv n
M = m1 + m2 + ... + m n The system may be a collection of particles in
dt dt dt dt which there may be all kinds of internal
or motions, or it may be a rigid body which has
either pure translational motion or a
MA = m 1a1 + m 2 a 2 + ... + m n an (7.9)
combination of translational and rotational
where a1 ( = dv1 /dt ) is the acceleration of the motion. Whatever is the system and the motion
of its individual particles, the centre of mass
first particle, a 2 ( = dv 2 / dt ) is the acceleration moves according to Eq. (7.11).
Instead of treating extended bodies as single
of the second particle etc. and A (= d V / dt ) is
particles as we have done in earlier chapters,
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the we can now treat them as systems of particles.
system of particles. We can obtain the translational component of
Now, from Newton’s second law, the force their motion, i.e. the motion of the centre of mass
acting on the first particle is given by F1 = m1a1 . of the system, by taking the mass of the whole
The force acting on the second particle is given system to be concentrated at the centre of mass
and all the external forces on the system to be
by F2 = m 2 a 2 and so on. Eq. (7.9) may be written
acting at the centre of mass.
as This is the procedure that we followed earlier
MA = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn (7.10) in analysing forces on bodies and solving
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 149
problems without explicitly outlining and where F is the force on the particle. Let us
justifying the procedure. We now realise that in consider a system of n particles with masses m1,
earlier studies we assumed, without saying so, m2,...mn respectively and velocities v1 , v 2 ,.......vn
that rotational motion and/or internal motion
respectively. The particles may be interacting
of the particles were either absent or negligible.
and have external forces acting on them. The
We no longer need to do this. We have not only
found the justification of the procedure we linear momentum of the first particle is m1v1 ,
followed earlier; but we also have found how to of the second particle is m 2 v 2 and so on.
describe and separate the translational motion
For the system of n particles, the linear
of (1) a rigid body which may be rotating as
momentum of the system is defined to be the
well, or (2) a system of particles with all kinds
vector sum of all individual particles of the
of internal motion.
system,
P = p1 + p2 + ... + pn
= m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (7.14)
Comparing this with Eq. (7.8)
P=MV (7.15)
Thus, the total momentum of a system
of particles is equal to the product of the
total mass of the system and the velocity of
its centre of mass. Differentiating Eq. (7.15)
with respect to time,
dP dV
Fig. 7.12 The centre of mass of the fragments =M = MA (7.16)
dt dt
of the projectile continues along the
same parabolic path which it would Comparing Eq.(7.16) and Eq. (7.11),
have followed if there were no dP
explosion. = Fext (7.17)
dt
Figure 7.12 is a good illustration of Eq. This is the statement of Newton’s second law
(7.11). A projectile, following the usual parabolic of motion extended to a system of particles.
trajectory, explodes into fragments midway in Suppose now, that the sum of external
air. The forces leading to the explosion are forces acting on a system of particles is zero.
internal forces. They contribute nothing to the Then from Eq.(7.17)
motion of the centre of mass. The total external
dP
force, namely, the force of gravity acting on the = 0 or P = Constant (7.18a)
body, is the same before and after the explosion. dt
The centre of mass under the influence of the Thus, when the total external force acting
external force continues, therefore, along the on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
same parabolic trajectory as it would have momentum of the system is constant. This is
followed if there were no explosion. the law of conservation of the total linear
momentum of a system of particles. Because of
7.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF Eq. (7.15), this also means that when the
PARTICLES total external force on the system is zero
Let us recall that the linear momentum of a the velocity of the centre of mass remains
constant. (We assume throughout the
particle is defined as
discussion on systems of particles in this
p=mv (7.12) chapter that the total mass of the system
Let us also recall that Newton’s second law remains constant.)
written in symbolic form for a single particle is Note that on account of the internal forces,
dp i.e. the forces exerted by the particles on one
F= (7.13) another, the individual particles may have
dt
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 151
We shall now define another product of two A simpler version of the right hand rule is
vectors. This product is a vector. Two important the following : Open up your right hand palm
quantities in the study of rotational motion, and curl the fingers pointing from a to b. Your
namely, moment of a force and angular stretched thumb points in the direction of c.
momentum, are defined as vector products. It should be remembered that there are two
angles between any two vectors a and b . In
Definition of Vector Product Fig. 7.15 (a) or (b) they correspond to θ (as
A vector product of two vectors a and b is a shown) and (3600– θ). While applying either of
vector c such that the above rules, the rotation should be taken
(i) magnitude of c = c = ab sin θ where a and b through the smaller angle (<1800) between a
are magnitudes of a and b and θ is the and b. It is θ here.
angle between the two vectors. Because of the cross (×) used to denote the
(ii) c is perpendicular to the plane containing vector product, it is also referred to as cross product.
a and b. • Note that scalar product of two vectors is
(iii) if we take a right handed screw with its head commutative as said earlier, a.b = b.a
lying in the plane of a and b and the screw The vector product, however, is not
perpendicular to this plane, and if we turn commutative, i.e. a × b ≠ b × a
the head in the direction from a to b, then The magnitude of both a × b and b × a is the
the tip of the screw advances in the direction same ( ab sin θ ); also, both of them are
of c. This right handed screw rule is perpendicular to the plane of a and b. But the
illustrated in Fig. 7.15a. rotation of the right-handed screw in case of
Alternately, if one curls up the fingers of a × b is from a to b, whereas in case of b × a it
right hand around a line perpendicular to the is from b to a. This means the two vectors are
plane of the vectors a and b and if the fingers in opposite directions. We have
are curled up in the direction from a to b, then a × b = −b × a
the stretched thumb points in the direction of • Another interesting property of a vector
c, as shown in Fig. 7.15b.
product is its behaviour under reflection.
Under reflection (i.e. on taking the plane
mirror image) we have
x → − x , y → −y and z → − z . As a result all
the components of a vector change sign and
thus a → −a , b → −b . What happens to
a × b under reflection?
a × b → ( −a ) × ( − b) = a × b
Thus, a × b does not change sign under
reflection.
• Both scalar and vector products are
distributive with respect to vector addition.
Thus,
a.( b + c) = a.b + a.c
a × ( b + c) = a × b + a × c
(a) (b) • We may write c = a × b in the component
form. For this we first need to obtain some
elementary cross products:
Fig. 7.15 (a) Rule of the right handed screw for (i) a × a = 0 (0 is a null vector, i.e. a vector
defining the direction of the vector with zero magnitude)
product of two vectors.
(b) Rule of the right hand for defining the
This follows since magnitude of a × a is
direction of the vector product. a 2 sin 0° = 0 .
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ˆ − a b ˆj − a b k
= a x by k ˆ + a b ˆi + a b ˆj − a b ˆi
x z y x y z z x z y
= (a yb z − a zby )i + (a zb x − a x b z ) j + (a x by − a yb x )k
We have used the elementary cross products
in obtaining the above relation. The expression
for a × b can be put in a determinant form
which is easy to remember.
ˆi ˆj ˆ
k
a × b = ax ay az
bx by bz
u Example 7.4 Find the scalar and vector Fig. 7.16 Rotation about a fixed axis. (A particle (P)
of the rigid body rotating about the fixed
products of two vectors. a = (3î – 4ĵ + 5k̂ )
ˆ ) (z-) axis moves in a circle with centre (C)
and b = (– 2î + ĵ – 3k on the axis.)
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 153
a circle with a centre C on the axis. The radius and points out in the direction in which a right
of the circle is r, the perpendicular distance of handed screw would advance, if the head of the
the point P from the axis. We also show the screw is rotated with the body. (See Fig. 7.17a).
linear velocity vector v of the particle at P. It is The magnitude of this vector is ω = dθ dt
along the tangent at P to the circle.
referred as above.
Let P′ be the position of the particle after an
interval of time ∆t (Fig. 7.16). The angle PCP′
describes the angular displacement ∆θ of the
particle in time ∆t. The average angular velocity
of the particle over the interval ∆t is ∆θ/∆t. As
∆t tends to zero (i.e. takes smaller and smaller
values), the ratio ∆θ/∆t approaches a limit which
is the instantaneous angular velocity dθ/dt of
the particle at the position P. We denote the
instantaneous angular velocity by ω (the
Greek letter omega). We know from our study Fig. 7.17 (a) If the head of a right handed screw
of circular motion that the magnitude of linear rotates with the body, the screw
velocity v of a particle moving in a circle is advances in the direction of the angular
related to the angular velocity of the particle ω velocity ω. If the sense (clockwise or
by the simple relation υ = ω r , where r is the anticlockwise) of rotation of the body
radius of the circle. changes, so does the direction of ω.
We observe that at any given instant the
relation v = ω r applies to all particles of the
rigid body. Thus for a particle at a perpendicular
distance ri from the fixed axis, the linear velocity
at a given instant vi is given by
vi = ω ri (7.19)
The index i runs from 1 to n, where n is the
total number of particles of the body.
For particles on the axis, r = 0 , and hence
v = ω r = 0. Thus, particles on the axis are
stationary. This verifies that the axis is fixed.
Note that we use the same angular velocity
ω for all the particles. We therefore, refer to ω
as the angular velocity of the whole body.
We have characterised pure translation of Fig. 7.17 (b) The angular velocity vector ω is
a body by all parts of the body having the same directed along the fixed axis as shown.
velocity at any instant of time. Similarly, we The linear velocity of the particle at P
may characterise pure rotation by all parts of is v = ω × r. It is perpendicular to both
the body having the same angular velocity at ω and r and is directed along the
tangent to the circle described by the
any instant of time. Note that this
particle.
characterisation of the rotation of a rigid body
about a fixed axis is just another way of saying We shall now look at what the vector product
as in Sec. 7.1 that each particle of the body moves ω × r corresponds to. Refer to Fig. 7.17(b) which
in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular is a part of Fig. 7.16 reproduced to show the
to the axis and has the centre on the axis. path of the particle P. The figure shows the
In our discussion so far the angular velocity vector ω directed along the fixed (z–) axis and
appears to be a scalar. In fact, it is a vector. We also the position vector r = OP of the particle
shall not justify this fact, but we shall accept at P of the rigid body with respect to the origin
it. For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular O. Note that the origin is chosen to be on the
velocity vector lies along the axis of rotation, axis of rotation.
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The angular momentum of the ith particle This is a generalisation of the definition of
is given by angular momentum (Eq. 7.25a) for a single
li = ri×pi particle to a system of particles.
where ri is the position vector of the i th particle Using Eqs. (7.23) and (7.25b), we get
with respect to a given origin and p = (m ivi) is dL d dl
the linear momentum of the particle. (The
dt
=
dt
( ∑ li ) = ∑ dt = ∑ τ i (7.28a)
i i
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 157
where τ i is the torque acting on the ith particle; Conservation of angular momentum
τ i = ri × Fi If τ ext = 0, Eq. (7.28b) reduces to
The force Fi on the ith particle is the vector
dL
=0
sum of external forces Fiext acting on the particle dt
or L = constant. (7.29a)
and the internal forces Fiint exerted on it by the
Thus, if the total external torque on a system
other particles of the system. We may therefore of particles is zero, then the total angular
separate the contribution of the external and momentum of the system is conserved, i.e.
the internal forces to the total torque remains constant. Eq. (7.29a) is equivalent to
τ= ∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi as
three scalar equations,
Lx = K1, Ly = K2 and Lz = K3 (7.29 b)
i i
Here K1, K2 and K3 are constants; Lx, Ly and
τ = τ ext + τ int ,
Lz are the components of the total angular
where τ ext = ∑ ri × Fi ext momentum vector L along the x,y and z axes
respectively. The statement that the total
i
angular momentum is conserved means that
and τ int = ∑ ri × Fiint each of these three components is conserved.
i
Eq. (7.29a) is the rotational analogue of
We shall assume not only Newton’s third law
Eq. (7.18a), i.e. the conservation law of the total
of motion, i.e. the forces between any two particles linear momentum for a system of particles.
of the system are equal and opposite, but also that Like Eq. (7.18a), it has applications in many
these forces are directed along the line joining the practical situations. We shall look at a few of
two particles. In this case the contribution of the the interesting applications later on in this
internal forces to the total torque on the system is chapter.
zero, since the torque resulting from each action-
reaction pair of forces is zero. We thus have, τint = u Example 7.5 Find the torque of a force
0 and therefore τ = τext. 7î + 3ĵ – 5k̂ about the origin. The force
Since τ = ∑ τ i , it follows from Eq. (7.28a) acts on a particle whose position vector is
î – ĵ + ˆk .
that
dL Answer Here r = ˆi − ˆj + k
ˆ
= τ ext (7.28 b)
dt
Thus, the time rate of the total angular and F = 7ˆi + 3ˆj − 5k
ˆ.
momentum of a system of particles about a We shall use the determinant rule to find the
point (taken as the origin of our frame of torque τ = r × F
reference) is equal to the sum of the external
torques (i.e. the torques due to external forces)
acting on the system taken about the same
point. Eq. (7.28 b) is the generalisation of the
single particle case of Eq. (7.23) to a system of
particles. Note that when we have only one
particle, there are no internal forces or torques.
or τ = 2ˆi + 12 ˆj + 10k
ˆ t
Eq.(7.28 b) is the rotational analogue of
dP
= Fext (7.17)
dt u Example 7.6 Show that the angular
Note that like Eq.(7.17), Eq.(7.28b) holds momentum about any point of a single
good for any system of particles, whether it is a particle moving with constant velocity
rigid body or its individual particles have all remains constant throughout the motion.
kinds of internal motion.
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Answer Let the particle with velocity v be at acceleration nor angular acceleration. This
point P at some instant t. We want to calculate means
the angular momentum of the particle about an (1) the total force, i.e. the vector sum of the
arbitrary point O. forces, on the rigid body is zero;
n
F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = ∑F i =0 (7.30a)
i =1
on the body may not vanish. Such a torque where Fix, Fiy and Fiz are respectively the x, y
changes the rotational state of motion of the and z components of the forces Fi. Similarly,
rigid body, i.e. it changes the total angular Eq. (7.30b) is equivalent to three scalar
momentum of the body in accordance with Eq. equations
(7.28 b). n n n
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical ∑ τix = 0, ∑ τiy = 0 and ∑ τiz = 0 (7.31b)
equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and i =1 i =1 i =1
angular momentum are not changing with time, where τix, τiy and τiz are respectively the x, y and
or equivalently, the body has neither linear z components of the torque τ i .
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Clearly this is independent of the origin, the If the effort arm d2 is larger than the load
point about which we took the moments of the arm, the mechanical advantage is greater than
forces. t one. Mechanical advantage greater than one
means that a small effort can be used to lift a
7.8.1 Principle of moments large load. There are several examples of a lever
An ideal lever is essentially a light (i.e. of around you besides the see-saw. The beam of a
negligible mass) rod pivoted at a point along its balance is a lever. Try to find more such
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vary from one point of the body to the other. If 4.00 kg and W1= suspended load = 6.00 kg;
the body is so extended that g varies from part R 1 and R 2 are the normal reactions of the
to part of the body, then the centre of gravity support at the knife edges.
and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically, For translational equilibrium of the rod,
the two are different concepts. The centre of R1+R2 –W1 –W = 0 (i)
mass has nothing to do with gravity. It depends Note W1 and W act vertically down and R1
only on the distribution of mass of the body. and R2 act vertically up.
In Sec. 7.2 we found out the position of the For considering rotational equilibrium, we
centre of mass of several regular, homogeneous take moments of the forces. A convenient point
objects. Obviously the method used there gives to take moments about is G. The moments of
us also the centre of gravity of these bodies, if R2 and W1 are anticlockwise (+ve), whereas the
they are small enough. moment of R1 is clockwise (-ve).
Figure 7.25 illustrates another way of For rotational equilibrium,
determining the CG of an irregular shaped body –R1 (K1G) + W1 (PG) + R2 (K2G) = 0 (ii)
like a cardboard. If you suspend the body from It is given that W = 4.00g N and W1 = 6.00g
some point like A, the vertical line through A N, where g = acceleration due to gravity. We
passes through the CG. We mark the vertical take g = 9.8 m/s2.
AA1. We then suspend the body through other With numerical values inserted, from (i)
points like B and C. The intersection of the R1 + R2 – 4.00g – 6.00g = 0
verticals gives the CG. Explain why the method or R1 + R2 = 10.00g N (iii)
works. Since the body is small enough, the = 98.00 N
method allows us to determine also its centre From (ii), – 0.25 R1 + 0.05 W1 + 0.25 R2 = 0
of mass. or R1 – R2 = 1.2g N = 11.76 N (iv)
From (iii) and (iv), R1 = 54.88 N,
u Example 7.8 A metal bar 70 cm long R2 = 43.12 N
and 4.00 kg in mass supported on two Thus the reactions of the support are about
knife-edges placed 10 cm from each end. 55 N at K1 and 43 N at K2. t
A 6.00 kg load is suspended at 30 cm from
one end. Find the reactions at the knife- u Example 7.9 A 3m long ladder weighing
edges. (Assume the bar to be of uniform 20 kg leans on a frictionless wall. Its feet
cross section and homogeneous.) rest on the floor 1 m from the wall as shown
in Fig.7.27. Find the reaction forces of the
Answer wall and the floor.
Answer
Fig. 7.26
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with angular velocity ω. Each mass element with respect to the body as a whole. As a
of the ring is at a distance R from the axis, measure of the way in which the mass of a
and moves with a speed Rω. The kinetic rotating rigid body is distributed with respect to
energy is therefore, the axis of rotation, we can define a new
1 1 parameter, the radius of gyration. It is related
K= Mυ 2 = MR 2ω 2 to the moment of inertia and the total mass of
2 2
Comparing with Eq. (7.35) we get I = MR 2 the body.
for the ring. Notice from the Table 7.1 that in all
cases, we can write I = Mk 2, where k has
the dimension of length. For a rod, about
the perpendicular axis at its midpoint,
k 2 = L2 12 , i.e. k = L 12 . Similarly, k = R/2
for the circular disc about its diameter. The
length k is a geometric property of the body and
axis of rotation. It is called the radius of
gyration. The radius of gyration of a body
about an axis may be defined as the distance
from the axis of a mass point whose mass is
Fig. 7.28 A light rod of length l with a pair of masses equal to the mass of the whole body and whose
rotating about an axis through the centre of moment of inertia is equal to the moment of
mass of the system and perpendicular to inertia of the body about the axis.
the rod. The total mass of the system is M.
Thus, the moment of inertia of a rigid body
(b) Next, take a rigid rod of negligible mass of
depends on the mass of the body, its shape and
length of length l with a pair of small masses,
size; distribution of mass about the axis of
rotating about an axis through the centre of
rotation, and the position and orientation of the
mass perpendicular to the rod (Fig. 7.28).
axis of rotation.
Each mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from the
axis. The moment of inertia of the masses is From the definition, Eq. (7.34), we can infer
therefore given by that the dimensions of moments of inertia are
(M/2) (l/2)2 + (M/2)(l/2)2 ML2 and its SI units are kg m2.
Thus, for the pair of masses, rotating about The property of this extremely important
the axis through the centre of mass quantity I, as a measure of rotational inertia of
perpendicular to the rod the body, has been put to a great practical use.
I = Ml 2 / 4 The machines, such as steam engine and the
Table 7.1 simply gives the moment of inertia of automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational
various familiar regular shaped bodies about motion have a disc with a large moment of
specific axes. (The derivations of these inertia, called a flywheel. Because of its large
expressions are beyond the scope of this textbook moment of inertia, the flywheel resists the
and you will study them in higher classes.) sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the
As the mass of a body resists a change in its vehicle. It allows a gradual change in the speed
state of linear motion, it is a measure of its inertia and prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring
in linear motion. Similarly, as the moment of a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.
inertia about a given axis of rotation resists a
change in its rotational motion, it can be 7.10 THEOREMS OF PERPENDICULAR AND
regarded as a measure of rotational inertia of PARALLEL AXES
the body; it is a measure of the way in which
different parts of the body are distributed at These are two useful theorems relating to
different distances from the axis. Unlike the moment of inertia. We shall first discuss the
mass of a body, the moment of inertia is not a theorem of perpendicular axes and its simple
fixed quantity but depends on distribution of yet instructive application in working out the
mass about the axis of rotation, and the moments of inertia of some regular-shaped
orientation and position of the axis of rotation bodies.
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Table 7.1 Moments of inertia of some regular shaped bodies about specific axes
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7.10.1 Theorem of parallel axes The distance between these two parallel axes is
R, the radius of the ring. Using the parallel axes
This theorem is applicable to a body of any
theorem,
shape. It allows to find the moment of inertia of
a body about any axis, given the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis through
the centre of mass of the body. We shall only
state this theorem and not give its proof. We
shall, however, apply it to a few simple situations
which will be enough to convince us about the
usefulness of the theorem. The theorem may
be stated as follows:
The moment of inertia of a body about any
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing
through its centre of mass and the product of
Fig. 7.32
its mass and the square of the distance
between the two parallel axes. As shown in
the Fig. 7.31, z and z′ are two parallel axes, MR 2 3
I tangent = I dia + MR 2 = + MR 2 = MR 2 . t
separated by a distance a. The z-axis passes 2 2
through the centre of mass O of the rigid body.
Then according to the theorem of parallel axes 7.11 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
Iz′ = Iz + Ma2 (7.37) ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
where Iz and Iz′ are the moments of inertia of the
body about the z and z′ axes respectively, M is the We have already indicated the analogy between
total mass of the body and a is the perpendicular rotational motion and translational motion. For
distance between the two parallel axes. example, the angular velocity ω plays the same
role in rotation as the linear velocity v in
u Example 7.11 What is the moment of translation. We wish to take this analogy
inertia of a rod of mass M, length l about further. In doing so we shall restrict the
an axis perpendicular to it through one discussion only to rotation about fixed axis. This
end? case of motion involves only one degree of
freedom, i.e., needs only one independent
Answer For the rod of mass M and length l, variable to describe the motion. This in
I = Ml2/12. Using the parallel axes theorem, translation corresponds to linear motion. This
I′ = I + Ma2 with a = l/2 we get, section is limited only to kinematics. We shall
2
l2 l Ml 2 turn to dynamics in later sections.
I′ = M +M =
12 2 3 We recall that for specifying the angular
displacement of the rotating body we take any
We can check this independently since I is
particle like P (Fig.7.33) of the body. Its angular
half the moment of inertia of a rod of mass 2M
displacement θ in the plane it moves is the
and length 2l about its midpoint,
angular displacement of the whole body; θ is
4l 2 1 Ml 2 measured from a fixed direction in the plane of
I ′ = 2M . × = t
12 2 3 motion of P, which we take to be the x′-axis,
chosen parallel to the x-axis. Note, as shown,
u Example 7.12 What is the moment of the axis of rotation is the z – axis and the plane
inertia of a ring about a tangent to the of the motion of the particle is the x - y plane.
circle of the ring? Fig. 7.33 also shows θ 0 , the angular
displacement at t = 0.
Answer We also recall that the angular velocity is
The tangent to the ring in the plane of the ring the time rate of change of angular displacement,
is parallel to one of the diameters of the ring. ω = dθ/dt. Note since the axis of rotation is fixed,
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2π × 1200
= rad/s
60
= 40π rad/s
Similarly ω = final angular speed in rad/s
2π × 3120
= rad/s
60
= 2π × 52 rad/s
= 104 π rad/s
∴ Angular acceleration
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The angular acceleration of the engine (1) We need to consider only those forces that
= 4π rad/s2 lie in planes perpendicular to the axis.
(ii) The angular displacement in time t is Forces which are parallel to the axis will
given by give torques perpendicular to the axis and
need not be taken into account.
1 2
θ = ω0t + αt (2) We need to consider only those components
2 of the position vectors which are
1 perpendicular to the axis. Components of
= (40π × 16 + × 4π × 162 ) rad position vectors along the axis will result in
2
torques perpendicular to the axis and need
= (640π + 512π ) rad not be taken into account.
= 1152π rad
Work done by a torque
1152π
Number of revolutions = = 576 t
2π
7.12 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Table 7.2 lists quantities associated with linear
motion and their analogues in rotational motion.
We have already compared kinematics of the
two motions. Also, we know that in rotational
motion moment of inertia and torque play the
same role as mass and force respectively in
linear motion. Given this we should be able to
guess what the other analogues indicated in the Fig. 7.34 Work done by a force F1 acting on a particle
table are. For example, we know that in linear of a body rotating about a fixed axis; the
particle describes a circular path with
motion, work done is given by F dx, in rotational
centre C on the axis; arc P1P′1(ds1) gives
motion about a fixed axis it should be τ dθ , the displacement of the particle.
since we already know the correspondence
Figure 7.34 shows a cross-section of a rigid
d x → dθ and F → τ . It is, however, necessary body rotating about a fixed axis, which is taken
that these correspondences are established on as the z-axis (perpendicular to the plane of the
sound dynamical considerations. This is what page; see Fig. 7.33). As said above we need to
we now turn to. consider only those forces which lie in planes
Before we begin, we note a simplification perpendicular to the axis. Let F1 be one such
that arises in the case of rotational motion typical force acting as shown on a particle of
about a fixed axis. Since the axis is fixed, only the body at point P1 with its line of action in a
those components of torques, which are along plane perpendicular to the axis. For convenience
the direction of the fixed axis need to be we call this to be the x′–y′ plane (coincident
considered in our discussion. Only these with the plane of the page). The particle at P1
components can cause the body to rotate about describes a circular path of radius r1 with centre
the axis. A component of the torque C on the axis; CP1 = r1.
perpendicular to the axis of rotation will tend In time ∆t, the point moves to the position
to turn the axis from its position. We specifically P 1′ . The displacement of the particle ds 1 ,
assume that there will arise necessary forces of therefore, has magnitude ds 1 = r 1d θ and
constraint to cancel the effect of the direction tangential at P1 to the circular path
perpendicular components of the (external) as shown. Here dθ is the angular displacement
torques, so that the fixed position of the axis
of the particle, dθ = ∠P1CP1′ .The work done by
will be maintained. The perpendicular
components of the torques, therefore need not the force on the particle is
be taken into account. This means that for our dW1 = F1. ds1= F1ds1 cosφ1= F1(r1 dθ)sinα1
calculation of torques on a rigid body: where φ1 is the angle between F1 and the tangent
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at P1, and α1 is the angle between F1 and the Dividing both sides of Eq. (7.41) by dt gives
radius vector OP1; φ1 + α1 = 90°. dW dθ
P = =τ = τω
The torque due to F1 about the origin is dt dt
OP 1 ×F 1. Now OP 1 = OC + OP 1 . [Refer to or P = τω (7.42)
Fig. 7.17(b).] Since OC is along the axis, the This is the instantaneous power. Compare
torque resulting from it is excluded from our this expression for power in the case of
consideration. The effective torque due to F1 is rotational motion about a fixed axis with that of
τ1= CP×F1; it is directed along the axis of rotation power in the case of linear motion,
and has a magnitude τ1= r1F1 sinα , Therefore, P = Fv
dW1 = τ1dθ In a perfectly rigid body there is no internal
If there are more than one forces acting on motion. The work done by external torques is
the body, the work done by all of them can be therefore, not dissipated and goes on to increase
added to give the total work done on the body. the kinetic energy of the body. The rate at which
Denoting the magnitudes of the torques due to work is done on the body is given by Eq. (7.42).
the different forces as τ1, τ2, … etc, This is to be equated to the rate at which kinetic
energy increases. The rate of increase of kinetic
dW = (τ1 + τ 2 + ...) dθ energy is
Remember, the forces giving rise to the d Iω2 (2ω ) dω
torques act on different particles, but the =I
dt 2 2 dt
angular displacement dθ is the same for all
particles. Since all the torques considered are We assume that the moment of inertia does
parallel to the fixed axis, the magnitude τ of the not change with time. This means that the mass
total torque is just the algebraic sum of the of the body does not change, the body remains
magnitudes of the torques, i.e., τ = τ1 + τ2 + ..... rigid and also the axis does not change its
We, therefore, have position with respect to the body.
Since α = dω / dt , we get
dW = τ dθ (7.41)
This expression gives the work done by the d Iω2
=Iωα
total (external) torque τ which acts on the body dt 2
rotating about a fixed axis. Its similarity with
the corresponding expression Equating rates of work done and of increase
dW= F ds in kinetic energy,
for linear (translational) motion is obvious. τω = I ω α
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 173
If the moment of inertia I does not change with considerable angular speed stretch your arms
time, horizontally. What happens? Your angular
speed is reduced. If you bring back your arms
d dω
(I ω ) = I = Iα closer to your body, the angular speed increases
dt dt again. This is a situation where the principle of
and we get from Eq. (7.45c), conservation of angular momentum is
τ = Iα (7.43) applicable. If friction in the rotational
We have already derived this equation using mechanism is neglected, there is no external
the work - kinetic energy route. torque about the axis of rotation of the chair
and hence Iω is constant. Stretching the arms
7.13.1 Conservation of angular momentum increases I about the axis of rotation, resulting
in decreasing the angular speed ω. Bringing
We are now in a position to revisit the principle
the arms closer to the body has the opposite
of conservation of angular momentum in the
effect.
context of rotation about a fixed axis. From Eq.
A circus acrobat and a diver take advantage
(7.45c), if the external torque is zero,
of this principle. Also, skaters and classical,
Lz = Iω = constant (7.46)
Indian or western, dancers performing a
For symmetric bodies, from Eq. (7.44d), Lz
pirouette (a spinning about a tip–top) on the toes
may be replaced by L .(L and Lz are respectively
of one foot display ‘mastery’ over this principle.
the magnitudes of L and Lz.)
Can you explain?
This then is the required form, for fixed axis
rotation, of Eq. (7.29a), which expresses the
7.14 ROLLING MOTION
general law of conservation of angular
momentum of a system of particles. Eq. (7.46) One of the most common motions observed in
applies to many situations that we come across daily life is the rolling motion. All wheels used
in daily life. You may do this experiment with in transportation have rolling motion. For
your friend. Sit on a swivel chair (a chair with a specificness we shall begin with the case of a
seat, free to rotate about a pivot) with your arms disc, but the result will apply to any rolling body
folded and feet not resting on, i.e., away from, rolling on a level surface. We shall assume that
the ground. Ask your friend to rotate the chair the disc rolls without slipping. This means that
rapidly. While the chair is rotating with at any instant of time the bottom of the disc
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which is in contact with the surface is at rest At Po, the linear velocity, vr, due to rotation
on the surface. is directed exactly opposite to the translational
We have remarked earlier that rolling motion velocity vcm. Further the magnitude of vr here is
is a combination of rotation and translation. We Rω, where R is the radius of the disc. The
know that the translational motion of a system condition that Po is instantaneously at rest
of particles is the motion of its centre of mass. requires vcm = Rω. Thus for the disc the condition
for rolling without slipping is
υcm = R ω (7.47)
Incidentally, this means that the velocity of
point P 1 at the top of the disc (v 1) has a
magnitude vcm+ R ω or 2 vcm and is directed
parallel to the level surface. The condition (7.47)
applies to all rolling bodies.
7.14.1 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion
Our next task will be to obtain an expression
for the kinetic energy of a rolling body. The
kinetic energy of a rolling body can be separated
into kinetic energy of translation and kinetic
energy of rotation. This is a special case of a
general result for a system of particles,
Fig. 7.37 The rolling motion (without slipping) of a according to which the kinetic energy of a
disc on a level surface. Note at any instant, system of particles (K) can be separated into
the point of contact P0 of the disc with the the kinetic energy of translational motion of the
surface is at rest; the centre of mass of centre of mass (MV2/2) and kinetic energy of
the disc moves with velocity, vcm. The disc
rotational motion about the centre of mass of
rotates with angular velocity ω about its
the system of particles (K′). Thus,
axis which passes through C; vcm =Rω,
(7.48)
where R is the radius of the disc.
We assume this general result (see Exercise
Let vcm be the velocity of the centre of mass 7.31), and apply it to the case of rolling motion.
and therefore the translational velocity of the In our notation, the kinetic energy of the centre
disc. Since the centre of mass of the rolling disc of mass, i.e., the kinetic energy of translation,
is at its geometric centre C (Fig. 7. 37), vcm is of the rolling body is mv2cm /2, where m is the
the velocity of C. It is parallel to the level mass of the body and vcm is the centre of the
surface. The rotational motion of the disc is mass velocity. Since the motion of the rolling
about its symmetry axis, which passes through body about the centre of mass is rotation, K′
C. Thus, the velocity of any point of the disc, represents the kinetic energy of rotation of the
like P0, P1 or P2, consists of two parts, one is the body; , where I is the moment of
translational velocity vcm and the other is the inertia about the appropriate axis, which is the
linear velocity vr on account of rotation. The symmetry axis of the rolling body. The kinetic
magnitude of vr is vr = rω, where ω is the angular energy of a rolling body, therefore, is given by
velocity of the rotation of the disc about the axis (7.49a)
and r is the distance of the point from the axis
(i.e. from C). The velocity v r is directed Substituting I = mk 2 where k = the
perpendicular to the radius vector of the given corresponding radius of gyration of the body
point with respect to C. In Fig. 7.37, the velocity and vcm= R ω, we get
of the point P2 (v2) and its components vr and
vcm are shown; vr here is perpendicular to CP2 .
It is easy to show that vz is perpendicular to the
line POP2. Therefore the line passing through PO or (7.49b)
and parallel to ω is called the instantaneous axis
of rotation.
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 175
10gh
=
7
From the results obtained it is clear that among
the three bodies the sphere has the greatest and
the ring has the least velocity of the centre of mass
at the bottom of the inclined plane.
Suppose the bodies have the same mass. Which
body has the greatest rotational kinetic energy while
Fig.7.38 reaching the bottom of the inclined plane? t
SUMMARY
1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the
body do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translational motion or a combination
of translational and rotational motions.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in
the rotating rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any
instant of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is ω = dθ/dt and it is directed along the axis
of rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector ω has a fixed direction.
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6. The vector or cross product of two vector a and b is a vector written as a×b. The
magnitude of this vector is absinθ and its direction is given by the right handed screw
or the right hand rule.
7. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by
v = ω × r, where r is the position vector of the particle with respect to an origin along
the fixed axis. The relation applies even to more general rotation of a rigid body with
one point fixed. In that case r is the position vector of the particle with respect to the
fixed point taken as the origin.
8. The centre of mass of a system of n particles is defined as the point whose position
vector is
R=
∑ m i ri
M
9. Velocity of the centre of mass of a system of particles is given by V = P/M, where P is the
linear momentum of the system. The centre of mass moves as if all the mass of the
system is concentrated at this point and all the external forces act at it. If the total
external force on the system is zero, then the total linear momentum of the system is
constant.
τ = ∑ ri × Fi
1
The force Fi acting on the ith particle includes the external as well as internal forces.
Assuming Newton’s third law of motion and that forces between any two particles act
along the line joining the particles, we can show τint = 0 and
dL
= τ ext
dt
11. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero : ∑F i =0 ,
and
(2) it is in rotational equilibrium, i.e. the total external torque on it is zero :
∑ τ i = ∑ ri × Fi = 0 .
12. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.
13. The moment of intertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula I = ∑ m i ri2
where ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis. The
1
kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iω2 .
2
14. The theorem of parallel axes: I z′ = I z + Ma 2 , allows us to determine the moment of
intertia of a rigid body about an axis as the sum of the moment of inertia of the body
about a parallel axis through its centre of mass and the product of mass and square of
the perpendicular distance between these two axes.
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 177
15. Rotation about a fixed axis is directly analogous to linear motion in respect of kinematics
and dynamics.
16. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis (say, z-axis) of rotation, Lz = Iω, where I is
the moment of inertia about z-axis. In general, the angular momentum L for such a
body is not along the axis of rotation. Only if the body is symmetric about the axis of
rotation, L is along the axis of rotation. In that case, L = L z = I ω . The angular
acceleration of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by Iα = τ. If the external
torque τ acting on the body is zero, the component of angular momentum about the
fixed axis (say, z-axis), Lz (=Iω) of such a rotating body is constant.
17. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rω, where vcm is the velocity of translation (i.e.
of the centre of mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
1 1
K= 2
m vcm + Iω 2 .
2 2
POINTS TO PONDER
1. To determine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no knowledge of internal
forces of the system is required. For this purpose we need to know only the external
forces on the body.
2. Separating the motion of a system of particles as the motion of the centre of mass, (i.e.,
the translational motion of the system) and motion about (i.e. relative to) the centre of
mass of the system is a useful technique in dynamics of a system of particles. One
example of this technique is separating the kinetic energy of a system of particles K as
the kinetic energy of the system about its centre of mass K′ and the kinetic energy of
the centre of mass MV2/2,
K = K′ + MV2/2
3. Newton’s Second Law for finite sized bodies (or systems of particles) is based in Newton’s
Second Law and also Newton’s Third Law for particles.
4. To establish that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system of
particles is the total external torque in the system, we need not only Newton’s second
law for particles, but also Newton’s third law with the provision that the forces between
any two particles act along the line joining the particles.
5. The vanishing of the total external force and the vanishing of the total external torque
are independent conditions. We can have one without the other. In a couple, total
external force is zero, but total torque is non-zero.
6. The total torque on a system is independent of the origin if the total external force is
zero.
7. The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of mass only if the gravitational
field does not vary from one part of the body to the other.
8. The angular momentum L and the angular velocity ω are not necessarily parallel vectors.
However, for the simpler situations discussed in this chapter when rotation is about a
ω holds good,
fixed axis which is an axis of symmetry of the rigid body, the relation L = Iω
where I is the moment of the inertia of the body about the rotation axis.
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EXERCISES
7.1 Give the location of the centre of mass of a (i) sphere, (ii) cylinder, (iii) ring, and (iv)
cube, each of uniform mass density. Does the centre of mass of a body necessarily
lie inside the body ?
7.2 In the HCl molecule, the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms is about
1.27 Å (1 Å = 10-10 m). Find the approximate location of the CM of the molecule,
given that a chlorine atom is about 35.5 times as massive as a hydrogen atom and
nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
7.3 A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving uniformly with a speed V
on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets up and runs about on the trolley in any
manner, what is the speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system ?
7.4 Show that the area of the triangle contained between the vectors a and b is one half
of the magnitude of a × b.
7.5 Show that a.(b × c) is equal in magnitude to the volume of the parallelepiped formed
on the three vectors , a, b and c.
7.6 Find the components along the x, y, z axes of the angular momentum l of a particle,
whose position vector is r with components x, y, z and momentum is p with
components p x, p y and pz. Show that if the particle moves only in the x-y plane the
angular momentum has only a z-component.
7.7 Two particles, each of mass m and speed v, travel in opposite directions along parallel
lines separated by a distance d. Show that the angular momentum vector of the two
particle system is the same whatever be the point about which the angular momentum
is taken.
7.8 A non-uniform bar of weight W is suspended at rest by two strings of negligible
weight as shown in Fig.7.39. The angles made by the strings with the vertical are
36.9° and 53.1° respectively. The bar is 2 m long. Calculate the distance d of the
centre of gravity of the bar from its left end.
Fig. 7.39
7.9 A car weighs 1800 kg. The distance between its front and back axles is 1.8 m. Its
centre of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by the
level ground on each front wheel and each back wheel.
7.10 (a) Find the moment of inertia of a sphere about a tangent to the sphere, given the
moment of inertia of the sphere about any of its diameters to be 2MR2/5, where
M is the mass of the sphere and R is the radius of the sphere.
(b) Given the moment of inertia of a disc of mass M and radius R about any of its
diameters to be MR2/4, find its moment of inertia about an axis normal to the
disc and passing through a point on its edge.
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7.11 Torques of equal magnitude are applied to a hollow cylinder and a solid sphere, both
having the same mass and radius. The cylinder is free to rotate about its standard
axis of symmetry, and the sphere is free to rotate about an axis passing through its
centre. Which of the two will acquire a greater angular speed after a given time.
7.12 A solid cylinder of mass 20 kg rotates about its axis with angular speed 100 rad s-1.
The radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated with the
rotation of the cylinder? What is the magnitude of angular momentum of the cylinder
about its axis?
7.13 (a) A child stands at the centre of a turntable with his two arms outstretched. The
turntable is set rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min. How much is the
angular speed of the child if he folds his hands back and thereby reduces his
moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial value ? Assume that the turntable
rotates without friction.
(b) Show that the child’s new kinetic energy of rotation is more than the initial
kinetic energy of rotation. How do you account for this increase in kinetic energy?
7.14 A rope of negligible mass is wound round a hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius
40 cm. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 N ? What is the linear acceleration of the rope ? Assume that there is no
slipping.
7.15 To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of 200 rad s-1, an engine needs to
transmit a torque of 180 N m. What is the power required by the engine ?
(Note: uniform angular velocity in the absence of friction implies zero torque. In
practice, applied torque is needed to counter frictional torque). Assume that the
engine is 100% efficient.
7.16 From a uniform disk of radius R, a circular hole of radius R/2 is cut out. The centre
of the hole is at R/2 from the centre of the original disc. Locate the centre of gravity
of the resulting flat body.
7.17 A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins, each of mass
5 g are put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to be
balanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of the metre stick?
7.18 A solid sphere rolls down two different inclined planes of the same heights but
different angles of inclination. (a) Will it reach the bottom with the same speed in
each case? (b) Will it take longer to roll down one plane than the other? (c) If so,
which one and why?
7.19 A hoop of radius 2 m weighs 100 kg. It rolls along a horizontal floor so that its centre
of mass has a speed of 20 cm/s. How much work has to be done to stop it?
7.20 The oxygen molecule has a mass of 5.30 × 10-26 kg and a moment of inertia of
1.94×10-46 kg m2 about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the lines joining
the two atoms. Suppose the mean speed of such a molecule in a gas is 500 m/s and
that its kinetic energy of rotation is two thirds of its kinetic energy of translation.
Find the average angular velocity of the molecule.
7.21 A solid cylinder rolls up an inclined plane of angle of inclination 30°. At the bottom
of the inclined plane the centre of mass of the cylinder has a speed of 5 m/s.
(a) How far will the cylinder go up the plane?
(b) How long will it take to return to the bottom?
Additional Exercises
7.22 As shown in Fig.7.40, the two sides of a step ladder BA and CA are 1.6 m long and
hinged at A. A rope DE, 0.5 m is tied half way up. A weight 40 kg is suspended from
a point F, 1.2 m from B along the ladder BA. Assuming the floor to be frictionless
and neglecting the weight of the ladder, find the tension in the rope and forces
exerted by the floor on the ladder. (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)
(Hint: Consider the equilibrium of each side of the ladder separately.)
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180 PHYSICS
Fig.7.40
7.23 A man stands on a rotating platform, with his arms stretched horizontally holding a
5 kg weight in each hand. The angular speed of the platform is 30 revolutions per
minute. The man then brings his arms close to his body with the distance of each
weight from the axis changing from 90cm to 20cm. The moment of inertia of the
man together with the platform may be taken to be constant and equal to 7.6 kg m2.
(a) What is his new angular speed? (Neglect friction.)
(b) Is kinetic energy conserved in the process? If not, from where does the change
come about?
7.24 A bullet of mass 10 g and speed 500 m/s is fired into a door and gets embedded
exactly at the centre of the door. The door is 1.0 m wide and weighs 12 kg. It is
hinged at one end and rotates about a vertical axis practically without friction. Find
the angular speed of the door just after the bullet embeds into it.
(Hint: The moment of inertia of the door about the vertical axis at one end is ML2/3.)
7.25 Two discs of moments of inertia I1 and I2 about their respective axes (normal to the
disc and passing through the centre), and rotating with angular speeds ω1 and ω2
are brought into contact face to face with their axes of rotation coincident. (a) What
is the angular speed of the two-disc system? (b) Show that the kinetic energy of the
combined system is less than the sum of the initial kinetic energies of the two discs.
How do you account for this loss in energy? Take ω1 ≠ ω2.
7.26 (a) Prove the theorem of perpendicular axes.
(Hint : Square of the distance of a point (x, y) in the x–y plane from an axis through
the origin and perpendicular to the plane is x2+y2).
(b) Prove the theorem of parallel axes.
(Hint : If the centre of mass of a system of n particles is chosen to be the origin
∑ m i ri = 0 ).
7.27 Prove the result that the velocity v of translation of a rolling body (like a ring, disc,
cylinder or sphere) at the bottom of an inclined plane of a height h is given by
2 gh
v2 =
(1 + k 2
/ R2 )
using dynamical consideration (i.e. by consideration of forces and torques). Note k is
the radius of gyration of the body about its symmetry axis, and R is the radius of the
body. The body starts from rest at the top of the plane.
7.28 A disc rotating about its axis with angular speed ωo is placed lightly (without any
translational push) on a perfectly frictionless table. The radius of the disc is R. What
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SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 181
are the linear velocities of the points A, B and C on the disc shown in Fig. 7.41? Will the disc roll in
the direction indicated ?
Fig. 7.41
7.29 Explain why friction is necessary to make the disc in Fig. 7.41 roll in the direction indicated.
(a) Give the direction of frictional force at B, and the sense of frictional torque, before perfect rolling
begins.
(b) What is the force of friction after perfect rolling begins ?
7.30 A solid disc and a ring, both of radius 10 cm are placed on a horizontal table
simultaneously, with initial angular speed equal to 10 π rad s-1. Which of the two will start to roll
earlier ? The co-efficient of kinetic friction is µ = 0.2.
k
7.31 A cylinder of mass 10 kg and radius 15 cm is rolling perfectly on a plane of inclination 30o. The co-
efficient of static friction µs = 0.25.
(a) How much is the force of friction acting on the cylinder ?
(b) What is the work done against friction during rolling ?
(c) If the inclination θ of the plane is increased, at what value of θ does the cylinder begin to skid,
and not roll perfectly ?
7.32 Read each statement below carefully, and state, with reasons, if it is true or false;
(a) During rolling, the force of friction acts in the same direction as the direction of motion of the CM
of the body.
(b) The instantaneous speed of the point of contact during rolling is zero.
(c) The instantaneous acceleration of the point of contact during rolling is zero.
(d) For perfect rolling motion, work done against friction is zero.
(e) A wheel moving down a perfectly frictionless inclined plane will undergo slipping (not rolling)
motion.
7.33 Separation of Motion of a system of particles into motion of the centre of mass and motion about the
centre of mass :
(a) Show p = pi′ + m i V
where pi is the momentum of the ith particle (of mass mi) and p′′i = mi v′′ i. Note v′′ i is the velocity
of the ith particle relative to the centre of mass.
Also, prove using the definition of the centre of mass ∑ pi′ = 0
where L ′ = ∑ r ′i × pi′ is the angular momentum of the system about the centre of mass with
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182 PHYSICS
velocities taken relative to the centre of mass. Remember ri′ = ri – R ; rest of the
notation is the standard notation used in the chapter. Note L ′ and MR × V can
be said to be angular momenta, respectively, about and of the centre of mass of
the system of particles.
dL ′ dp ′
(d) Show = ∑ ri′ ×
dt dt
Further, show that
dL ′
= τ ext
′
dt
where τ′ext is the sum of all external torques acting on the system about the
centre of mass.
(Hint : Use the definition of centre of mass and third law of motion. Assume the
internal forces between any two particles act along the line joining the particles.)
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CHAPTER EIGHT
GRAVITATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all
material objects to be attracted towards the earth. Anything
8.1 Introduction
thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill is lot
8.2 Kepler’s laws
more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the clouds
8.3 Universal law of
above fall towards the earth and there are many other such
gravitation
phenomena. Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo
8.4 The gravitational
constant
(1564-1642) who recognised the fact that all bodies,
irrespective of their masses, are accelerated towards the earth
8.5 Acceleration due to
gravity of the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he made a public
8.6 Acceleration due to demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly did
gravity below and above experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and
the surface of earth arrived at a value of the acceleration due to gravity which is
8.7 Gravitational potential close to the more accurate value obtained later.
energy A seemingly unrelated phenomenon, observation of stars,
8.8 Escape speed planets and their motion has been the subject of attention in
8.9 Earth satellites many countries since the earliest of times. Observations since
8.10 Energy of an orbiting early times recognised stars which appeared in the sky with
satellite positions unchanged year after year. The more interesting
8.11 Geostationary and polar objects are the planets which seem to have regular motions
satellites against the background of stars. The earliest recorded model
8.12 Weightlessness for planetary motions proposed by Ptolemy about 2000 years
Summary ago was a ‘geocentric’ model in which all celestial objects,
Points to ponder stars, the sun and the planets, all revolved around the earth.
Exercises The only motion that was thought to be possible for celestial
Additional exercises objects was motion in a circle. Complicated schemes of motion
were put forward by Ptolemy in order to describe the observed
motion of the planets. The planets were described as moving
in circles with the centre of the circles themselves moving in
larger circles. Similar theories were also advanced by Indian
astronomers some 400 years later. However a more elegant
model in which the Sun was the centre around which the
planets revolved – the ‘heliocentric’ model – was already
mentioned by Aryabhatta (5th century A.D.) in his treatise. A
thousand years later, a Polish monk named Nicolas
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Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed a definitive of the ellipse (Fig. 8.1a). This law was a deviation
model in which the planets moved in circles from the Copernican model which allowed only
around a fixed central sun. His theory was circular orbits. The ellipse, of which the circle is
discredited by the church, but notable amongst a special case, is a closed curve which can be
its supporters was Galileo who had to face drawn very simply as follows.
prosecution from the state for his beliefs. Select two points F1 and F2. Take a length
It was around the same time as Galileo, a of a string and fix its ends at F1 and F2 by pins.
nobleman called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) With the tip of a pencil stretch the string taut
hailing from Denmark, spent his entire lifetime and then draw a curve by moving the pencil
recording observations of the planets with the keeping the string taut throughout.(Fig. 8.1(b))
naked eye. His compiled data were analysed
The closed curve you get is called an ellipse.
later by his assistant Johannes Kepler (1571-
Clearly for any point T on the ellipse, the sum of
1640). He could extract from the data three
the distances from F1 and F2 is a constant. F1,
elegant laws that now go by the name of Kepler’s
laws. These laws were known to Newton and F2 are called the focii. Join the points F1 and F2
enabled him to make a great scientific leap in and extend the line to intersect the ellipse at
proposing his universal law of gravitation. points P and A as shown in Fig. 8.1(b). The
midpoint of the line PA is the centre of the ellipse
8.2 KEPLER’S LAWS O and the length PO = AO is called the semi-
The three laws of Kepler can be stated as follows: major axis of the ellipse. For a circle, the two
1. Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical focii merge into one and the semi-major axis
orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci becomes the radius of the circle.
2. Law of areas : The line that joins any planet
B to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals
of time (Fig. 8.2). This law comes from the
observations that planets appear to move slower
when they are farther from the sun than when
2b they are nearer.
P S S' A
C
2a
Fig. 8.1(a) An ellipse traced out by a planet around
the sun. The closest point is P and the
farthest point is A, P is called the
perihelion and A the aphelion. The
semimajor axis is half the distance AP.
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GRAVITATION 185
Table 8.1 Data from measurement of as the planet goes around. Hence, ∆ A /∆t is a
planetary motions given below
constant according to the last equation. This is
confirm Kepler’s Law of Periods
the law of areas. Gravitation is a central force
(a ≡ Semi-major axis in units of 1010 m.
T ≡ Time period of revolution of the planet
and hence the law of areas follows.
in years(y).
Q ≡ The quotient ( T2/a3 ) in units of t Example 8.1 Let the speed of the planet
10 -34 y2 m-3.) at the perihelion P in Fig. 8.1(a) be vP and
the Sun-planet distance SP be rP. Relate
Planet a T Q {rP, vP} to the corresponding quantities at
the aphelion {rA, vA}. Will the planet take
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 equal times to traverse BAC and CPB ?
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
Earth 15.0 1 2.96 Answer The magnitude of the angular
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98 momentum at P is Lp = mp rp vp, since inspection
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 tells us that r p and v p are mutually
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98
perpendicular. Similarly, LA = mp rA vA . From
Uranus 287 84 2.98
Neptune 450 165 2.99 angular momentum conservation
Pluto* 590 248 2.99 mp rp vp = mp rA vA
The law of areas can be understood as a vp rA
consequence of conservation of angular =
or vA rp
t
momentum whch is valid for any central force .
A central force is such that the force on the Since rA > rp, vp > vA .
planet is along the vector joining the Sun and The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse and
the planet. Let the Sun be at the origin and let the radius vectors SB and SC is larger than SBPC
the position and momentum of the planet be in Fig. 8.1. From Kepler’s second law, equal areas
denoted by r and p respectively. Then the area are swept in equal times. Hence the planet will
swept out by the planet of mass m in time take a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB.
interval ∆t is (Fig. 8.2) ∆A given by
8.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
∆A = ½ (r × v∆t) (8.1)
Legend has it that observing an apple falling
Hence
from a tree, Newton was inspired to arrive at an
∆A /∆t =½ (r × p)/m, (since v = p/m) universal law of gravitation that led to an
= L / (2 m) (8.2) explanation of terrestrial gravitation as well as
where v is the velocity, L is the angular of Kepler’s laws. Newton’s reasoning was that
momentum equal to ( r × p). For a central the moon revolving in an orbit of radius Rm was
force, which is directed along r, L is a constant subject to a centripetal acceleration due to
earth’s gravity of magnitude
Johannes Kepler
(1571–1630) was a
V2 4π 2 Rm
scientist of German am = = (8.3)
origin. He formulated Rm T2
the three laws of where V is the speed of the moon related to the
planetary motion based
on the painstaking time period T by the relation V = 2π Rm / T . The
observations of Tycho time period T is about 27.3 days and Rm was
Brahe and coworkers. Kepler himself was an already known then to be about 3.84 × 108m. If
assistant to Brahe and it took him sixteen long we substitute these numbers in Eq. (8.3), we
years to arrive at the three planetary laws. He
get a value of am much smaller than the value of
is also known as the founder of geometrical
acceleration due to gravity g on the surface of
optics, being the first to describe what happens
to light after it enters a telescope. the earth, arising also due to earth’s gravitational
attraction.
* Refer to information given in the Box on Page 182
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186 PHYSICS
Central Forces
We know the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a single particle about the origin
is
dl
=r ×F
dt
The angular momentum of the particle is conserved, if the torque τ = r × F due to the
force F on it vanishes. This happens either when F is zero or when F is along r. We are
interested in forces which satisfy the latter condition. Central forces satisfy this condition.
A ‘central’ force is always directed towards or away from a fixed point, i.e., along the position
vector of the point of application of the force with respect to the fixed point. (See Figure below.)
Further, the magnitude of a central force F depends on r, the distance of the point of application
of the force from the fixed point; F = F(r).
In the motion under a central force the angular momentum is always conserved. Two important
results follow from this:
(1) The motion of a particle under the central force is always confined to a plane.
(2) The position vector of the particle with respect to the centre of the force (i.e. the fixed point)
has a constant areal velocity. In other words the position vector sweeps out equal areas in
equal times as the particle moves under the influence of the central force.
Try to prove both these results. You may need to know that the areal velocity is given by :
dA/dt = ½ r v sin α.
An immediate application of the above discussion can be made to the motion of a planet
under the gravitational force of the sun. For convenience the sun may be taken to be so heavy
that it is at rest. The gravitational force of the sun on the planet is directed towards the sun.
This force also satisfies the requirement F = F(r), since F = G m1m2/r2 where m1 and m2 are
respectively the masses of the planet and the sun and G is the universal constant of gravitation.
The two results (1) and (2) described above, therefore, apply to the motion of the planet. In fact,
the result (2) is the well-known second law of Kepler.
Tr is the trejectory of the particle under the central force. At a position P, the force is directed
along OP, O is the centre of the force taken as the origin. In time ∆t, the particle moves from P to P′,
arc PP′ = ∆s = v ∆t. The tangent PQ at P to the trajectory gives the direction of the velocity at P. The
area swept in ∆t is the area of sector POP′ ≈ (r sin α ) PP′/2 = (r v sin a) ∆t/2.)
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GRAVITATION 187
This clearly shows that the force due to The gravitational force is attractive, i.e., the
earth’s gravity decreases with distance. If one force F is along – r. The force on point mass m 1
assumes that the gravitational force due to the due to m 2 is of course – F by Newton’s third law.
earth decreases in proportion to the inverse Thus, the gravitational force F12 on the body 1
square of the distance from the centre of the
due to 2 and F21 on the body 2 due to 1 are related
−2 2
earth, we will have am α Rm ; g α R−
E
and we get as F12 = – F21.
Before we can apply Eq. (8.5) to objects under
g R2
= m2 3600 (8.4) consideration, we have to be careful since the
am RE law refers to point masses whereas we deal with
in agreement with a value of g 9.8 m s-2 and extended objects which have finite size. If we have
the value of am from Eq. (8.3). These observations a collection of point masses, the force on any
led Newton to propose the following Universal Law one of them is the vector sum of the gravitational
of Gravitation : forces exerted by the other point masses as
Every body in the universe attracts every other shown in Fig 8.4.
body with a force which is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
The quotation is essentially from Newton’s
famous treatise called ‘Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy’ (Principia for short).
Stated Mathematically, Newton’s gravitation
law reads : The force F on a point mass m 2 due
to another point mass m 1 has the magnitude
m1 m 2
|F | = G (8.5)
r2
Equation (8.5) can be expressed in vector form as
m1 m 2 m1 m 2 $
F= G
r 2 ( )
– r$ = – G
r2
r
Fig. 8.4 Gravitational force on point mass m1 is the
vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted
m1 m 2 $ by m2, m3 and m4.
= –G 3
r
r
The total force on m 1 is
where G is the universal gravitational constant,
Gm 2 m1 $ Gm 3 m1 $ Gm 4 m1 $
F1 = r 21 + r 31 + r 41
r$ is the unit vector from m 1 to m 2 and r = r2 – r1 2
r21 2
r31 2
r41
as shown in Fig. 8.3.
t Example 8.2 Three equal masses of m kg
each are fixed at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle ABC.
(a) What is the force acting on a mass 2m
placed at the centroid G of the triangle ?
(b) What is the force if the mass at the
O vertex A is doubled ?
Take AG = BG = CG = 1 m (see Fig. 8.5)
Answer (a) The angle between GC and the
positive x-axis is 30° and so is the angle between
Fig. 8.3 Gravitational force on m1 due to m2 is along GB and the negative x-axis. The individual forces
r where the vector r is (r2– r1). in vector notation are
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188 PHYSICS
Newton’s Principia
Kepler had formulated his third law by 1619. The announcement of the underlying universal law of
gravitation came about seventy years later with the publication in 1687 of Newton’s masterpiece
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, often simply called the Principia.
Around 1685, Edmund Halley (after whom the famous Halley’s comet is named), came to visit
Newton at Cambridge and asked him about the nature of the trajectory of a body moving under the
influence of an inverse square law. Without hesitation Newton replied that it had to be an ellipse,
and further that he had worked it out long ago around 1665 when he was forced to retire to his farm
house from Cambridge on account of a plague outbreak. Unfortunately, Newton had lost his papers.
Halley prevailed upon Newton to produce his work in book form and agreed to bear the cost of
publication. Newton accomplished this feat in eighteen months of superhuman effort. The Principia
is a singular scientific masterpiece and in the words of Lagrange it is “the greatest production of the
human mind.” The Indian born astrophysicist and Nobel laureate S. Chandrasekhar spent ten years
writing a treatise on the Principia. His book, Newton’s Principia for the Common Reader brings
into sharp focus the beauty, clarity and breath taking economy of Newton’s methods.
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GRAVITATION 189
(2) The force of attraction due to a hollow its neighbouring small sphere. Due to this
spherical shell of uniform density, on a torque, the suspended wire gets twisted till such
point mass situated inside it is zero. time as the restoring torque of the wire equals
Qualitatively, we can again understand this the gravitational torque . If θ is the angle of twist
result. Various regions of the spherical shell of the suspended wire, the restoring torque is
attract the point mass inside it in various proportional to θ, equal to τθ. Where τ is the
directions. These forces cancel each other restoring couple per unit angle of twist. τ can be
completely. measured independently e.g. by applying a
known torque and measuring the angle of twist.
8.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT The gravitational force between the spherical
balls is the same as if their masses are
The value of the gravitational constant G
concentrated at their centres. Thus if d is the
entering the Universal law of gravitation can be
separation between the centres of the big and
determined experimentally and this was first
its neighbouring small ball, M and m their
done by English scientist Henry Cavendish in
masses, the gravitational force between the big
1798. The apparatus used by him is
sphere and its neighouring small ball is.
schematically shown in figure.8.6
Mm
F =G (8.6)
d2
If L is the length of the bar AB , then the
torque arising out of F is F multiplied by L. At
equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring torque
and hence
Mm
G L =τ θ (8.7)
d2
Observation of θ thus enables one to
calculate G from this equation.
Since Cavendish’s experiment, the
measurement of G has been refined and the
currently accepted value is
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2 (8.8)
Fig. 8.6 Schematic drawing of Cavendish’s
experiment. S1 and S2 are large spheres
8.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF
which are kept on either side (shown shades)
of the masses at A and B. When the big THE EARTH
spheres are taken to the other side of the
The earth can be imagined to be a sphere made
masses (shown by dotted circles), the bar
AB rotates a little since the torque reverses of a large number of concentric spherical shells
direction. The angle of rotation can be with the smallest one at the centre and the
measured experimentally. largest one at its surface. A point outside the
earth is obviously outside all the shells. Thus,
The bar AB has two small lead spheres all the shells exert a gravitational force at the
attached at its ends. The bar is suspended from point outside just as if their masses are
a rigid support by a fine wire. Two large lead concentrated at their common centre according
spheres are brought close to the small ones but to the result stated in section 8.3. The total mass
on opposite sides as shown. The big spheres of all the shells combined is just the mass of the
attract the nearby small ones by equal and earth. Hence, at a point outside the earth, the
opposite force as shown. There is no net force gravitational force is just as if its entire mass of
on the bar but only a torque which is clearly the earth is concentrated at its centre.
equal to F times the length of the bar,where F is For a point inside the earth, the situation
the force of attraction between a big sphere and is different. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.7.
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190 PHYSICS
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GRAVITATION 191
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192 PHYSICS
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GRAVITATION 193
The minimum value of Vi corresponds to the Answer The projectile is acted upon by two
case when the L.H.S. of Eq. (8.29) equals zero. mutually opposing gravitational forces of the two
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194 PHYSICS
spheres. The neutral point N (see Fig. 8.10) is its own axis. Since, 1957, advances in
defined as the position where the two forces technology have enabled many countries
cancel each other exactly. If ON = r, we have including India to launch artificial earth
satellites for practical use in fields like
GMm 4G M m
2
= telecommunication, geophysics and
r (6 R −r )2 meteorology.
(6R – r) = 4r2 2
We will consider a satellite in a circular orbit
6R – r = ±2r of a distance (RE + h ) from the centre of the earth,
r = 2R or – 6R. where RE = radius of the earth. If m is the mass
The neutral point r = – 6R does not concern of the satellite and V its speed, the centripetal
us in this example. Thus ON = r = 2R. It is force required for this orbit is
sufficient to project the particle with a speed
which would enable it to reach N. Thereafter, mV 2
F(centripetal) = ( R + h ) (8.33)
the greater gravitational pull of 4M would E
suffice. The mechanical energy at the surface directed towards the centre. This centripetal force
of M is is provided by the gravitational force, which is
1 GMm 4G M m
Ei = m v2 − − . G m ME
2 R 5R F(gravitation) = (8.34)
( R E + h )2
At the neutral point N, the speed approaches
zero. The mechanical energy at N is purely where ME is the mass of the earth.
potential. Equating R.H.S of Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) and
cancelling out m, we get
G M m 4G M m
EN = − − . G ME
2R 4R V2 =
(RE + h ) (8.35)
From the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy Thus V decreases as h increases. From
equation (8.35),the speed V for h = 0 is
1 2 GM 4GM GM GM V 2 (h = 0) = GM / R E = gRE (8.36)
v − − =− −
2 R 5R 2R R where we have used the relation
or
g = GM / RE 2 . In every orbit, the satellite
2G M 4 1
v2 = − traverses a distance 2π(RE + h) with speed V. Its
R 5 2
time period T therefore is
1/2
3G M 2π ( R E + h ) 2π (R E + h )3 / 2
v = t T = = (8.37)
5R V G ME
A point to note is that the speed of the projectile on substitution of value of V from Eq. (8.35).
is zero at N, but is nonzero when it strikes the Squaring both sides of Eq. (8.37), we get
heavier sphere 4 M. The calculation of this speed T 2 = k ( RE + h)3 (where k = 4 π2 / GME) (8.38)
is left as an exercise to the students.
which is Kepler’s law of periods, as applied to
8.9 EARTH SATELLITES motion of satellites around the earth. For a
satellite very close to the surface of earth h can
Earth satellites are objects which revolve around be neglected in comparison to RE in Eq. (8.38).
the earth. Their motion is very similar to the Hence, for such satellites, T is To, where
motion of planets around the Sun and hence
T0 = 2π R E / g (8.39)
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally
applicable to them. In particular, their orbits If we substitute the numerical values
around the earth are circular or elliptic. Moon g 9.8 m s-2 and RE = 6400 km., we get
is the only natural satellite of the earth with a
near circular orbit with a time period of 6.4 × 106
T0 = 2π s
approximately 27.3 days which is also roughly 9.8
equal to the rotational period of the moon about Which is approximately 85 minutes.
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GRAVITATION 195
6 2
t Example 8.5 The planet Mars has two
=
(
9.81 × 6.37 × 10 )
moons, phobos and delmos. (i) phobos has -11
a period 7 hours, 39 minutes and an orbital 6.67 × 10
= 5.97× 1024 kg.
radius of 9.4 ×103 km. Calculate the mass
The moon is a satellite of the Earth. From
of mars. (ii) Assume that earth and mars
the derivation of Kepler’s third law [see Eq.
move in circular orbits around the sun,
(8.38)]
with the martian orbit being 1.52 times
the orbital radius of the earth. What is 4π2R 3
T2 =
the length of the martian year in days ? G ME
4π2R 3
Answer (i) We employ Eq. (8.38) with the sun’s ME =
mass replaced by the martian mass Mm G T2
3 24
4π
2 4 × 3.14 × 3.14 × ( 3.84 ) × 10
T
2
= R
3 = -11 2
GM m 6.67 × 10 × ( 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60)
2 3 24
4π R = 6.02 × 10 kg
Mm = 2
G T Both methods yield almost the same answer,
the difference between them being less than 1%.
2 3 18
4 × ( 3.14) × ( 9.4) × 10 t
= -11 2
6.67 × 10 × ( 459 × 60)
t Example 8.7 Express the constant k of
2 3 18 Eq. (8.38) in days and kilometres. Given
4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 9.4 ) × 10
Mm = -5 k = 10–13 s2 m–3. The moon is at a distance
2
6.67 × ( 4.59 × 6) × 10 of 3.84 × 105 km from the earth. Obtain its
23
= 6.48 × 10 kg.
time-period of revolution in days.
(ii) Once again Kepler’s third law comes to our
aid,
Answer Given
2 3
TM R MS k = 10–13 s2 m–3
2
= 3
TE R ES 1 1
−13 2
where RMS is the mars -sun distance and RES is = 10 d
( 24 × 60 × 60) 2 (1 / 1000) 3 km3
the earth-sun distance.
= 1.33 ×10–14 d2 km–3
∴ TM = (1.52)3/2 × 365
Using Eq. (8.38) and the given value of k,
= 684 days
the time period of the moon is
We note that the orbits of all planets except
T 2 = (1.33 × 10-14)(3.84 × 105)3
Mercury, Mars and Pluto* are very close to
T = 27.3 d t
being circular. For example, the ratio of the
Note that Eq. (8.38) also holds for elliptical
semi-minor to semi-major axis for our Earth
orbits if we replace (RE+h) by the semi-major
is, b/a = 0.99986. t
axis of the ellipse. The earth will then be at one
of the foci of this ellipse.
t Example 8.6 Weighing the Earth : You
are given the following data: g = 9.81 ms–2,
8.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE
RE = 6.37×106 m, the distance to the moon
R = 3.84×108 m and the time period of the Using Eq. (8.35), the kinetic energy of the satellite
moon’s revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain the in a circular orbit with speed v is
mass of the Earth ME in two different ways.
1
K iE = m v2
Answer From Eq. (8.12) we have 2
Gm M E
g R2E =
ME =
G 2(R E + h ) , (8.40)
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196 PHYSICS
elliptic, both the K.E. and P.E. vary from point circular orbits around the earth in the
to point. The total energy which remains equatorial plane with T = 24 hours are called
constant is negative as in the circular orbit case. Geostationery Satellites. Clearly, since the earth
This is what we expect, since as we have rotates with the same period, the satellite would
discussed before if the total energy is positive or appear fixed from any point on earth. It takes
zero, the object escapes to infinity. Satellites very powerful rockets to throw up a satellite to
are always at finite distance from the earth and such large heights above the earth but this has
hence their energies cannot be positive or zero. been done in view of the several benefits of many
practical applications.
t Example 8.8 A 400 kg satellite is in a circular
orbit of radius 2RE about the Earth. How much
energy is required to transfer it to a circular
orbit of radius 4RE ? What are the changes in
the kinetic and potential energies ?
Answer Initially,
G ME m
Ei = −
4 RE
While finally
G ME m
Ef = −
8 RE
The change in the total energy is
∆E = Ef – Ei Fig. 8.11 A Polar satellite. A strip on earth’s surface
(shown shaded) is visible from the satellite
during one cycle. For the next revolution of
G M E m G M E m RE
the satellite, the earth has rotated a little
= =
8 RE R2 8
E on its axis so that an adjacent strip becomes
visible.
g m RE 9.81 × 400 × 6.37 × 106
∆E = = = 3.13 × 109 J It is known that electromagnetic waves above
8 8
a certain frequency are not reflected from
The kinetic energy is reduced and it mimics
ionosphere. Radio waves used for radio
∆E, namely, ∆K = Kf – Ki = – 3.13 × 109 J.
broadcast which are in the frequency range 2
The change in potential energy is twice the
MHz to 10 MHz, are below the critical frequency.
change in the total energy, namely
They are therefore reflected by the ionosphere.
∆V = Vf – Vi = – 6.25 × 109 J t
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GRAVITATION 197
Thus radio waves broadcast from an antenna at close distances with good resolution.
can be received at points far away where the Information gathered from such satellites
direct wave fail to reach on account of the is extremely useful for remote sensing,
curvature of the earth. Waves used in television meterology as well as for environmental studies
broadcast or other forms of communication have of the earth.
much higher frequencies and thus cannot be
received beyond the line of sight. A Geostationery 8.12 WEIGHTLESSNESS
satellite, appearing fixed above the broadcasting
Weight of an object is the force with which the
station can however receive these signals and earth attracts it. We are conscious of our own
broadcast them back to a wide area on earth. weight when we stand on a surface, since the
The INSAT group of satellites sent up by India surface exerts a force opposite to our weight to
are one such group of Geostationary satellites keep us at rest. The same principle holds good
widely used for telecommunications in India. when we measure the weight of an object by a
Another class of satellites are called the Polar spring balance hung from a fixed point e.g. the
satellites (Fig. 8.11). These are low altitude (h l ceiling. The object would fall down unless it is
500 to 800 km) satellites, but they go around subject to a force opposite to gravity. This is
the poles of the earth in a north-south direction exactly what the spring exerts on the object. This
whereas the earth rotates around its axis in an is because the spring is pulled down a little by
east-west direction. Since its time period is the gravitational pull of the object and in turn the
around 100 minutes it crosses any altitude many spring exerts a force on the object vertically upwards.
times a day. However, since its height h above Now, imagine that the top end of the balance
the earth is about 500-800 km, a camera fixed is no longer held fixed to the top ceiling of the
on it can view only small strips of the earth in room. Both ends of the spring as well as the
one orbit. Adjacent strips are viewed in the next object move with identical acceleration g. The
orbit, so that in effect the whole earth can be spring is not stretched and does not exert any
viewed strip by strip during the entire day. These upward force on the object which is moving down
satellites can view polar and equatorial regions with acceleration g due to gravity. The reading
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198 PHYSICS
recorded in the spring balance is zero since the the value of earth’s acceleration due to gravity
spring is not stretched at all. If the object were at that position. Thus in the satellite everything
a human being, he or she will not feel his weight inside it is in a state of free fall. This is just as if
since there is no upward force on him. Thus, we were falling towards the earth from a height.
when an object is in free fall, it is weightless and Thus, in a manned satellite, people inside
this phenomenon is usually called the experience no gravity. Gravity for us defines the
phenomenon of weightlessness. vertical direction and thus for them there are no
In a satellite around the earth, every part horizontal or vertical directions, all directions are
and parcel of the satellite has an acceleration the same. Pictures of astronauts floating in a
towards the centre of the earth which is exactly satellite show this fact.
SUMMARY
1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction
between any two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r has the magnitude
m1m 2
F =G 2
r
where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.672 ×10–11 N m2 kg–2.
2. If we have to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a
number of masses M1, M2, ….Mn etc. we use the principle of superposition. Let F1, F2, ….Fn
be the individual forces due to M1, M2, ….Mn, each given by the law of gravitation. From
the principle of superposition each force acts independently and uninfluenced by the
other bodies. The resultant force FR is then found by vector addition
n
FR = F1 + F2 + ……+ Fn = ∑ Fi
i =1
where the symbol ‘Σ’ stands for summation.
G ME 2h
≈
R E2 1 − R for h << RE
E
2h G ME
g(h ) = g (0) 1 − where g (0) =
R E R E2
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GRAVITATION 199
5. The gravitational force is a conservative force, and therefore a potential energy function
can be defined. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated
by a distance r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =−
r
where V is taken to be zero at r → ∞. The total potential energy for a system of particles
is the sum of energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair represented by a term of
the form given by above equation. This prescription follows from the principle of
superposition.
6. If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the
vicinity of a massive body of mass M, the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by
1 GMm
E= m v2 −
2 r
That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.
The total energy is a constant of motion.
7. If m moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the system is
GMm
E =−
2a
with the choice of the arbitrary constant in the potential energy given in the point 5.,
above. The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the orbit
is closed, such as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are
GMm
K=
2a
GMm
V =−
a
8. The escape speed from the surface of the earth is
2 G ME
ve = = 2 gRE
RE
and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
9. If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric
internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the
sphere or shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
10. If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is zero.
If a particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the
centre of the sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to the particle.
11. A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in
the equatorial plane at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the earth’s centre.
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200 PHYSICS
POINTS TO PONDER
1. In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another object
the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum
(b) Total mechanical energy
Linear momentum is not conserved
2. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second law. However, it is not special
to the inverse square law of gravitation. It holds for any central force.
3. In Kepler’s third law (see Eq. (8.1) and T2 = KS R3. The constant KS is the same for all
planets in circular orbits. This applies to satellites orbiting the Earth [(Eq. (8.38)].
4. An astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. This is not because the
gravitational force is small at that location in space. It is because both the astronaut
and the satellite are in “free fall” towards the Earth.
5. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =– + constant
r
The constant can be given any value. The simplest choice is to take it to be zero. With
this choice
G m1 m 2
V =–
r
This choice implies that V → 0 as r → ∞. Choosing location of zero of the gravitational
energy is the same as choosing the arbitrary constant in the potential energy. Note that
the gravitational force is not altered by the choice of this constant.
6. The total mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its kinetic energy (which is always
positive) and the potential energy. Relative to infinity (i.e. if we presume that the potential
energy of the object at infinity is zero), the gravitational potential energy of an object is
negative. The total energy of a satellite is negative.
7. The commonly encountered expression m g h for the potential energy is actually an
approximation to the difference in the gravitational potential energy discussed in the
point 6, above.
8. Although the gravitational force between two particles is central, the force between two
finite rigid bodies is not necessarily along the line joining their centre of mass. For a
spherically symmetric body however the force on a particle external to the body is as if
the mass is concentrated at the centre and this force is therefore central.
9. The gravitational force on a particle inside a spherical shell is zero. However, (unlike a
metallic shell which shields electrical forces) the shell does not shield other bodies outside
it from exerting gravitational forces on a particle inside. Gravitational shielding is not
possible.
EXERCISES
8.1 Answer the following :
(a) You can shield a charge from electrical forces by putting it inside a hollow conductor.
Can you shield a body from the gravitational influence of nearby matter by putting
it inside a hollow sphere or by some other means ?
(b) An astronaut inside a small space ship orbiting around the earth cannot detect
gravity. If the space station orbiting around the earth has a large size, can he hope
to detect gravity ?
(c) If you compare the gravitational force on the earth due to the sun to that due
to the moon, you would find that the Sun’s pull is greater than the moon’s pull.
(you can check this yourself using the data available in the succeeding exercises).
However, the tidal effect of the moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of sun.
Why ?
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GRAVITATION 201
Fig. 8.12
8.11 For the above problem, the direction of the gravitational intensity at an arbitrary
point P is indicated by the arrow (i) d, (ii) e, (iii) f, (iv) g.
8.12 A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. At what distance from the earth’s
centre is the gravitational force on the rocket zero ? Mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg,
mass of the earth = 6×1024 kg. Neglect the effect of other planets etc. (orbital radius =
1.5 × 1011 m).
8.13 How will you ‘weigh the sun’, that is estimate its mass? The mean orbital radius of
the earth around the sun is 1.5 × 108 km.
8.14 A saturn year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is the saturn from the sun if the
earth is 1.50 × 108 km away from the sun ?
8.15 A body weighs 63 N on the surface of the earth. What is the gravitational force on it
due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth ?
8.16 Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform mass density, how much would a body
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202 PHYSICS
weigh half way down to the centre of the earth if it weighed 250 N on the surface ?
8.17 A rocket is fired vertically with a speed of 5 km s-1 from the earth’s surface. How far
from the earth does the rocket go before returning to the earth ? Mass of the earth
= 6.0 × 1024 kg; mean radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
8.18 The escape speed of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km s–1. A body is
projected out with thrice this speed. What is the speed of the body far away from the
earth? Ignore the presence of the sun and other planets.
8.19 A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How much
energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of the earth’s gravitational
influence? Mass of the satellite = 200 kg; mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg; radius of
the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
8.20 Two stars each of one solar mass (= 2×1030 kg) are approaching each other for a head
on collision. When they are a distance 109 km, their speeds are negligible. What is
the speed with which they collide ? The radius of each star is 104 km. Assume the
stars to remain undistorted until they collide. (Use the known value of G).
8.21 Two heavy spheres each of mass 100 kg and radius 0.10 m are placed 1.0 m apart
on a horizontal table. What is the gravitational force and potential at the mid point
of the line joining the centres of the spheres ? Is an object placed at that point in
equilibrium? If so, is the equilibrium stable or unstable ?
Additional Exercises
8.22 As you have learnt in the text, a geostationary satellite orbits the earth at a height of
nearly 36,000 km from the surface of the earth. What is the potential due to earth’s
gravity at the site of this satellite ? (Take the potential energy at infinity to be zero).
Mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg, radius = 6400 km.
8.23 A star 2.5 times the mass of the sun and collapsed to a size of 12 km rotates with a
speed of 1.2 rev. per second. (Extremely compact stars of this kind are known as
neutron stars. Certain stellar objects called pulsars belong to this category). Will an
object placed on its equator remain stuck to its surface due to gravity ? (mass of the
sun = 2×1030 kg).
8.24 A spaceship is stationed on Mars. How much energy must be expended on the
spaceship to launch it out of the solar system ? Mass of the space ship = 1000 kg;
mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg; mass of mars = 6.4×1023 kg; radius of mars = 3395 km;
radius of the orbit of mars = 2.28 ×108 km; G = 6.67×10-11 N m2 kg–2.
8.25 A rocket is fired ‘vertically’ from the surface of mars with a speed of 2 km s–1. If 20%
of its initial energy is lost due to martian atmospheric resistance, how far will the
rocket go from the surface of mars before returning to it ? Mass of mars = 6.4×1023 kg;
radius of mars = 3395 km; G = 6.67×10-11 N m2 kg–2.
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GRAVITATION 203
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204 PHYSICS
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GRAVITATION 205
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206 PHYSICS
India has so far also launched 239 foreign satellites of 28 countries from Satish Dhawan Space Center, Sriharikota,
Andhra Pradesh: May 26, 1999 (02); Oct. 22, 2001 (02); Jan. 10, 2007 (02); Apr. 23, 2007 (01); Jan. 21, 2008
(01); Apr. 28,2008 (08); Sep. 23,2009 (06); July 12, 2010 (03); Jan. 12,2011 (01);
Apr. 20, 2011 (01) Sep. 09, 2012 (02); Feb. 25, 2013 (06); June 30, 2014 (05); July 10, 2015 (05); Sep. 28,
2015 (06); Dec. 16, 2015 (06); June 22, 2016 (17); Sep. 26, 2016 (05); Feb. 15, 2017 (101) and thus setting a
world record; June 23, 2017 (29). Jan 12, 2018 (28); Sep. 16, 2018 (02).
Details can be seen at www.isro.gov.in.
aLaunched from Kapustin Yar Missile and Space Complex, Soviet Union (now Russia)
b Launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh
c Launched from Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, French Guiana
d Launched from Air Force Eastern Test Range, Florida
e Launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
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ANSWERS 207
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A 1
THE GREEK ALPHABET
APPENDIX A 2
COMMON SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES
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208 PHYSICS
APPENDIX A 3
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS
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APPENDICES 209
APPENDIX A 4
CONVERSION FACTORS
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210 PHYSICS
Energy Power
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ 1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft lbf/s
1 cal = 4.186 J = 745.7 W
–3
1ft lbf = 1.356 J = 1.286 × 10 Btu 1 Btu min–1 = 17.58 W
1 L atm = 101.325 J 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp
1 L atm = 24.217 cal = 0.7376 ft lbf/s
1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 252 cal = 1054.35 J Thermal Conductivity
–19
1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J 1 W m–1 K–1 = 6.938 Btu in/hft2 °F
1 u c2 = 931.50 MeV 1 Btu in/hft2 °F = 0.1441 W/m K
1 erg = 10–7J
APPENDIX A 5
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Geometry y x
sin θ = cos θ =
Circle of radius r: circumference = 2πr; r r
y x
area = πr2 tan θ = cot θ =
x y
Sphere of radius r: area = 4πr2;
r r
4 3 sec θ = csc θ =
volume = πr x y
3
Right circular cylinder of radius r
Pythagorean Theorem
and height h: area = 2π r 2 +2π r h;
In this right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2
2
volume = π r h ;
Triangle of base a and altitude h.
1
area = ah
2
Quadratic Formula
If ax2 + bx + c = 0,
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
then x=
2a
Trigonometric Functions of Angle θ Fig. A 5.2
Triangles
Angles are A, B, C
Opposite sides are a, b, c
Angles A + B + C = 1800
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
Fig. A 5.1 Exterior angle D = A + C
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APPENDICES 211
cos α + cos β
1 1
= 2 cos ( a + b ) cos ( a b)
2 2
cos α – cos β
1 1
= -2 sin ( a + b ) sin (a b )
Fig. A 5.3 2 2
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APPENDIX A 6
SI DERIVED UNITS
A 6.1 Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base Units
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APPENDICES 213
pascal
A 6.3 Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units with special names
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214 PHYSICS
APPENDIX A 7
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES
• Symbols for physical quantities are normally single letters and printed in italic (or sloping) type.
However, in case of the two letter symbols, appearing as a factor in a product, some spacing is
necessary to separate this symbol from other symbols.
• Abbreviations, i.e., shortened forms of names or expressions, such as p.e. for potential energy,
are not used in physical equations. These abbreviations in the text are written in ordinary
normal/roman (upright) type.
• Vectors are printed in bold and normal/roman (upright) type. However, in class room situations,
vectors may be indicated by an arrow on the top of the symbol.
• Multiplication or product of two physical quantities is written with some spacing between them.
Division of one physical quantity by another may be indicated with a horizontal bar or with
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APPENDICES 215
solidus, a slash or a short oblique stroke mark (/) or by writing it as a product of the
numerator and the inverse first power of the denominator, using brackets at appropriate
places to clearly distinguish between the numerator and the denominator.
• Symbols for chemical elements are written in normal/roman (upright) type. The symbol is
not followed by a full stop.
For example, Ca, C, H, He, U, etc.
• The attached numerals specifying a nuclide are placed as a left subscript (atomic number)
and superscript (mass number).
For example, a U-235 nuclide is expressed as 235
92 U
(with 235 expressing the mass number
and 92 as the atomic number of uranium with chemical symbol U).
• The right superscript position is used, if required, for indicating a state of ionisation (in
case of ions).
For example, Ca2+, PO34−
APPENDIX A 8
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, AND
SI PREFIXES
• Symbols for units of physical quantities are printed/written in Normal/Roman (upright) type.
• Standard and recommended symbols for units are written in lower case roman (upright)
type, starting with small letters. The shorter designations for units such as kg, m, s, cd,
etc., are symbols and not the abbreviations. The unit names are never capitalised. However,
the unit symbols are capitalised only if the symbol for a unit is derived from a proper name
of scientist, beginning with a capital, normal/roman letter.
For example, m for the unit ‘metre’, d for the unit ‘day’, atm for the unit ‘atmospheric
pressure’, Hz for the unit ‘hertz’, Wb for the unit ‘weber’, J for the unit ‘joule’, A for the unit
‘ampere’, V for the unit ‘volt’, etc. The single exception is L, which is the symbol for the
unit ‘litre’. This exception is made to avoid confusion of the lower case letter l with the
Arabic numeral l.
• Symbols for units do not contain any final full stop at the end of recommended letter and
remain unaltered in the plural, using only singular form of the unit.
For example, for a length of 25 centimetres the unit symbol is written as 25 cm
and not 25 cms or 25 cm. or 25 cms., etc.
• Use of solidus ( / ) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter unit symbol by
another unit symbol. Not more than one solidus is used.
For example :
m/s2 or m s–2 (with a spacing between m and s–2) but not m/s/s;
1 Pl =1 N s m –2 = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/s m=1 kg m–1 s–1, but not 1 kg/m/s;
J/K mol or J K–1 mol–1, but not J/K/mol; etc.
• Prefix symbols are printed in normal/roman (upright) type without spacing between the
prefix symbol and the unit symbol. Thus certain approved prefixes written very close to the
unit symbol are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of a SI unit, when it is
inconveniently small or large.
For example :
megawatt ( 1MW = 106 W); nanosecond (1 ns = 10–9 s);
–2
centimetre (1 cm = 10 m); picofarad (1 pF = 10–12 F);.
3
kilometre ( 1 km = 10 m); microsecond (1µs = 10–6 s);
–3
millivolt (1 mV= 10 V); gigahertz (1GHz = 109 Hz);
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APPENDIX A 9
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
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APPENDICES 219
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ANSWERS 223
ANSWERS
Chapter 2
2.1 (a) 10–6 ; (b) 1.5 × 104 ; (c) 5 ; (d) 11.3, 1.13 × 104.
2.2 (a) 107 ; (b) 10–16 ; (c) 3.9 × 104 ; (d) 6.67 × 10–8.
2.5 500
2.6 (c)
2.7 0.035 mm
2.9 94.1
2.10 (a) 1 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 4 ; (e) 4 ; (f) 4.
2.11 8.72 m2; 0.0855 m3
2.12 (a) 2.3 kg ; (b) 0.02 g
2.13 13%; 3.8
2.14 (b) and (c) are wrong on dimensional grounds. Hint: The argument of a trigonometric
function must always be dimensionless.
2.15 The correct formula is m = m0 (1 – v2/c2)–½
2.16 ≅ 3 × 10–7 m3
2.17 ≅ 104; intermolecular separation in a gas is much larger than the size of a molecule.
2.18 Near objects make greater angle than distant (far off) objects at the eye of the observer.
When you are moving, the angular change is less for distant objects than nearer objects.
So, these distant objects seem to move along with you, but the nearer objects in opposite
direction.
2.19 ≅ 3 × 1016 m; as a unit of length 1 parsec is defined to be equal to 3.084 × 1016 m.
2.20 1.32 parsec; 2.64″ (second of arc)
2.23 1.4 × 103 kg m-3; the mass density of the Sun is in the range of densities of liquids /
solids and not gases. This high density arises due to inward gravitational attraction
on outer layers due to inner layers of the Sun.
2.24 1.429 × 105 km
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2.25 Hint: tan θ must be dimensionless. The correct formula is tan θ = v/v ′ where v ′ is the
speed of rainfall.
2.26 Accuracy of 1 part in 1011 to 1012
2.27 ≅ 0.7 × 103 kg m–3. In the solid phase atoms are tightly packed, so the atomic mass
density is close to the mass density of the solid.
2.28 ≅ 0.3 × 1018 kg m–3 – Nuclear density is typically 1015 times atomic density of matter.
2.29 3.84 × 108 m
2.30 55.8 km
2.31 2.8 × 1022 km
2.32 3,581 km
2.33 Hint: the quantity e4/ (16 π 2 ∈20 mp me2 c3 G ) has the dimension of time.
Chapter 3
3.1 (a), (b)
3.2 (a) A....B, (b) A....B, (c) B....A, (d) Same, (e) B....A....once.
3.4 37 s
3.5 1000 km/h
3.6 3.06 m s–2 ; 11.4 s
3.7 1250 m (Hint: view the motion of B relative to A)
3.8 1 m s–2 (Hint: view the motion of B and C relative to A)
3.9 T = 9 min, speed = 40 km/h. Hint: v T / ( v – 20 ) =18; v T / ( v + 20 ) = 6
3.10 (a) Vertically downwards; (b) zero velocity, acceleration of 9.8 m s-2 downwards;
(c) x > 0 (upward and downward motion); v < 0 (upward), v > 0 (downward), a > 0
throughout; (d) 44.1 m, 6 s.
3.11 (a) True;, (b) False; (c) True (if the particle rebounds instantly with the same speed, it
implies infinite acceleration which is unphysical); (d) False (true only when the chosen
positive direction is along the direction of motion)
15 45
3.14 (a) 5 km h–1, 5 km h–1; (b) 0, 6 km h–1; (c) km h–1, km h–1
8 8
3.15 Because, for an arbitrarily small interval of time, the magnitude of displacement is equal
to the length of the path.
3.16 All the four graphs are impossible. (a) a particle cannot have two different positions at
the same time; (b) a particle cannot have velocity in opposite directions at the same
time; (c) speed is always non-negative; (d) total path length of a particle can never
decrease with time. (Note, the arrows on the graphs are meaningless).
3.17 No, wrong. x- t plot does not show the trajectory of a particle. Context: A body is dropped
from a tower (x = 0) at t = 0.
3.18 105 m s-1
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3.19 (a) A ball at rest on a smooth floor is kicked, it rebounds from a wall with reduced speed
and moves to the opposite wall which stops it; (b) A ball thrown up with some initial
velocity rebounding from the floor with reduced speed after each hit; (c) A uniformly
moving cricket ball turned back by hitting it with a bat for a very short time-interval.
3.20 x < 0, v < 0, a > 0; x > 0, v > 0, a < 0; x < 0, v > 0, a > 0.
3.21 Greatest in 3, least in 2; v > 0 in 1 and 2, v < 0 in 3.
3.22 Acceleration magnitude greatest in 2; speed greatest in 3; v > 0 in 1, 2 and 3; a > 0 in 1
and 3, a < 0 in 2; a = 0 at A, B, C, D.
3.23 A straight line inclined with the time-axis for uniformly accelerated motion; parallel to
the time- axis for uniform motion.
3.24 10 s, 10 s
3.25 (a) 13 km h–1 ; (b) 5 km h–1; (c) 20 s in either direction, viewed by any one of the parents,
the speed of the child is 9 km h–1 in either direction; answer to (c) is unaltered.
3.26 x2 – x1 = 15 t (linear part); x2 – x1 = 200 + 30 t – 5 t2 (curved part).
3.27 (a) 60 m, 6 m s-1 ; (b) 36 m, 9 m s-1
3.28 (c), (d), (f)
Chapter 4
4.1 Volume, mass, speed, density, number of moles, angular frequency are scalars; the rest
are vectors.
4.2 Work, current
4.3 Impulse
4.4 Only (c) and (d) are permissible
4.5 (a) T, (b) F, (c) F, (d) T, (e) T
4.6 Hint: The sum (difference) of any two sides of a triangle is never less (greater) than the
third side. Equality holds for collinear vectors.
4.7 All statements except (a) are correct
4.8 400 m for each; B
4.9 (a) O; (b) O; (c) 21.4 km h–1
4.10 Displacement of magnitude 1 km and direction 60o with the initial direction; total path
length = 1.5 km (third turn); null displacement vector; path length = 3 km (sixth turn);
866 m, 30o, 4 km (eighth turn)
4.11 (a) 49.3 km h–1 ; (b) 21.4 km h–1. No, the average speed equals average velocity magnitude
only for a straight path.
4.12 About 18o with the vertical, towards the south.
4.13 15 min, 750 m
4.14 East (approximately)
4.15 150.5 m
4.16 50 m
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4.17 9.9 m s-2, along the radius at every point towards the centre.
4.18 6.4 g
4.19 (a) False (true only for uniform circular motion)
(b) True, (c) True.
Chapter 5
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t = –5 s : x = u t = – 10 × 5 = –50 m
t = 25 s : x = u t + (½) a t2 = (10 × 25 – 10 × 625)m = – 6 km
t = 100 s : First consider motion up to 30 s
x1 = 10 × 30 – 10 × 900 = – 8700 m
At t = 30 s, v = 10 – 20 × 30 = –590 m s-1
For motion from 30 s to 100 s : x2 = – 590 × 70 = – 41300 m
x = x1 + x2 = – 50 km
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2
mvmax
200 = , which gives v max = 35 m s –1
R
5.22 Alternative (b) is correct, according to the First Law
5.23 (a) The horse-cart system has no external force in empty space. The mutual forces
between the horse and the cart cancel (Third Law). On the ground, the contact force
between the system and the ground (friction) causes their motion from rest.
(b) Due to inertia of the body not directly in contact with the seat.
(c) A lawn mower is pulled or pushed by applying force at an angle. When you push, the
normal force (N ) must be more than its weight, for equilibrium in the vertical direction.
This results in greater friction f ( f ∝ N ) and, therefore, a greater applied force to move.
Just the opposite happens while pulling.
(d) To reduce the rate of change of momentum and hence to reduce the force necessary
to stop the ball.
5.24 A body with a constant speed of 1 cm s -1 receives impulse of magnitude
0.04 kg × 0.02 m s–1 = 8 × 10–4 kg m s–1 after every 2 s from the walls at x = 0 and
x = 2 cm.
5.25 Net force = 65 kg × 1 m s–2 = 65 N
amax = µs g = 2 m s–2
5.26 Alternative (a) is correct. Note mg + T2 = mv22/R ; T1 – mg = mv12/R
The moral is : do not confuse the actual material forces on a body (tension, gravitational
force, etc) with the effects they produce : centripetal acceleration v22/R or v12/R in this
example.
5.27 (a) ‘Free body’ : crew and passengers
Force on the system by the floor = F upwards; weight of system = mg downwards;
∴ F – mg = ma
F – 300 × 10 = 300 × 15
F = 7.5 × 103 N upward
By the Third Law, force on the floor by the crew and passengers = 7.5 × 103 N downwards.
(b) ‘Free body’ : helicopter plus the crew and passengers
Force by air on the system = R upwards; weight of system = mg downwards
∴ R – mg = ma
R – 1300 × 10 = 1300 × 15
R = 3.25 × 104 N upwards
By the Third Law, force (action) on the air by the helicopter = 3.25 × 104 N downwards.
(c) 3.25 × 104 N upwards
5.28 Mass of water hitting the wall per second
= 103 kg m–3 × 10–2 m2 × 15 m s–1 = 150 kg s –1
Force by the wall = momentum loss of water per second = 150 kg s–1 × 15 m s-1 = 2.25
× 103 N
5.29 (a) 3 m g (down) (b) 3 m g (down) (c) 4 m g (up)
5.30 If N is the normal force on the wings,
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mv 2
N cos θ = mg, N sin θ =
R
v2 200 × 200
which give R = = = 15km
g tan θ 10 × tan15°
5.31 The centripetal force is provided by the lateral thrust by the rail on the flanges of the
wheels. By the Third Law, the train exerts an equal and opposite thrust on the rail
causing its wear and tear.
–1 v
2
–1 15 × 15
Angle of banking = tan = tan 37°
R g 30 × 10
5.32 Consider the forces on the man in equilibrium : his weight, force due to the rope and
normal force due to the floor.
(a) 750 N (b) 250 N; mode (b) should be adopted.
5.33 (a) T – 400 = 240, T = 640 N
(b) 400 – T = 160, T = 240 N
(c) T = 400 N
(d) T = 0
The rope will break in case (a).
5.34 We assume perfect contact between bodies A and B and the rigid partition. In that
case, the self-adjusting normal force on B by the partition (reaction) equals 200 N.
There is no impending motion and no friction. The action-reaction forces between A
and B are also 200 N. When the partition is removed, kinetic friction comes into play.
Acceleration of A + B = [ 200 – ( 150 × 0.15 ) ] / 15 =11.8 m s–2
Friction on A = 0.15 × 50 = 7.5 N
200 – 7.5 – FAB = 5 × 11.8
FAB = 1.3 × 102 N; opposite to motion .
FBA = 1.3 × 102 N; in the direction of motion.
5.35 (a) Maximum frictional force possible for opposing impending relative motion between
the block and the trolley = 150 × 0.18 = 27 N, which is more than the frictional force of
15 × 0.5 = 7.5 N needed to accelerate the box with the trolley. When the trolley moves
with uniform velocity, there is no force of friction acting on the block.
(b) For the accelerated (non-inertial) observer, frictional force is opposed by the pseudo-
force of the same magnitude, keeping the box at rest relative to the observer. When the
trolley moves with uniform velocity there is no pseudo-force for the moving (inertial)
observer and no friction.
5.36 Acceleration of the box due to friction = µg = 0.15 × 10 = 1.5 m s–2. But the acceleration
of the truck is greater. The acceleration of the box relative to the truck is 0.5 m s-2
towards the rear end. The time taken for the box to fall off the truck = 2×5
= 20 s .
0.5
During this time, the truck covers a distance = ½ × 2 × 20 = 20 m.
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5.37 For the coin to revolve with the disc, the force of friction should be enough to provide the
mv 2 2π
necessary centripetal force, i.e ≤ µ m g . Now v = rω, where ω = is the angular
r T
frequency of the disc. For a given µ and ω, the condition is r ≤ µg / ω2. The condition is
satisfied by the nearer coin ( 4 cm from the centre).
mv 2
5.38 At the uppermost point, N + mg = , where N is the normal force (downwards) on the
R
motorcyclist by the ceiling of the chamber. The minimum possible speed at the uppermost
point corresponds to N = 0.
i.e. v min = Rg = 25 × 10 = 16 m s –1
5.39 The horizontal force N by the wall on the man provides the needed centripetal force : N
= m R ω2. The frictional force f (vertically upwards) opposes the weight mg. The man
remains stuck to the wall after the floor is removed if mg = f < µ N i.e. mg < µ m R ω2. The
minimum angular speed of rotation of the cylinder is ω min = g / µR = 5 s–1
5.40 Consider the free-body diagram of the bead when the radius vector joining the centre of
the wire makes an angle θ with the vertical downward direction. We have
mg = N cos θ and m R sin θ ω2 = N sin θ. These equations give cos θ = g/Rω2. Since cos θ ≤ 1,
g
the bead remains at its lowermost point for ω ≤ .
R
2g 1
For ω = , cos θ = i.e. θ = 60 0 .
R 2
Chapter 6
6.9 (b) t
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Chapter 7
7.1 The geometrical centre of each. No, the CM may lie outside the body, as in case of a
ring, a hollow sphere, a hollow cylinder, a hollow cube etc.
7.2 Located on the line joining H and C1 nuclei at a distance of 1.24 Å from the H end.
7.3 The speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system remains unchanged (equal to v)
because no external force acts on the system. The forces involved in running on the
trolley are internal to this system.
7.6 lz = xpy – ypx, lx = ypz – zpy, ly = zpx – xpz
7.8 72 cm
7.9 3675 N on each front wheel, 5145 N on each back wheel.
7.10 (a) 7/5 MR2 (b) 3/2 MR2
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7.11 Sphere
7.12 Kinetic Energy = 3125 J; Angular Momentum = 62.5 J s
7.13 (a) 100 rev/min (use angular momentum conservation).
(b) The new kinetic energy is 2.5 times the initial kinetic energy of rotation. The child
uses his internal energy to increase his rotational kinetic energy.
7.14 25 s-2; 10 m s-2
7.15 36 kW
7.16 at R/6 from the center of original disc opposite to the center of cut portion.
7.17 66.0 g
7.18 (a) Yes; (b) Yes, (c) the plane with smaller inclination (äa α sin θ)
7.19 4J
7.20 6.75×1012 rad s–1
7.21 (a) 3.8 m (b) 3.0 s
7.22 Tension = 98 N, NB = 245 N, NC = 147 N.
7.23 (a) 59 rev/min, (b) No, the K.E. is increased and it comes from work done by man in
the process.
7.24 0.625 rad s–1
7.27 (a) By angular momentum conservation, the common angular speed
ω = (I1 ω1 + I2 ω2) / (I1 + I2)
(b) The loss is due to energy dissipation in frictional contact which brings the two
discs to a common angular speed ω. However, since frictional torques are internal
to the system, angular momentum is unaltered.
7.28 Velocity of A = ωo R in the same direction as the arrow; velocity of B = ωo R in the
opposite direction to the arrow; velocity of C = ωo R/2 in the same direction as the
arrow. The disc will not roll on a frictionless plane.
7.29 (a) Frictional force at B opposes velocity of B. Therefore, frictional force is in the same
direction as the arrow. The sense of frictional torque is such as to oppose angular
motion. ωo and τ are both normal to the paper, the first into the paper, and the second
coming out of the paper.
(b) Frictional force decreases the velocity of the point of contact B. Perfect rolling
ensues when this velocity is zero. Once this is so, the force of friction is zero.
7.30 Frictional force causes the CM to accelerate from its initial zero velocity. Frictional
torque causes retardation in the initial angular speed ωo. The equations of motion are
: µk m g = m a and µk m g R = – Iα, which yield v = µk g t, ω = ωo – µk m g R t / I. Rolling
begins when v = R ω. For a ring, I = m R2, and rolling begins at t = ωo R/2 µk g. For a
disc, I = ½ m R2 and rolling starts at break line t = R ωo/3 µk g. Thus, the disc begins to
roll earlier than the ring, for the same R and ωo. The actual times can be obtained for
R = 10 cm, ωo = 10 π rad s–1, µk = 0.2
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8.1 (a ) No.
(b) Yes, if the size of the space ship is large enough for him to detect the variation in g.
(c) Tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance unlike force, which depends
inversely on the square of the distance.
8.2 (a) decreases; (b) decreases; (c) mass of the body; (d) more.
8.3 Smaller by a factor of 0.63.
8.5 3.54 × 108 years.
8.6 (a) Kinetic energy, (b) less,
8.7 (a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d) Yes
[The escape velocity is independent of mass of the body and the direction of projection.
It depends upon the gravitational potential at the point from where the body is launched.
Since this potential depends (slightly) on the latitude and height of the point, the escape
velocity (speed) depends (slightly) on these factors.]
8.8 All quantities vary over an orbit except angular momentum and total energy.
8.10 and 8.11 For these two problems, complete the hemisphere to sphere. At both P, and C,
potential is constant and hence intensity = 0. Therefore, for the hemisphere, (c) and (e)
are correct.
P C
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PART II
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI
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CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
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Published at the Publication Division by the Production Assistant : Prakash Veer Singh
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110 020
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FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change is school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to
teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how
effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience,
rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address
the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at
different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available
for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher
priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science
and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor A.W. Joshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor
Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in
the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will
enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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PREFACE
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vi
meanings with their physics meanings. Physics develops intricate and often weird-
looking concepts to explain the behaviour of particles. Finally, it must be
remembered that entire physics is based on observations and experiments, without
which a theory does not get acceptance into the domain of physics.
This book has some features which, we earnestly hope, will enhance its
usefulness for the students. Each chapter is provided with a Summary at its end
for a quick overview of the contents of the chapter. This is followed by Points to
Ponder which points out the likely misconceptions arising in the minds of students,
hidden implications of certain statements/principles given in the chapter and
cautions needed in applying the knowledge gained from the chapter. They also
raise some thought-provoking questions which would make a student think about
life beyond physics. Students will find it interesting to think and apply their mind
on these points. Further, a large number of solved examples are included in the
text in order to clarify the concepts and/or to illustrate the application of these
concepts in everyday real-life situations. Occasionally, historical perspective has
been included to share the excitement of sequential development of the subject of
physics. Some Boxed items are introduced in many chapters either for this purpose
or to highlight some special features of the contents requiring additional attention
of the learners. Finally, a Subject Index has been added at the end of the book for
ease in locating keywords in the book.
The special nature of physics demands, apart from conceptual understanding,
the knowledge of certain conventions, basic mathematical tools, numerical values
of important physical constants, and systems of measurement units covering a
vast range from microscopic to galactic levels. In order to equip the students, we
have included the necessary tools and database in the form of Appendices A-1 to
A-9 at the end of the book. There are also some other appendices at the end of
some chapters giving additional information or applications of matter discussed in
that chapter.
Special attention has been paid for providing illustrative figures. To increase
the clarity, the figures are drawn in two colours. A large number of Exercises are
given at the end of each chapter. Some of these are from real-life situations. Students
are urged to solve these and in doing so, they may find them very educative. Moreover,
some Additional Exercises are given which are more challenging. Answers and
hints to solve some of these are also included. In the entire book, SI units have been
used. A comprehensive account of ‘units and measurement’ is given in Chapter 2 as a
part of prescribed syllabus/curriculum as well as a help in their pursuit of physics.
A box-item in this chapter brings out the difficulty in measuring as simple a thing as
the length of a long curved line. Tables of SI base units and other related units are
given here merely to indicate the presently accepted definitions and to indicate the
high degree of accuracy with which measurements are possible today. The numbers
given here are not to be memorised or asked in examinations.
There is a perception among students, teachers, as well as the general public
that there is a steep gradient between secondary and higher secondary stages.
But a little thought shows that it is bound to be there in the present scenario of
education. Education up to secondary stage is general education where a student
has to learn several subjects – sciences, social sciences, mathematics, languages,
at an elementary level. Education at the higher secondary stage and beyond, borders
on acquiring professional competence, in some chosen fields of endeavour. You
may like to compare this with the following situation. Children play cricket or
badminton in lanes and small spaces outside (or inside) their homes. But then
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vii
some of them want to make it to the school team, then district team, then State
team and then the National team. At every stage, there is bound to be a steep
gradient. Hard work would have to be put in whether students want to pursue
their education in the area of sciences, humanities, languages, music, fine arts,
commerce, finance, architecture, or if they want to become sportspersons or fashion
designers.
Completing this book has only been possible because of the spontaneous
and continuous support of many people. The Textbook Development Team is
thankful to Dr. V. H. Raybagkar for allowing us to use his box item in Chapter
4 and to Dr. F. I. Surve for allowing us to use two of his box items in Chapter 15.
We express also our gratitude to the Director, NCERT, for entrusting us with
the task of preparing this textbook as a part of national effort for improving
science education. The Head, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, was always willing to help us in our endeavour in every
possible way.
The previous text got excellent academic inputs from teachers, students and
experts who sincerely suggested improvement during the past few years. We are
thankful to all those who conveyed these inputs to NCERT. We are also thankful to
the members of the Review Workshop and Editing Workshop organised to discuss
and refine the first draft. We thank the Chairmen and their teams of authors for
the text written by them in 1988, which provided the base and reference for
developing the 2002 version as well as the present version of the textbook.
Occasionally, substantial portions from the earlier versions, particularly those
appreciated by students/teachers, have been adopted/adapted and retained in
the present book for the benefit of coming generation of learners.
We welcome suggestions and comments from our valued users, especially
students and teachers. We wish our young readers a happy journey to the exciting
realm of physics.
A. W. JOSHI
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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CHIEF ADVISOR
A.W. Joshi, Professor, Honorary Visiting Scientist, NCRA, Pune (Formerly at
Department of Physics, University of Pune)
MEMBERS
Anuradha Mathur, PGT , Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, Lodhi Road,
New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education, Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, V.N. Purav Marg, Mankhurd, Mumbai
N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Srivastava, Professor (Retd.), Director, CSEC, University of Delhi, Delhi
P.K. Mohanty, PGT, Sainik School, Bhubaneswar
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Sachivalaya Marg,
Bhubaneswar
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S. Rai Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of
Delhi, Delhi
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sher Singh, PGT, Lodhi Road, New Delhi
S.N. Prabhakara, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Mysore
Thiyam Jekendra Singh, Professor, Department of Physics, University of Manipur, Imphal
V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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COVER DESIGN
(Adapted from the website of the Nobel Foundation
http://www.nobelprize.org)
BACK COVER
(Adapted from the website of the ISRO
http://www.isro.gov.in)
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To make the curriculum learner-centred, students should be made to participate and interact
in the learning process directly. Once a week or one out of every six classes would be a good
periodicity for such seminars and mutual interaction. Some suggestions for making the discussion
participatory are given below, with reference to some specific topics in this book.
Students may be divided into groups of five to six. The membership of these groups may be
rotated during the year, if felt necessary.
The topic for discussion can be presented on the board or on slips of paper. Students should
be asked to write their reactions or answers to questions, whichever is asked, on the given
sheets. They should then discuss in their groups and add modifications or comments in those
sheets. These should be discussed either in the same or in a different class. The sheets may also
be evaluated.
We suggest here three possible topics from the book. The first two topics suggested are, in
fact, very general and refer to the development of science over the past four centuries or more.
Students and teachers may think of more such topics for each seminar.
1. Ideas that changed civilisation
Suppose human beings are becoming extinct. A message has to be left for future generations or
alien visitors. Eminent physicist R P Feynmann wanted the following message left for future
beings, if any.
“Matter is made up of atoms”
A lady student and teacher of literature, wanted the following message left:
“Water existed, so human beings could happen”.
Another person thought it should be: “Idea of wheel for motion”
Write down what message each one of you would like to leave for future generations. Then
discuss it in your group and add or modify, if you want to change your mind. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that follows.
2. Reductionism
Kinetic Theory of Gases relates the Big to the Small, the Macro to the Micro. A gas as a system
is related to its components, the molecules. This way of describing a system as a result of the
properties of its components is usually called Reductionism. It explains the behaviour of the
group by the simpler and predictable behaviour of individuals. Macroscopic observations and
microscopic properties have a mutual interdependence in this approach. Is this method useful?
This way of understanding has its limitations outside physics and chemistry, may be even
in these subjects. A painting cannot be discussed as a collection of the properties of chemicals
used in making the canvas and the painting. What emerges is more than the sum of its
components.
Question: Can you think of other areas where such an approach is used?
Describe briefly a system which is fully describable in terms of its components. Describe
one which is not. Discuss with other members of the group and write your views. Give it to your
teacher and join in any discussion that may follow.
3. Molecular approach to heat
Describe what you think will happen in the following case. An enclosure is separated by a
porous wall into two parts. One is filled with nitrogen gas (N2) and the other with CO2. Gases
will diffuse from one side to the other.
Question 1: Will both gases diffuse to the same extent? If not, which will diffuse more. Give
reasons.
Question 2: Will the pressure and temperature be unchanged? If not, what will be the changes
in both. Give reasons.
Write down your answers. Discuss with the group and modify them or add comments.
Give to the teacher and join in the discussion.
Students and teachers will find that such seminars and discussions lead to tremendous
understanding, not only of physics, but also of science and social sciences. They also bring in
some maturity among students.
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CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL WORLD 1
CHAPTER 2
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 16
CHAPTER 3
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 39
CHAPTER 4
MOTION IN A PLANE 65
CHAPTER 5
LAWS OF MOTION 89
CHAPTER 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 114
CHAPTER 7
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 141
CHAPTER 8
GRAVITATION 183
APPENDICES 207
ANSWERS 223
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
PREFACE v
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS xi
C H A P T E R 9
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
9.1 Introduction 235
9.2 Elastic behaviour of solids 236
9.3 Stress and strain 236
9.4 Hooke’s law 238
9.5 Stress-strain curve 238
9.6 Elastic moduli 239
9.7 Applications of elastic behaviour of materials 244
C H A P T E R 10
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
10.1 Introduction 250
10.2 Pressure 250
10.3 Streamline flow 257
10.4 Bernoulli’s principle 258
10.5 Viscosity 262
10.6 Surface tension 264
C H A P T E R 11
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
11.1 Introduction 278
11.2 Temperature and heat 278
11.3 Measurement of temperature 279
11.4 Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature 279
11.5 Thermal expansion 280
11.6 Specific heat capacity 284
11.7 Calorimetry 285
11.8 Change of state 286
11.9 Heat transfer 290
11.10 Newton’s law of cooling 296
C H A P T E R 12
THERMODYNAMICS
12.1 Introduction 303
12.2 Thermal equilibrium 304
12.3 Zeroth law of thermodynamics 305
12.4 Heat, internal energy and work 306
12.5 First law of thermodynamics 307
12.6 Specific heat capacity 308
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xiv
C H A P T E R 13
KINETIC THEORY
13.1 Introduction 323
13.2 Molecular nature of matter 323
13.3 Behaviour of gases 325
13.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas 328
13.5 Law of equipartition of energy 332
13.6 Specific heat capacity 333
13.7 Mean free path 335
C H A P T E R 14
OSCILLATIONS
14.1 Introduction 341
14.2 Periodic and oscilatory motions 342
14.3 Simple harmonic motion 344
14.4 Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion 346
14.5 Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion 348
14.6 Force law for simple harmonic motion 349
14.7 Energy in simple harmonic motion 350
14.8 Some systems executing Simple Harmonic Motion 352
14.9 Damped simple harmonic motion 355
14.10 Forced oscillations and resonance 357
C H A P T E R 15
WAVES
15.1 Introduction 367
15.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves 369
15.3 Displacement relation in a progressive wave 370
15.4 The speed of a travelling wave 373
15.5 The principle of superposition of waves 376
15.6 Reflection of waves 378
15.7 Beats 382
15.8 Doppler effect 384
ANSWERS 395
BIBLIOGRAPHY 405
INDEX 407
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CHAPTER NINE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 7, we studied the rotation of the bodies and then
realised that the motion of a body depends on how mass is
9.1 Introduction distributed within the body. We restricted ourselves to simpler
9.2 Elastic behaviour of solids situations of rigid bodies. A rigid body generally means a
9.3 Stress and strain hard solid object having a definite shape and size. But in
9.4 Hooke’s law reality, bodies can be stretched, compressed and bent. Even
9.5 Stress-strain curve the appreciably rigid steel bar can be deformed when a
9.6 Elastic moduli sufficiently large external force is applied on it. This means
9.7 Applications of elastic that solid bodies are not perfectly rigid.
behaviour of materials A solid has definite shape and size. In order to change (or
deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required. If
Summary
you stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the
Points to ponder
length of the spring increases slightly. When you leave the
Exercises
ends of the spring, it regains its original size and shape. The
Additional exercises property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its
original size and shape when the applied force is removed, is
known as elasticity and the deformation caused is known
as elastic deformation. However, if you apply force to a lump
of putty or mud, they have no gross tendency to regain their
previous shape, and they get permanently deformed. Such
substances are called plastic and this property is called
plasticity. Putty and mud are close to ideal plastics.
The elastic behaviour of materials plays an important role
in engineering design. For example, while designing a
building, knowledge of elastic properties of materials like steel,
concrete etc. is essential. The same is true in the design of
bridges, automobiles, ropeways etc. One could also ask —
Can we design an aeroplane which is very light but
sufficiently strong? Can we design an artificial limb which
is lighter but stronger? Why does a railway track have a
particular shape like I? Why is glass brittle while brass is
not? Answers to such questions begin with the study of how
relatively simple kinds of loads or forces act to deform
different solids bodies. In this chapter, we shall study the
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elastic behaviour and mechanical properties of elasticity, now called Hooke’s law. We shall
solids which would answer many such study about it in Section 9.4. This law, like
questions. Boyle’s law, is one of the earliest quantitative
relationships in science. It is very important to
9.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS know the behaviour of the materials under
various kinds of load from the context of
We know that in a solid, each atom or molecule
engineering design.
is surrounded by neighbouring atoms or
molecules. These are bonded together by
9.3 STRESS AND STRAIN
interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay
in a stable equilibrium position. When a solid is When forces are applied on a body in such a
deformed, the atoms or molecules are displaced manner that the body is still in static equilibrium,
from their equilibrium positions causing a it is deformed to a small or large extent depending
change in the interatomic (or intermolecular) upon the nature of the material of the body and
distances. When the deforming force is removed, the magnitude of the deforming force. The
the interatomic forces tend to drive them back deformation may not be noticeable visually in
to their original positions. Thus the body regains many materials but it is there. When a body is
its original shape and size. The restoring subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force
mechanism can be visualised by taking a model is developed in the body. This restoring force is
of spring-ball system shown in the Fig. 9.1. Here equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to
the balls represent atoms and springs represent the applied force. The restoring force per unit area
interatomic forces. is known as stress. If F is the force applied normal
to the cross–section and A is the area of cross
section of the body,
Magnitude of the stress = F/A (9.1)
The SI unit of stress is N m–2 or pascal (Pa)
and its dimensional formula is [ ML–1T–2 ].
There are three ways in which a solid may
change its dimensions when an external force
acts on it. These are shown in Fig. 9.2. In
Fig.9.2(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal
forces applied normal to its cross-sectional area.
The restoring force per unit area in this case
is called tensile stress. If the cylinder is
compressed under the action of applied forces,
the restoring force per unit area is known as
compressive stress. Tensile or compressive
stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress.
In both the cases, there is a change in the
length of the cylinder. The change in the length
Fig. 9.1 Spring-ball model for the illustration of elastic ∆L to the original length L of the body (cylinder
behaviour of solids. in this case) is known as longitudinal strain.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 237
Robert Hooke
(1635 – 1703 A.D.)
Robert Hooke was born on July 18, 1635 in Freshwater, Isle of Wight. He was
one of the most brilliant and versatile seventeenth century English scientists.
He attended Oxford University but never graduated. Yet he was an extremely
talented inventor, instrument-maker and building designer. He assisted Robert
Boyle in the construction of Boylean air pump. In 1662, he was appointed as
Curator of Experiments to the newly founded Royal Society. In 1665, he became
Professor of Geometry in Gresham College where he carried out his astronomi-
cal observations. He built a Gregorian reflecting telescope; discovered the fifth
star in the trapezium and an asterism in the constellation Orion; suggested that
Jupiter rotates on its axis; plotted detailed sketches of Mars which were later
used in the 19th century to determine the planet’s rate of rotation; stated the
inverse square law to describe planetary motion, which Newton modified later
etc. He was elected Fellow of Royal Society and also served as the Society’s
Secretary from 1667 to 1682. In his series of observations presented in Micrographia, he suggested
wave theory of light and first used the word ‘cell’ in a biological context as a result of his studies of cork.
Robert Hooke is best known to physicists for his discovery of law of elasticity: Ut tensio, sic vis (This
is a Latin expression and it means as the distortion, so the force). This law laid the basis for studies of
stress and strain and for understanding the elastic materials.
As a result of applied tangential force, there It can also be visualised, when a book is
is a relative displacement ∆x between opposite pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally,
faces of the cylinder as shown in the Fig. 9.2(b). as shown in Fig. 9.2 (c).
The strain so produced is known as shearing Thus, shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ (9.4)
strain and it is defined as the ratio of relative In Fig. 9.2 (d), a solid sphere placed in the
displacement of the faces ∆x to the length of fluid under high pressure is compressed
the cylinder L. uniformly on all sides. The force applied by the
fluid acts in perpendicular direction at each
∆x point of the surface and the body is said to be
Shearing strain = = tan θ (9.3) under hydraulic compression. This leads to
L
decrease in its volume without any change of
where θ is the angular displacement of the its geometrical shape.
cylinder from the vertical (original position of The body develops internal restoring forces
the cylinder). Usually θ is very small, tan θ that are equal and opposite to the forces applied
is nearly equal to angle θ , (if θ = 10°, for by the fluid (the body restores its original shape
example, there is only 1% difference between θ and size when taken out from the fluid). The
and tan θ). internal restoring force per unit area in this case
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is known as hydraulic stress and in magnitude The body regains its original dimensions when
is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force the applied force is removed. In this region, the
per unit area). solid behaves as an elastic body.
The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure
is called volume strain and is defined as the
ratio of change in volume (∆V) to the original
volume (V ).
∆V
Volume strain = (9.5)
V
Since the strain is a ratio of change in
dimension to the original dimension, it has no
units or dimensional formula.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 239
Y = (F/A)/(∆L/L)
= (F × L) /(A × ∆L) (9.8)
Fig. 9.4 Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the
Aorta, the large tube (vessel) carrying blood unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of
from the heart. stress i.e., N m–2 or Pascal (Pa). Table 9.1 gives
does not obey Hooke’s law over most of the the values of Young’s moduli and yield strengths
region. Secondly, there is no well defined plastic of some material.
region. Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber From the data given in Table 9.1, it is noticed
etc. which can be stretched to cause large strains that for metals Young’s moduli are large.
are called elastomers. Therefore, these materials require a large force
to produce small change in length. To increase
9.6 ELASTIC MODULI the length of a thin steel wire of 0.1 cm2 cross-
sectional area by 0.1%, a force of 2000 N is
The proportional region within the elastic limit required. The force required to produce the same
of the stress-strain curve (region OA in Fig. 9.3) strain in aluminium, brass and copper wires
is of great importance for structural and having the same cross-sectional area are 690 N,
manufacturing engineering designs. The ratio 900 N and 1100 N respectively. It means that
of stress and strain, called modulus of elasticity, steel is more elastic than copper, brass and
is found to be a characteristic of the material. aluminium. It is for this reason that steel is
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preferred in heavy-duty machines and in where the subscripts c and s refer to copper
structural designs. Wood, bone, concrete and and stainless steel respectively. Or,
glass have rather small Young’s moduli. ∆Lc/∆Ls = (Ys/Yc) × (Lc/Ls)
Given Lc = 2.2 m, Ls = 1.6 m,
u Example 9.1 A structural steel rod has a From Table 9.1 Yc = 1.1 × 1011 N.m–2, and
radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A Ys = 2.0 × 1011 N.m–2.
100 kN force stretches it along its length. ∆Lc/∆Ls = (2.0 × 10 /1.1 × 1011) × (2.2/1.6) = 2.5.
11
Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation, and (c) The total elongation is given to be
strain on the rod. Young’s modulus, of ∆Lc + ∆Ls = 7.0 × 10-4 m
structural steel is 2.0 × 1011 N m-2. Solving the above equations,
∆Lc = 5.0 × 10-4 m, and ∆Ls = 2.0 × 10-4 m.
Answer We assume that the rod is held by a Therefore
clamp at one end, and the force F is applied at W = (A × Yc × ∆Lc)/Lc
the other end, parallel to the length of the rod. = π (1.5 × 10-3)2 × [(5.0 × 10-4 × 1.1 × 1011)/2.2]
Then the stress on the rod is given by = 1.8 × 102 N t
F F
Stress = = 2
u Example 9.3 In a human pyramid in a
A πr circus, the entire weight of the balanced
100 × 10 N
3 group is supported by the legs of a
= 2 performer who is lying on his back (as
3.14 × 10 ( −2
m ) shown in Fig. 9.5). The combined mass of
= 3.18 × 108 N m–2 all the persons performing the act, and the
The elongation, tables, plaques etc. involved is 280 kg. The
mass of the performer lying on his back at
( F/A ) L the bottom of the pyramid is 60 kg. Each
∆L =
Y thighbone (femur) of this performer has a
length of 50 cm and an effective radius of
(3.18 × 10 8
N m
–2
) (1m ) 2.0 cm. Determine the amount by which
each thighbone gets compressed under the
= 11 –2
2 × 10 N m extra load.
= 1.59 × 10–3 m
= 1.59 mm
The strain is given by
Strain = ∆L/L
= (1.59 × 10–3 m)/(1m)
= 1.59 × 10–3
= 0.16 % t
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 241
Answer Total mass of all the performers, tables, will be accompanied by an equal change in
plaques etc. = 280 kg experimental wire. (We shall study these
Mass of the performer = 60 kg temperature effects in detail in Chapter 11.)
Mass supported by the legs of the performer
at the bottom of the pyramid
= 280 – 60 = 220 kg
Weight of this supported mass
= 220 kg wt. = 220 × 9.8 N = 2156 N.
Weight supported by each thighbone of the
performer = ½ (2156) N = 1078 N.
From Table 9.1, the Young’s modulus for bone
is given by
Y = 9.4 × 109 N m–2.
Length of each thighbone L = 0.5 m
the radius of thighbone = 2.0 cm
Thus the cross-sectional area of the thighbone
A = π × (2 × 10-2)2 m2 = 1.26 × 10-3 m2.
Using Eq. (9.8), the compression in each
thighbone (∆L) can be computed as
∆L = [(F × L)/(Y × A)]
= [(1078 × 0.5)/(9.4 × 109 × 1.26 × 10-3)]
= 4.55 × 10-5 m or 4.55 × 10-3 cm.
This is a very small change! The fractional
decrease in the thighbone is ∆L/L = 0.000091
or 0.0091%. t
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 243
Table 9.3 Bulk moduli (B) of some common Gases have large compressibilities, which vary
Materials with pressure and temperature. The
incompressibility of the solids is primarily due
Material B (109 N m–2 or GPa) to the tight coupling between the neighbouring
Solids atoms. The molecules in liquids are also bound
Aluminium 72 with their neighbours but not as strong as in
Brass 61 solids. Molecules in gases are very poorly
coupled to their neighbours.
Copper 140
Table 9.4 shows the various types of stress,
Glass 37 strain, elastic moduli, and the applicable state
Iron 100 of matter at a glance.
Nickel 260
u Example 9.5 The average depth of Indian
Steel 160
Ocean is about 3000 m. Calculate the
Liquids fractional compression, ∆V/V, of water at
Water 2.2 the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk
Ethanol 0.9 modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 N m–2. (Take
Carbon disulphide 1.56 g = 10 m s–2)
Glycerine 4.76
Answer The pressure exerted by a 3000 m
Mercury 25 column of water on the bottom layer
Gases p = hρ g = 3000 m × 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2
Air (at STP) 1.0 × 10–4 = 3 × 107 kg m–1 s-2
= 3 × 107 N m–2
Thus, solids are the least compressible, whereas, Fractional compression ∆V/V, is
gases are the most compressible. Gases are about ∆V/V = stress/B = (3 × 107 N m-2)/(2.2 × 109 N m–2)
a million times more compressible than solids! = 1.36 × 10-2 or 1.36 % t
Shearing Two equal and Pure shear, θ Yes No G = F/(A×θ) Shear Solid
(σs = F/A) opposite forces modulus
parallel to oppoiste or modulus
surfaces forces of rigidity
in each case such
that total force and
total torque on the
body vanishes
Hydraulic Forces perpendicular Volume change No Yes B = –p/(∆V/V) Bulk Solid, liquid
everywhere to the (compression or modulus and gas
surface, force per elongation)
unit area (pressure) (∆V/V)
same everywhere.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 245
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due to gravity. The material at the bottom 30 × 107 N m-2. Equating this to hρg, with
experiences this force in the vertical direction, ρ = 3 × 103 kg m-3 gives
and the sides of the mountain are free. Therefore, hρg = 30 × 107 N m-2 .
this is not a case of pressure or bulk compression. h = 30 × 107 N m-2/(3 × 103 kg m-3 × 10 m s-2)
There is a shear component, approximately hρg = 10 km
itself. Now the elastic limit for a typical rock is which is more than the height of Mt. Everest!
SUMMARY
1. Stress is the restoring force per unit area and strain is the fractional change in dimension.
In general there are three types of stresses (a) tensile stress — longitudinal stress
(associated with stretching) or compressive stress (associated with compression),
(b) shearing stress, and (c) hydraulic stress.
2. For small deformations, stress is directly proportional to the strain for many materials.
This is known as Hooke’s law. The constant of proportionality is called modulus of
elasticity. Three elastic moduli viz., Young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus
are used to describe the elastic behaviour of objects as they respond to deforming forces
that act on them.
A class of solids called elastomers does not obey Hooke’s law.
3. When an object is under tension or compression, the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = Y∆L/L
where ∆L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is the magnitude of the
applied force causing the strain, A is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied
(perpendicular to A) and Y is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A.
4. A pair of forces when applied parallel to the upper and lower faces, the solid deforms so
that the upper face moves sideways with respect to the lower. The horizontal displacement
∆L of the upper face is perpendicular to the vertical height L. This type of deformation is
called shear and the corresponding stress is the shearing stress. This type of stress is
possible only in solids.
In this kind of deformation the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = G × ∆L/L
where ∆L is the displacement of one end of object in the direction of the applied force F,
and G is the shear modulus.
5. When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding
fluid, the Hooke’s law takes the form
p = B (∆V/V),
where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid, ∆V/V (the
volume strain) is the absolute fractional change in the object’s volume due to that
pressure and B is the bulk modulus of the object.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. In the case of a wire, suspended from celing and stretched under the action of a weight (F)
suspended from its other end, the force exerted by the ceiling on it is equal and opposite
to the weight. However, the tension at any cross-section A of the wire is just F and not
2F. Hence, tensile stress which is equal to the tension per unit area is equal to F/A.
2. Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear part of stress-strain curve.
3. The Young’s modulus and shear modulus are relevant only for solids since only solids
have lengths and shapes.
4. Bulk modulus is relevant for solids, liquid and gases. It refers to the change in volume
when every part of the body is under the uniform stress so that the shape of the body
remains unchanged.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 247
5. Metals have larger values of Young’s modulus than alloys and elastomers. A material
with large value of Young’s modulus requires a large force to produce small changes in
its length.
6. In daily life, we feel that a material which stretches more is more elastic, but it a is
misnomer. In fact material which stretches to a lesser extent for a given load is considered
to be more elastic.
7. In general, a deforming force in one direction can produce strains in other directions
also. The proportionality between stress and strain in such situations cannot be described
by just one elastic constant. For example, for a wire under longitudinal strain, the
lateral dimensions (radius of cross section) will undergo a small change, which is described
by another elastic constant of the material (called Poisson ratio).
8. Stress is not a vector quantity since, unlike a force, the stress cannot be assigned a
specific direction. Force acting on the portion of a body on a specified side of a section
has a definite direction.
EXERCISES
9.1 A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-sectional area 3.0 × 10-5 m2 stretches by the same
amount as a copper wire of length 3.5 m and cross-sectional area of 4.0 × 10–5 m2 under
a given load. What is the ratio of the Young’s modulus of steel to that of copper?
9.2 Figure 9.11 shows the strain-stress curve for a given material. What are (a) Young’s
modulus and (b) approximate yield strength for this material?
Fig. 9.11
9.3 The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in Fig. 9.12.
Fig. 9.12
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9.4 Read the following two statements below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true
or false.
(a) The Young’s modulus of rubber is greater than that of steel;
(b) The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus.
9.5 Two wires of diameter 0.25 cm, one made of steel and the other made of brass are
loaded as shown in Fig. 9.13. The unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5 m and that of
brass wire is 1.0 m. Compute the elongations of the steel and the brass wires.
Fig. 9.13
9.6 The edge of an aluminium cube is 10 cm long. One face of the cube is firmly fixed to a
vertical wall. A mass of 100 kg is then attached to the opposite face of the cube. The
shear modulus of aluminium is 25 GPa. What is the vertical deflection of this face?
9.7 Four identical hollow cylindrical columns of mild steel support a big structure of mass
50,000 kg. The inner and outer radii of each column are 30 and 60 cm respectively.
Assuming the load distribution to be uniform, calculate the compressional strain of
each column.
9.8 A piece of copper having a rectangular cross-section of 15.2 mm × 19.1 mm is pulled in
tension with 44,500 N force, producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the resulting
strain?
9.9 A steel cable with a radius of 1.5 cm supports a chairlift at a ski area. If the maximum
stress is not to exceed 108 N m–2, what is the maximum load the cable can support ?
9.10 A rigid bar of mass 15 kg is supported symmetrically by three wires each 2.0 m long.
Those at each end are of copper and the middle one is of iron. Determine the ratios of
their diameters if each is to have the same tension.
9.11 A 14.5 kg mass, fastened to the end of a steel wire of unstretched length 1.0 m, is
whirled in a vertical circle with an angular velocity of 2 rev/s at the bottom of the circle.
The cross-sectional area of the wire is 0.065 cm2. Calculate the elongation of the wire
when the mass is at the lowest point of its path.
9.12 Compute the bulk modulus of water from the following data: Initial volume = 100.0
litre, Pressure increase = 100.0 atm (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa), Final volume = 100.5
litre. Compare the bulk modulus of water with that of air (at constant temperature).
Explain in simple terms why the ratio is so large.
9.13 What is the density of water at a depth where pressure is 80.0 atm, given that its
density at the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg m–3?
9.14 Compute the fractional change in volume of a glass slab, when subjected to a hydraulic
pressure of 10 atm.
9.15 Determine the volume contraction of a solid copper cube, 10 cm on an edge, when
subjected to a hydraulic pressure of 7.0 × 106 Pa.
9.16 How much should the pressure on a litre of water be changed to compress it by 0.10%?
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Additional Exercises
9.17 Anvils made of single crystals of diamond, with the shape as shown in
Fig. 9.14, are used to investigate behaviour of materials under very high pressures. Flat
faces at the narrow end of the anvil have a diameter of 0.50 mm, and the wide ends are
subjected to a compressional force of 50,000 N. What is the pressure at the tip of the anvil?
Fig. 9.14
9.18 A rod of length 1.05 m having negligible mass is supported at its ends by two wires of
steel (wire A) and aluminium (wire B) of equal lengths as shown in
Fig. 9.15. The cross-sectional areas of wires A and B are 1.0 mm2 and 2.0 mm2,
respectively. At what point along the rod should a mass m be suspended in order to
produce (a) equal stresses and (b) equal strains in both steel and aluminium wires.
Fig. 9.15
9.19 A mild steel wire of length 1.0 m and cross-sectional area 0.50 × 10-2 cm2 is
stretched, well within its elastic limit, horizontally between two pillars. A mass of 100
g is suspended from the mid-point of the wire. Calculate the depression at the mid-
point.
9.20 Two strips of metal are riveted together at their ends by four rivets, each of diameter 6.0
mm. What is the maximum tension that can be exerted by the riveted strip if the
shearing stress on the rivet is not to exceed 6.9 × 107 Pa? Assume that each rivet is to
carry one quarter of the load.
9.21 The Marina trench is located in the Pacific Ocean, and at one place it is nearly eleven
km beneath the surface of water. The water pressure at the bottom of the trench is
about 1.1 × 108 Pa. A steel ball of initial volume 0.32 m3 is dropped into the ocean and
falls to the bottom of the trench. What is the change in the volume of the ball when it
reaches to the bottom?
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CHAPTER TEN
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study some common physical
properties of liquids and gases. Liquids and gases can flow
10.1 Introduction and are therefore, called fluids. It is this property that
10.2 Pressure distinguishes liquids and gases from solids in a basic way.
10.3 Streamline flow Fluids are everywhere around us. Earth has an envelop of
10.4 Bernoulli’s principle air and two-thirds of its surface is covered with water. Water
10.5 Viscosity is not only necessary for our existence; every mammalian
10.6 Surface tension
body constitute mostly of water. All the processes occurring
in living beings including plants are mediated by fluids. Thus
Summary understanding the behaviour and properties of fluids is
Points to ponder important.
Exercises How are fluids different from solids? What is common in
Additional exercises liquids and gases? Unlike a solid, a fluid has no definite
Appendix shape of its own. Solids and liquids have a fixed volume,
whereas a gas fills the entire volume of its container. We
have learnt in the previous chapter that the volume of solids
can be changed by stress. The volume of solid, liquid or gas
depends on the stress or pressure acting on it. When we
talk about fixed volume of solid or liquid, we mean its volume
under atmospheric pressure. The difference between gases
and solids or liquids is that for solids or liquids the change
in volume due to change of external pressure is rather small.
In other words solids and liquids have much lower
compressibility as compared to gases.
Shear stress can change the shape of a solid keeping its
volume fixed. The key property of fluids is that they offer
very little resistance to shear stress; their shape changes by
application of very small shear stress. The shearing stress
of fluids is about million times smaller than that of solids.
10.2 PRESSURE
A sharp needle when pressed against our skin pierces it. Our
skin, however, remains intact when a blunt object with a
wider contact area (say the back of a spoon) is pressed against
it with the same force. If an elephant were to step on a man’s
chest, his ribs would crack. A circus performer across whose
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 251
chest a large, light but strong wooden plank is In principle, the piston area can be made
placed first, is saved from this accident. Such arbitrarily small. The pressure is then defined
everyday experiences convince us that both the in a limiting sense as
force and its coverage area are important. Smaller lim ∆F
the area on which the force acts, greater is the P= ∆A →0 (10.2)
impact. This impact is known as pressure. ∆A
Pressure is a scalar quantity. We remind the
When an object is submerged in a fluid at reader that it is the component of the force
rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface. This normal to the area under consideration and not
force is always normal to the object’s surface. the (vector) force that appears in the numerator
This is so because if there were a component of in Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2). Its dimensions are
force parallel to the surface, the object will also [ML–1T–2]. The SI unit of pressure is N m–2. It has
exert a force on the fluid parallel to it; as a been named as pascal (Pa) in honour of the
consequence of Newton’s third law. This force French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) who
will cause the fluid to flow parallel to the surface. carried out pioneering studies on fluid pressure.
Since the fluid is at rest, this cannot happen. A common unit of pressure is the atmosphere
Hence, the force exerted by the fluid at rest has (atm), i.e. the pressure exerted by the
to be perpendicular to the surface in contact atmosphere at sea level (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa).
with it. This is shown in Fig.10.1(a). Another quantity, that is indispensable in
The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point describing fluids, is the density ρ . For a fluid of
may be measured. An idealised form of one such mass m occupying volume V,
pressure-measuring device is shown in Fig. m
10.1(b). It consists of an evacuated chamber with ρ= (10.3)
V
a spring that is calibrated to measure the force –3
The dimensions of density are [ML ]. Its SI
acting on the piston. This device is placed at a unit is kg m–3. It is a positive scalar quantity. A
point inside the fluid. The inward force exerted liquid is largely incompressible and its density
by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the is therefore, nearly constant at all pressures.
outward spring force and is thereby measured. Gases, on the other hand exhibit a large
variation in densities with pressure.
The density of water at 4 o C (277 K) is
1.0 × 103 kg m–3. The relative density of a
substance is the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4oC. It is a dimensionless
positive scalar quantity. For example the relative
density of aluminium is 2.7. Its density is
2.7 × 103 kg m–3. The densities of some common
fluids are displayed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Densities of some common fluids
(a) (b) at STP*
Fig. 10.1 (a) The force exerted by the liquid in the
beaker on the submerged object or on the
walls is normal (perpendicular) to the
surface at all points.
(b) An idealised device for measuring
pressure.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 255
horizontal cylinder is indicated by the height of transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger
liquid column in the vertical tubes. It is necessarily cylinder attached with a larger piston of area A2,
the same in all. If we push the piston, the fluid level which results in an upward force of P × A2.
rises in all the tubes, again reaching the same level Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting a
in each one of them. large force (large weight of, say a car, or a truck,
Archemedes’ Principle
Fluid appears to provide partial support to the objects placed in it. When a body is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts pressure on the surface of the body in contact with the
fluid. The pressure is greater on lower surfaces of the body than on the upper surfaces as pressure in
a fluid increases with depth. The resultant of all the forces is an upward force called buoyant force.
Suppose that a cylindrical body is immersed in the fluid. The upward force on the bottom of the body
is more than the downward force on its top. The fluid exerts a resultant upward force or buoyant force
on the body equal to (P2 – P1) × A (Fig. 10.3). We have seen in equation 10.4 that (P2-P1)A = ρghA. Now,
hA is the volume of the solid and ρhA is the weight of an equivaliant volume of the fluid. (P2-P1)A = mg.
Thus, the upward force exerted is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
The result holds true irrespective of the shape of the object and here cylindrical object is considered
only for convenience. This is Archimedes’ principle. For totally immersed objects the volume of the
fluid displaced by the object is equal to its own volume. If the density of the immersed object is more
than that of the fluid, the object will sink as the weight of the body is more than the upward thrust. If
the density of the object is less than that of the fluid, it floats in the fluid partially submerged. To
calculate the volume submerged, suppose the total volume of the object is Vs and a part Vp of it is
submerged in the fluid. Then, the upward force which is the weight of the displaced fluid is ρ fgVp,
which must equal the weight of the body; ρ sgVs = ρ fgVpor ρs/ρ f = Vp/Vs The apparent weight of the
floating body is zero.
This principle can be summarised as; ‘the loss of weight of a body submerged (partially or fully) in
a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced’.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 257
moves inside the master cylinder, and the The path taken by a fluid particle under a
pressure caused is transmitted through the steady flow is a streamline. It is defined as a
brake oil to act on a piston of larger area. A large curve whose tangent at any point is in the
force acts on the piston and is pushed down direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
expanding the brake shoes against brake lining. Consider the path of a particle as shown in
In this way, a small force on the pedal produces Fig.10.7 (a), the curve describes how a fluid
a large retarding force on the wheel. An particle moves with time. The curve PQ is like a
important advantage of the system is that the permanent map of fluid flow, indicating how the
pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted fluid streams. No two streamlines can cross, for
equally to all cylinders attached to the four if they do, an oncoming fluid particle can go
either one way or the other and the flow would
wheels so that the braking effort is equal on
not be steady. Hence, in steady flow, the map of
all wheels.
flow is stationary in time. How do we draw closely
spaced streamlines ? If we intend to show
10.3 STREAMLINE FLOW streamline of every flowing particle, we would
So far we have studied fluids at rest. The study end up with a continuum of lines. Consider planes
of the fluids in motion is known as fluid perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow e.g.,
dynamics. When a water tap is turned on slowly, at three points P, R and Q in Fig.10.7 (b). The
the water flow is smooth initially, but loses its plane pieces are so chosen that their boundaries
smoothness when the speed of the outflow is be determined by the same set of streamlines.
This means that number of fluid particles
increased. In studying the motion of fluids, we
crossing the surfaces as indicated at P, R and Q
focus our attention on what is happening to
is the same. If area of cross-sections at these
various fluid particles at a particular point in points are AP,AR and AQ and speeds of fluid
space at a particular time. The flow of the fluid particles are vP, vR and vQ, then mass of fluid
is said to be steady if at any given point, the ∆mP crossing at AP in a small interval of time ∆t
velocity of each passing fluid particle remains is ρ PAPvP ∆t. Similarly mass of fluid ∆mR flowing
constant in time. This does not mean that the or crossing at AR in a small interval of time ∆t is
velocity at different points in space is same. The ρ RARvR ∆t and mass of fluid ∆mQ is ρ QAQvQ ∆t
velocity of a particular particle may change as it crossing at AQ. The mass of liquid flowing out
moves from one point to another. That is, at some equals the mass flowing in, holds in all cases.
other point the particle may have a different Therefore,
velocity, but every other particle which passes ρ PAPvP∆t = ρ RARvR∆t = ρ QAQvQ∆t (10.9)
the second point behaves exactly as the previous For flow of incompressible fluids
particle that has just passed that point. Each ρP = ρR = ρQ
particle follows a smooth path, and the paths of Equation (10.9) reduces to
the particles do not cross each other. APvP = ARvR = AQvQ (10.10)
which is called the equation of continuity and
it is a statement of conservation of mass in flow
of incompressible fluids. In general
Av = constant (10.11)
Av gives the volume flux or flow rate and
remains constant throughout the pipe of flow.
Thus, at narrower portions where the
streamlines are closely spaced, velocity
increases and its vice versa. From (Fig 10.7b) it
is clear that AR > AQ or vR < vQ, the fluid is
accelerated while passing from R to Q. This is
associated with a change in pressure in fluid
flow in horizontal pipes.
Steady flow is achieved at low flow speeds.
Fig. 10.7 The meaning of streamlines. (a) A typical Beyond a limiting value, called critical speed,
trajectory of a fluid particle.
this flow loses steadiness and becomes
(b) A region of streamline flow. turbulent. One sees this when a fast flowing
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258 PHYSICS
stream encounters rocks, small foamy change). The Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli
whirlpool-like regions called ‘white water developed this relationship in 1738.
rapids are formed. Consider the flow at two regions 1 (i.e., BC)
Figure 10.8 displays streamlines for some and 2 (i.e., DE). Consider the fluid initially lying
typical flows. For example, Fig. 10.8(a) describes between B and D. In an infinitesimal time
a laminar flow where the velocities at different interval ∆t, this fluid would have moved. Suppose
points in the fluid may have dif ferent v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D, then fluid initially
magnitudes but their directions are parallel. at B has moved a distance v1∆t to C (v1∆t is small
Figure 10.8 (b) gives a sketch of turbulent flow. enough to assume constant cross-section along
BC). In the same interval ∆t the fluid initially at
D moves to E, a distance equal to v2∆t. Pressures
P1 and P2 act as shown on the plane faces of
areas A1 and A2 binding the two regions. The
work done on the fluid at left end (BC) is W1 =
P1A1(v1∆t) = P1∆V. Since the same volume ∆V
passes through both the regions (from the
equation of continuity) the work done by the fluid
at the other end (DE) is W2 = P2A2(v2∆t) = P2∆V or,
Fig. 10.8 (a) Some streamlines for fluid flow.
the work done on the fluid is –P2∆V. So the total
(b) A jet of air striking a flat plate placed
perpendicular to it. This is an example work done on the fluid is
of turbulent flow. W1 – W2 = (P1− P2) ∆V
Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic
10.4 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE energy of the fluid, and part goes into changing
the gravitational potential energy. If the density
Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon. But we of the fluid is ρ and ∆m = ρA1v1∆t = ρ∆V is the
can obtain some useful properties for steady mass passing through the pipe in time ∆t, then
or streamline flows using the conservation change in gravitational potential energy is
of energy. 1
∆U = ρg∆V (h2 − h1)
Consider a fluid moving in a pipe of varying The change in its kinetic energy is 2
cross-sectional area. Let the pipe be at varying
heights as shown in Fig. 10.9. We now suppose ∆K = ρ ∆V (v22 − v12)
that an incompressible fluid is flowing through
the pipe in a steady flow. Its velocity must We can employ the work – energy theorem
change as a consequence of equation of (Chapter 6) to this volume of the fluid and
continuity. A force is required to produce this this yields
acceleration, which is caused by the fluid 1
surrounding it, the pressure must be different (P1−P2) ∆V = ρ ∆V (v22 −v12) + ρg∆V (h2 −h1)
2
in different regions. Bernoulli’s equation is a
general expression that relates the pressure We now divide each term by ∆V to obtain
difference between two points in a pipe to both
velocity changes (kinetic energy change) and 1
(P1− P2) = ρ (v22 − v12) + ρg (h2 − h1)
elevation (height) changes (potential energy 2
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 259
We can rearrange the above terms to obtain restriction on application of Bernoulli theorem
is that the fluids must be incompressible, as
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2+ ρv22 + ρgh2 the elastic energy of the fluid is also not taken
2 2 into consideration. In practice, it has a large
(10.12) number of useful applications and can help
This is Bernoulli’s equation. Since 1 and 2 explain a wide variety of phenomena for low
refer to any two locations along the pipeline, viscosity incompressible fluids. Bernoulli’s
we may write the expression in general as equation also does not hold for non-steady or
1 turbulent flows, because in that situation
P + ρv2 + ρgh = constant (10.13) velocity and pressure are constantly fluctuating
2
in time.
When a fluid is at rest i.e., its velocity is zero
everywhere, Bernoulli’s equation becomes
P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2
(P1− P2) = ρg (h2 − h1)
which is same as Eq. (10.6).
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260 PHYSICS
2 ( P − Pa )
v1 = 2 g h + (10.14)
ρ
Fig. 10.11 A schematic diagram of Venturi-meter.
When P >>Pa and 2 g h may be ignored, the
speed of efflux is determined by the container
pressure. Such a situation occurs in rocket 1 A 2
P1– P2 = ρmgh = ρv1 2 – 1
propulsion. On the other hand, if the tank is 2 a
open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa and
So that the speed of fluid at wide neck is
v1 = 2g h (10.15)
–½
This is also the speed of a freely falling body. 2 ρm gh A 2
v1= – 1 (10.17)
Equation (10.15) represents Torricelli’s law. ρ a
10.4.2 Venturi-meter The principle behind this meter has many
applications. The carburetor of automobile has
The Venturi-meter is a device to measure the
a Venturi channel (nozzle) through which air
flow speed of incompressible fluid. It consists of
flows with a high speed. The pressure is then
a tube with a broad diameter and a small
constriction at the middle as shown in lowered at the narrow neck and the petrol
Fig. (10.11). A manometer in the form of a (gasoline) is sucked up in the chamber to provide
U-tube is also attached to it, with one arm at the correct mixture of air to fuel necessary for
the broad neck point of the tube and the other combustion. Filter pumps or aspirators, Bunsen
at constriction as shown in Fig. (10.11). The burner, atomisers and sprayers [See Fig. 10.12]
manometer contains a liquid of density ρm. The used for perfumes or to spray insecticides work
speed v1 of the liquid flowing through the tube on the same principle.
at the broad neck area A is to be measured
from equation of continuity Eq. (10.10) the speed
A
at the constriction becomes v 2 = v1 . Then
a
using Bernoulli’s equation (Eq.10.12) for (h1=h2),
we get
1 1
P 1+ ρv12 = P2+ ρv12 (A/a)2
2 2
So that
1 A 2
P 1- P 2 = ρv12 a – 1 (10.16)
2
This pressure difference causes the fluid in
the U-tube connected at the narrow neck to rise Fig. 10.12 The spray gun. Piston forces air at high
in comparison to the other arm. The difference speeds causing a lowering of pressure
in height h measure the pressure difference. at the neck of the container.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 261
Fig 10.13 (a) Fluid streaming past a static sphere. (b) Streamlines for a fluid around a sphere spinning clockwise.
(c) Air flowing past an aerofoil.
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262 PHYSICS
Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing: Figure 10.13 Taking the average speed
(c) shows an aerofoil, which is a solid piece vav = (v2 + v1)/2 = 960 km/h = 267 m s-1,
shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift when
it moves horizontally through air. The cross- we have
section of the wings of an aeroplane looks ∆P
(v2 – v1 ) / v av = 2 ≈ 0.08
somewhat like the aerofoil shown in Fig. 10.13 (c) ρv av
with streamlines around it. When the aerofoil The speed above the wing needs to be only 8
moves against the wind, the orientation of the % higher than that below. t
wing relative to flow direction causes the
streamlines to crowd together above the wing
10.5 VISCOSITY
more than those below it. The flow speed on top
is higher than that below it. There is an upward Most of the fluids are not ideal ones and offer some
force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings and resistance to motion. This resistance to fluid motion
this balances the weight of the plane. The is like an internal friction analogous to friction when
following example illustrates this. a solid moves on a surface. It is called viscosity.
This force exists when there is relative motion
between layers of the liquid. Suppose we consider
t
Example 10.8 A fully loaded Boeing
aircraft has a mass of 3.3 × 105 kg. Its total a fluid like oil enclosed between two glass plates
wing area is 500 m2. It is in level flight with as shown in Fig. 10.14 (a). The bottom plate is fixed
a speed of 960 km/h. (a) Estimate the while the top plate is moved with a constant
pressure difference between the lower and velocity v relative to the fixed plate. If oil is
upper surfaces of the wings (b) Estimate replaced by honey, a greater force is required to
the fractional increase in the speed of the move the plate with the same velocity. Hence
air on the upper surface of the wing relative we say that honey is more viscous than oil. The
to the lower surface. [The density of air is ρ fluid in contact with a surface has the same
= 1.2 kg m-3] velocity as that of the surfaces. Hence, the layer
of the liquid in contact with top surface moves
with a velocity v and the layer of the liquid in
Answer (a) The weight of the Boeing aircraft is contact with the fixed surface is stationary. The
balanced by the upward force due to the velocities of layers increase uniformly from
pressure difference bottom (zero velocity) to the top layer (velocity
∆P × A = 3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 v). For any layer of liquid, its upper layer pulls
it forward while lower layer pulls it backward.
∆P = (3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 m s–2) / 500 m2 This results in force between the layers. This
= 6.5 × 103 Nm-2 type of flow is known as laminar. The layers of
(b) We ignore the small height difference liquid slide over one another as the pages of a
between the top and bottom sides in Eq. (10.12). book do when it is placed flat on a table and a
The pressure difference between them is horizontal force is applied to the top cover. When
then a fluid is flowing in a pipe or a tube, then velocity
of the liquid layer along the axis of the tube is
ρ 2
∆P =
2
(
v 2 – v12 ) maximum and decreases gradually as we move
towards the walls where it becomes zero, Fig.
where v2 is the speed of air over the upper
10.14 (b). The velocity on a cylindrical surface
surface and v1 is the speed under the bottom
in a tube is constant.
surface.
On account of this motion, a portion of liquid,
2 ∆P which at some instant has the shape ABCD, take
(v2 – v1 ) =
ρ (v 2 + v1 ) the shape of AEFD after short interval of time
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Table10.2 The viscosities of some fluids where ρ and σ are mass densities of sphere and
Fluid T(oC) Viscosity (mPl)
the fluid, respectively. We obtain
vt = 2a2 (ρ-σ)g / (9η) (10.20)
Water 20 1.0
100 0.3 So the terminal velocity vt depends on the
Blood 37 2.7 square of the radius of the sphere and inversely
Machine Oil 16 113 on the viscosity of the medium.
38 34 You may like to refer back to Example 6.2 in
Glycerine 20 830 this context.
Honey – 200
Example 10.10 The terminal velocity of a
t
Air 0 0.017
copper ball of radius 2.0 mm falling through
40 0.019
a tank of oil at 20oC is 6.5 cm s-1. Compute
the viscosity of the oil at 20oC. Density of
10.5.1 Stokes’ Law oil is 1.5 ×103 kg m-3, density of copper is
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the 8.9 × 103 kg m-3.
layer of the fluid in contact with it. A relative
motion between the different layers of the fluid
Answer We have vt = 6.5 × 10-2 ms-1, a = 2 × 10-3 m,
is set and, as a result, the body experiences a
g = 9.8 ms-2, ρ = 8.9 × 103 kg m-3,
retarding force. Falling of a raindrop and
swinging of a pendulum bob are some common σ =1.5 ×103 kg m-3. From Eq. (10.20)
examples of such motion. It is seen that the
viscous force is proportional to the velocity of
the object and is opposite to the direction of
motion. The other quantities on which the force = 9.9 × 10-1 kg m–1 s–1 t
F depends are viscosity η of the fluid and radius
a of the sphere. Sir George G. Stokes (1819–
1903), an English scientist enunciated clearly 10.6 SURFACE TENSION
the viscous drag force F as You must have noticed that, oil and water do
F = 6 π η av (10.19) not mix; water wets you and me but not ducks;
mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to
This is known as Stokes’ law. We shall not it, oil rises up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity,
derive Stokes’ law. Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of
This law is an interesting example of retarding the tree, hair of a paint brush do not cling
force, which is proportional to velocity. We can together when dry and even when dipped in
study its consequences on an object falling water but form a fine tip when taken out of it.
through a viscous medium. We consider a All these and many more such experiences are
raindrop in air. It accelerates initially due to related with the free surfaces of liquids. As
gravity. As the velocity increases, the retarding liquids have no definite shape but have a
force also increases. Finally, when viscous force definite volume, they acquire a free surface when
plus buoyant force becomes equal to the force poured in a container. These surfaces possess
due to gravity, the net force becomes zero and so some additional energy. This phenomenon is
does the acceleration. The sphere (raindrop) then known as surface tension and it is concerned
descends with a constant velocity. Thus, in with only liquid as gases do not have free
equilibrium, this terminal velocity vt is given by surfaces. Let us now understand this
6πηavt = (4π/3) a3 (ρ-σ)g phenomena.
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10.6.1 Surface Energy terms of this fact. What is the energy required
for having a molecule at the surface? As
A liquid stays together because of attraction
mentioned above, roughly it is half the energy
between molecules. Consider a molecule well
required to remove it entirely from the liquid
inside a liquid. The intermolecular distances are
i.e., half the heat of evaporation.
such that it is attracted to all the surrounding
Finally, what is a surface? Since a liquid
molecules [Fig. 10.16(a)]. This attraction results
consists of molecules moving about, there cannot
in a negative potential energy for the molecule,
be a perfectly sharp surface. The density of the
which depends on the number and distribution
liquid molecules drops rapidly to zero around
of molecules around the chosen one. But the
z = 0 as we move along the direction indicated
average potential energy of all the molecules is
Fig 10.16 (c) in a distance of the order of a few
the same. This is supported by the fact that to
molecular sizes.
take a collection of such molecules (the liquid)
Fig. 10.16 Schematic picture of molecules in a liquid, at the surface and balance of forces. (a) Molecule inside
a liquid. Forces on a molecule due to others are shown. Direction of arrows indicates attraction of
repulsion. (b) Same, for a molecule at a surface. (c) Balance of attractive (AI and repulsive (R) forces.
and to disperse them far away from each other 10.6.2 Surface Energy and Surface Tension
in order to evaporate or vaporise, the heat of As we have discussed that an extra energy is
evaporation required is quite large. For water it associated with surface of liquids, the creation
is of the order of 40 kJ/mol. of more surface (spreading of surface) keeping
Let us consider a molecule near the surface other things like volume fixed requires
Fig. 10.16(b). Only lower half side of it is additional energy. To appreciate this, consider
surrounded by liquid molecules. There is some a horizontal liquid film ending in bar free to slide
negative potential energy due to these, but over parallel guides Fig (10.17).
obviously it is less than that of a molecule in
bulk, i.e., the one fully inside. Approximately
it is half of the latter. Thus, molecules on a
liquid surface have some extra energy in
comparison to molecules in the interior. A
liquid, thus, tends to have the least surface
area which external conditions permit.
Increasing surface area requires energy. Most Fig. 10.17 Stretching a film. (a) A film in equilibrium;
surface phenomenon can be understood in (b) The film stretched an extra distance.
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266 PHYSICS
Suppose that we move the bar by a small equal and opposite surface tension forces S
distance d as shown. Since the area of the per unit length of the line acting
surface increases, the system now has more perpendicular to the line, in the plane of the
energy, this means that some work has been interface. The line is in equilibrium. To be
done against an internal force. Let this internal more specific, imagine a line of atoms or
force be F, the work done by the applied force is molecules at the surface. The atoms to the
F.d = Fd. From conservation of energy, this is left pull the line towards them; those to the
stored as additional energy in the film. If the right pull it towards them! This line of atoms
surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the is in equilibrium under tension. If the line
extra area is 2dl. A film has two sides and the really marks the end of the interface, as in
liquid in between, so there are two surfaces and Figure 10.16 (a) and (b) there is only the force
the extra energy is S per unit length acting inwards.
Table 10.3 gives the surface tension of various
S (2dl) = Fd (10.21)
liquids. The value of surface tension depends
Or, S=Fd/2dl = F/2l (10.22) on temperature. Like viscosity, the surface
This quantity S is the magnitude of surface tension of a liquid usually falls with
tension. It is equal to the surface energy per unit temperature.
area of the liquid interface and is also equal to
Table 10.3 Surface tension of some liquids at the
the force per unit length exerted by the fluid on temperatures indicated with the
the movable bar. heats of the vaporisation
So far we have talked about the surface of one
Liquid Temp (oC) Surface Heat of
liquid. More generally, we need to consider fluid
Tension vaporisation
surface in contact with other fluids or solid
(N/m) (kJ/mol)
surfaces. The surface energy in that case depends
on the materials on both sides of the surface. For Helium –270 0.000239 0.115
example, if the molecules of the materials attract Oxygen –183 0.0132 7.1
each other, surface energy is reduced while if they
Ethanol 20 0.0227 40.6
repel each other the surface energy is increased.
Thus, more appropriately, the surface energy is Water 20 0.0727 44.16
the energy of the interface between two materials
Mercury 20 0.4355 63.2
and depends on both of them.
We make the following observations from
above: A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the
(i) Surface tension is a force per unit length surface energy between fluid and the solid is
(or surface energy per unit area) acting in smaller than the sum of surface energies
the plane of the interface between the plane between solid-air, and fluid-air. Now there is
of the liquid and any other substance; it also attraction between the solid surface and the
is the extra energy that the molecules at the liquid. It can be directly measured
interface have as compared to molecules in experimentaly as schematically shown in Fig.
the interior. 10.18. A flat vertical glass plate, below which a
(ii) At any point on the interface besides the vessel of some liquid is kept, forms one arm of
boundary, we can draw a line and imagine the balance. The plate is balanced by weights
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 267
(a)
The surface of liquid near the plane of contact, The angle of contact is an obtuse angle if
with another medium is in general curved. The Ssl > Sla as in the case of water-leaf interface
angle between tangent to the liquid surface at while it is an acute angle if Ssl < Sla as in the
the point of contact and solid surface inside the case of water-plastic interface. When θ is an
liquid is termed as angle of contact. It is denoted obtuse angle then molecules of liquids are
by θ . It is different at interfaces of different pairs attracted strongly to themselves and weakly to
of liquids and solids. The value of θ determines those of solid, it costs a lot of energy to create a
whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a liquid-solid surface, and liquid then does not
solid or it will form droplets on it. For example, wet the solid. This is what happens with water
water forms droplets on lotus leaf as shown in on a waxy or oily surface, and with mercury on
Fig. 10.19 (a) while spreads over a clean plastic any surface. On the other hand, if the molecules
plate as shown in Fig. 10.19(b). of the liquid are strongly attracted to those of
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the solid, this will reduce S sl and therefore, In general, for a liquid-gas interface, the
cos θ may increase or θ may decrease. In this convex side has a higher pressure than the
case θ is an acute angle. This is what happens concave side. For example, an air bubble in a
for water on glass or on plastic and for kerosene liquid, would have higher pressure inside it.
oil on virtually anything (it just spreads). Soaps, See Fig 10.20 (b).
detergents and dying substances are wetting
agents. When they are added the angle of
contact becomes small so that these may
penetrate well and become effective. Water
proofing agents on the other hand are added to
create a large angle of contact between the water
and fibres.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 269
and glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in hairpin shaped, with one end attracted to water
the capillary is concave. This means that and the other to molecules of grease, oil or wax,
there is a pressure difference between the thus tending to form water-oil interfaces. The result
two sides of the top surface. This is given by is shown in Fig. 10.22 as a sequence of figures.
In our language, we would say that addition
(Pi – Po) =(2S/r) = 2S/(a sec θ ) of detergents, whose molecules attract at one
= (2S/a) cos θ (10.29) end and say, oil on the other, reduces drastically
Thus the pressure of the water inside the the surface tension S (water-oil). It may even
tube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface) become energetically favourable to form such
interfaces, i.e., globs of dirt surrounded by
is less than the atmospheric pressure. Consider
detergents and then by water. This kind of
the two points A and B in Fig. 10.21(a). They
process using surface active detergents or
must be at the same pressure, namely surfactants is important not only for cleaning,
P0 + h ρ g = Pi = PA (10.30) but also in recovering oil, mineral ores etc.
where ρ is the density of water and h is called
the capillary rise [Fig. 10.21(a)]. Using
Eq. (10.29) and (10.30) we have
h ρ g = (Pi – P0) = (2S cos θ )/a (10.31)
The discussion here, and the Eqs. (10.26) and
(10.27) make it clear that the capillary rise is
due to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller .
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SUMMARY
1. The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The fluid does not have any
resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is governed by the
shape of its container.
2. A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its own. A gas is compressible
and it expands to occupy all the space available to it.
3. If F is the normal force exerted by a fluid on an area A then the average pressure Pav
is defined as the ratio of the force to area
F
Pav =
A
4. The unit of the pressure is the pascal (Pa). It is the same as N m-2. Other common
units of pressure are
1 atm = 1.01×105 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 torr = 133 Pa = 0.133 kPa
1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 133 Pa
5. Pascal’s law states that: Pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points which are at
the same height. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according to the expression
P = Pa + ρgh
where ρ is the density of the fluid, assumed uniform.
7. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of
non uniform crossection is the same in the steady flow.
v A = constant ( v is the velocity and A is the area of crossection)
The equation is due to mass conservation in incompressible fluid flow.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 271
8. Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the
pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential energy per
unit volume (ρgy) remains a constant.
P + ρv2/2 + ρgy = constant
The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non viscuss fluid
motion in steady state. There is no fluid which have zero viscosity, so the above
statement is true only approximately. The viscosity is like friction and converts the
kinetic energy to heat energy.
9. Though shear strain in a fluid does not require shear stress, when a shear stress is
applied to a fluid, the motion is generated which causes a shear strain growing
with time. The ratio of the shear stress to the time rate of shearing strain is known
as coefficient of viscosity, η.
where symbols have their usual meaning and are defined in the text.
10. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
velocity v through a fluid of viscosity is, F = 6πηav.
11. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface. It is the extra
energy that the molecules at the interface have as compared to the interior.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Pressure is a scalar quantity. The definition of the pressure as “force per unit area”
may give one false impression that pressure is a vector. The “force” in the numerator of
the definition is the component of the force normal to the area upon which it is
impressed. While describing fluids as a concept, shift from particle and rigid body
mechanics is required. We are concerned with properties that vary from point to point
in the fluid.
2. One should not think of pressure of a fluid as being exerted only on a solid like the
walls of a container or a piece of solid matter immersed in the fluid. Pressure exists at
all points in a fluid. An element of a fluid (such as the one shown in Fig. 10.2) is in
equilibrium because the pressures exerted on the various faces are equal.
3. The expression for pressure
P = Pa + ρgh
holds true if fluid is incompressible. Practically speaking it holds for liquids, which
are largely incompressible and hence is a constant with height.
4. The gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
P – Pa = Pg
Many pressure-measuring devices measure the gauge pressure. These include the tyre
pressure gauge and the blood pressure gauge (sphygmomanometer).
5. A streamline is a map of fluid flow. In a steady flow two streamlines do not intersect as
it means that the fluid particle will have two possible velocities at the point.
6. Bernoulli’s principle does not hold in presence of viscous drag on the fluid. The work
done by this dissipative viscous force must be taken into account in this case, and P 2
[Fig. 10.9] will be lower than the value given by Eq. (10.12).
7. As the temperature rises the atoms of the liquid become more mobile and the coefficient
of viscosity, η falls. In a gas the temperature rise increases the random motion of
atoms and η increases.
8. Surface tension arises due to excess potential energy of the molecules on the surface
in comparison to their potential energy in the interior. Such a surface energy is present
at the interface separating two substances at least one of which is a fluid. It is not the
property of a single fluid alone.
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EXERCISES
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 273
10.6 Toricelli’s barometer used mercury. Pascal duplicated it using French wine of density
984 kg m–3. Determine the height of the wine column for normal atmospheric
pressure.
10.7 A vertical off-shore structure is built to withstand a maximum stress of 109 Pa. Is
the structure suitable for putting up on top of an oil well in the ocean ? Take the
depth of the ocean to be roughly 3 km, and ignore ocean currents.
10.8 A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000
kg. The area of cross-section of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What
maximum pressure would the smaller piston have to bear ?
10.9 A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury. The mercury
columns in the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm of water in one arm and 12.5 cm
of spirit in the other. What is the specific gravity of spirit ?
10.10 In the previous problem, if 15.0 cm of water and spirit each are further poured into
the respective arms of the tube, what is the difference in the levels of mercury in
the two arms ? (Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6)
10.11 Can Bernoulli’s equation be used to describe the flow of water through a rapid in a
river ? Explain.
10.12 Does it matter if one uses gauge instead of absolute pressures in applying Bernoulli’s
equation ? Explain.
10.13 Glycerine flows steadily through a horizontal tube of length 1.5 m and radius 1.0
cm. If the amount of glycerine collected per second at one end is 4.0 × 10–3 kg s–1,
what is the pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ? (Density of glycerine
= 1.3 × 103 kg m–3 and viscosity of glycerine = 0.83 Pa s). [You may also like to check
if the assumption of laminar flow in the tube is correct].
10.14 In a test experiment on a model aeroplane in a wind tunnel, the flow speeds on the
upper and lower surfaces of the wing are 70 m s–1and 63 m s-1 respectively. What is
the lift on the wing if its area is 2.5 m2 ? Take the density of air to be 1.3 kg m–3.
10.15 Figures 10.23(a) and (b) refer to the steady flow of a (non-viscous) liquid. Which of
the two figures is incorrect ? Why ?
Fig. 10.23
10.16 The cylindrical tube of a spray pump has a cross-section of 8.0 cm2 one end of
which has 40 fine holes each of diameter 1.0 mm. If the liquid flow inside the tube
is 1.5 m min–1, what is the speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes ?
10.17 A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution, and removed. The thin soap film
formed between the wire and the light slider supports a weight of 1.5 × 10–2 N
(which includes the small weight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30 cm.
What is the surface tension of the film ?
10.18 Figure 10.24 (a) shows a thin liquid film supporting a small weight = 4.5 × 10–2 N.
What is the weight supported by a film of the same liquid at the same temperature
in Fig. (b) and (c) ? Explain your answer physically.
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274 PHYSICS
Fig. 10.24
10.19 What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius 3.00 mm at room
temperature ? Surface tension of mercury at that temperature (20 °C) is 4.65 ×
10–1 N m–1. The atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa. Also give the excess pressure
inside the drop.
10.20 What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution of radius 5.00 mm,
given that the surface tension of soap solution at the temperature (20 °C) is 2.50 ×
10–2 N m–1 ? If an air bubble of the same dimension were formed at depth of 40.0
cm inside a container containing the soap solution (of relative density 1.20), what
would be the pressure inside the bubble ? (1 atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa).
Additional Exercises
10.21 A tank with a square base of area 1.0 m2 is divided by a vertical partition in the
middle. The bottom of the partition has a small-hinged door of area 20 cm2. The
tank is filled with water in one compartment, and an acid (of relative density 1.7) in
the other, both to a height of 4.0 m. compute the force necessary to keep the door
close.
10.22 A manometer reads the pressure of a gas in an enclosure as shown in Fig. 10.25 (a)
When a pump removes some of the gas, the manometer reads as in Fig. 10.25 (b)
The liquid used in the manometers is mercury and the atmospheric pressure is 76
cm of mercury.
(a) Give the absolute and gauge pressure of the gas in the enclosure for cases (a)
and (b), in units of cm of mercury.
(b) How would the levels change in case (b) if 13.6 cm of water (immiscible with
mercury) are poured into the right limb of the manometer ? (Ignore the small
change in the volume of the gas).
Fig. 10.25
10.23 Two vessels have the same base area but different shapes. The first vessel takes
twice the volume of water that the second vessel requires to fill upto a particular
common height. Is the force exerted by the water on the base of the vessel the same
in the two cases ? If so, why do the vessels filled with water to that same height give
different readings on a weighing scale ?
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 275
10.24 During blood transfusion the needle is inserted in a vein where the gauge pressure
is 2000 Pa. At what height must the blood container be placed so that blood may
just enter the vein ? [Use the density of whole blood from Table 10.1].
10.25 In deriving Bernoulli’s equation, we equated the work done on the fluid in the tube
to its change in the potential and kinetic energy. (a) What is the largest average
velocity of blood flow in an artery of diameter 2 × 10–3 m if the flow must remain
laminar ? (b) Do the dissipative forces become more important as the fluid velocity
increases ? Discuss qualitatively.
10.26 (a) What is the largest average velocity of blood flow in an artery of radius 2×10–3m
if the flow must remain lanimar? (b) What is the corresponding flow rate ? (Take
viscosity of blood to be 2.084 × 10–3 Pa s).
10.27 A plane is in level flight at constant speed and each of its two wings has an area of
25 m2. If the speed of the air is 180 km/h over the lower wing and 234 km/h over
the upper wing surface, determine the plane’s mass. (Take air density to be 1 kg
m–3).
10.28 In Millikan’s oil drop experiment, what is the terminal speed of an uncharged drop
of radius 2.0 × 10–5 m and density 1.2 × 103 kg m–3. Take the viscosity of air at the
temperature of the experiment to be 1.8 × 10–5 Pa s. How much is the viscous force
on the drop at that speed ? Neglect buoyancy of the drop due to air.
10.29 Mercury has an angle of contact equal to 140° with soda lime glass. A narrow tube
of radius 1.00 mm made of this glass is dipped in a trough containing mercury. By
what amount does the mercury dip down in the tube relative to the liquid surface
outside ? Surface tension of mercury at the temperature of the experiment is 0.465
N m–1. Density of mercury = 13.6 × 103 kg m–3.
10.30 Two narrow bores of diameters 3.0 mm and 6.0 mm are joined together to form
a U-tube open at both ends. If the U-tube contains water, what is the difference in
its levels in the two limbs of the tube ? Surface tension of water at the temperature
of the experiment is 7.3 × 10–2 N m–1. Take the angle of contact to be zero and
density of water to be 1.0 × 103 kg m–3 (g = 9.8 m s–2) .
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In evolutionary history there occurred a time when animals started spending a significant amount
of time in the upright position. This placed a number of demands on the circulatory system. The
venous system that returns blood from the lower extremities to the heart underwent changes. You
will recall that veins are blood vessels through which blood returns to the heart. Humans and
animals such as the giraffe have adapted to the problem of moving blood upward against gravity.
But animals such as snakes, rats and rabbits will die if held upwards, since the blood remains in
the lower extremities and the venous system is unable to move it towards the heart.
Fig. 10.26 Schematic view of the gauge pressures in the arteries in various parts of the human body while
standing or lying down. The pressures shown are averaged over a heart cycle.
Figure 10.26 shows the average pressures observed in the arteries at various points in the human body.
Since viscous effects are small, we can use Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (10.13),
1 2
P+ ρv + ρgy = Constant
2
to understand these pressure values. The kinetic energy term (ρ v2/2) can be ignored since the velocities in
the three arteries are small (≈ 0.1 m s–1) and almost constant. Hence the gauge pressures at the brain PB,
the heart PH, and the foot PF are related by
PF = PH + ρ g hH = PB + ρ g hB (10.34)
where ρ is the density of blood.
Typical values of the heights to the heart and the brain are h H = 1.3 m and h B = 1.7 m. Taking
ρ = 1.06 × 103 kg m–3 we obtain that PF = 26.8 kPa (kilopascals) and PB = 9.3 kPa given that PH = 13.3 kPa.
Thus the pressures in the lower and upper parts of the body are so different when a person is standing,
but are almost equal when he is lying down. As mentioned in the text the units for pressure more
commonly employed in medicine and physiology are torr and mm of Hg. 1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 0.133 kPa.
Thus the average pressure at the heart is P H = 13.3 kPa = 100 mm of Hg.
The human body is a marvel of nature. The veins in the lower extremities are equipped with valves,
which open when blood flows towards the heart and close if it tends to drain down. Also, blood is returned
at least partially by the pumping action associated with breathing and by the flexing of the skeletal muscles
during walking. This explains why a soldier who is required to stand at attention may faint because of
insufficient return of the blood to the heart. Once he is made to lie down, the pressures become equalized
and he regains consciousness.
An instrument called the sphygmomanometer usually measures the blood pressure of humans. It is a
fast, painless and non-invasive technique and gives the doctor a reliable idea about the patient’s health.
The measurement process is shown in Fig. 10.27. There are two reasons why the upper arm is used. First,
it is at the same level as the heart and measurements here give values close to that at the heart. Secondly,
the upper arm contains a single bone and makes the artery there (called the brachial artery) easy to
compress. We have all measured pulse rates by placing our fingers over the wrist. Each pulse takes a little
less than a second. During each pulse the pressure in the heart and the circulatory system goes through a
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 277
maximum as the blood is pumped by the heart (systolic pressure) and a minimum as the heart relaxes
(diastolic pressure). The sphygmomanometer is a device, which measures these extreme pressures. It
works on the principle that blood flow in the brachial (upper arm) artery can be made to go from
laminar to turbulent by suitable compression. Turbulent flow is dissipative, and its sound can be
picked up on the stethoscope.
The gauge pressure in an air sack wrapped around the upper arm is measured using a manometer or a
dial pressure gauge (Fig. 10.27). The pressure in the sack is first increased till the brachial artery is closed.
The pressure in the sack is then slowly reduced while a stethoscope placed just below the sack is used to
listen to noises arising in the brachial artery. When
the pressure is just below the systolic (peak)
pressure, the artery opens briefly. During this brief
period, the blood velocity in the highly constricted
artery is high and turbulent and hence noisy. The
resulting noise is heard as a tapping sound on the
stethoscope. When the pressure in the sack is
lowered further, the artery remains open for a longer
portion of the heart cycle. Nevertheless, it remains
closed during the diastolic (minimum pressure)
phase of the heartbeat. Thus the duration of the
tapping sound is longer. When the pressure in the
sack reaches the diastolic pressure the artery is
open during the entire heart cycle. The flow is
however, still turbulent and noisy. But instead of a
Fig. 10.27 Blood pressure measurement using the
tapping sound we hear a steady, continuous roar
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.
on the stethoscope.
The blood pressure of a patient is presented as the ratio of systolic/diastolic pressures. For a resting
healthy adult it is typically 120/80 mm of Hg (120/80 torr). Pressures above 140/90 require medical
attention and advice. High blood pressures may seriously damage the heart, kidney and other organs and
must be controlled.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.1 INTRODUCTION
We all have common sense notions of heat and temperature.
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’ of a body. A kettle
11.1 Introduction with boiling water is hotter than a box containing ice. In
11.2 Temperature and heat physics, we need to define the notion of heat, temperature,
11.3 Measurement of etc., more carefully. In this chapter, you will learn what heat
temperature is and how it is measured, and study the various proceses by
11.4 Ideal-gas equation and which heat flows from one body to another. Along the way,
absolute temperature you will find out why blacksmiths heat the iron ring before
11.5 Thermal expansion fitting on the rim of a wooden wheel of a horse cart and why
11.6 Specific heat capacity the wind at the beach often reverses direction after the sun
11.7 Calorimetry goes down. You will also learn what happens when water boils
11.8 Change of state or freezes, and its temperature does not change during these
11.9 Heat transfer processes even though a great deal of heat is flowing into or
out of it.
11.10 Newton’s law of cooling
Summary 11.2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Points to ponder
Exercises We can begin studying thermal properties of matter with
Additional Exercises definitions of temperature and heat. Temperature is a relative
measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil
is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a
low temperature. An object that has a higher temperature
than another object is said to be hotter. Note that hot and
cold are relative terms, like tall and short. We can perceive
temperature by touch. However, this temperature sense is
somewhat unreliable and its range is too limited to be useful
for scientific purposes.
We know from experience that a glass of ice-cold water left
on a table on a hot summer day eventually warms up whereas
a cup of hot tea on the same table cools down. It means that
when the temperature of body, ice-cold water or hot tea in
this case, and its surrounding medium are different, heat
transfer takes place between the system and the surrounding
medium, until the body and the surrounding medium are at
the same temperature. We also know that in the case of glass
tumbler of ice-cold water, heat flows from the environment to
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280 PHYSICS
relationship. Notice that since PV = constant named after the British scientist Lord Kelvin. On
and V/T = constant for a given quantity of gas, this scale, – 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point,
then PV/T should also be a constant. This that is 0 K (Fig. 11.4).
relationship is known as ideal gas law. It can be
written in a more general form that applies not
just to a given quantity of a single gas but to any
quantity of any low-density gas and is known as
ideal-gas equation:
PV
= µR
T
or PV = µRT (11.2)
where, µ is the number of moles in the sample
of gas and R is called universal gas constant:
R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1
In Eq. 11.2, we have learnt that the pressure
and volume are directly proportional to
temperature : PV ∝ T. This relationship allows a
gas to be used to measure temperature in a
constant volume gas thermometer. Holding the
volume of a gas constant, it gives P ∝T. Thus,
Fig. 11.4 Comparision of the Kelvin, Celsius and
with a constant-volume gas thermometer,
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
temperature is read in terms of pressure. A plot The size of unit in Kelvin and Celsius
of pressure versus temperature gives a straight temperature scales is the same. So, temperature
line in this case, as shown in Fig. 11.2. on these scales are related by
However, measurements on real gases deviate
T = tC + 273.15 (11.3)
from the values predicted by the ideal gas law
at low temperature. But the relationship is linear
11.5 THERMAL EXPANSION
over a large temperature range, and it looks as
though the pressure might reach zero with You may have observed that sometimes sealed
decreasing temperature if the gas continued to bottles with metallic lids are so tightly screwed
be a gas. The absolute minimum temperature that one has to put the lid in hot water for some
for an ideal gas, therefore, inferred by time to open it. This would allow the metallic lid
extrapolating the straight line to the axis, as in to expand, thereby loosening it to unscrew
Fig. 11.3. This temperature is found to be easily. In case of liquids, you may have observed
– 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. that mercury in a thermometer rises, when the
Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin thermometer is put in slightly warm water. If
temperature scale or absolute scale temperature we take out the thermometer from the warm
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 281
water the level of mercury falls again. Similarly, Table 11.1 Values of coef ficient of linear
in case of gases, a balloon partially inflated in a expansion for some material
cool room may expand to full size when placed
in warm water. On the other hand, a fully Material α l (10–5 K–1)
inflated balloon when immersed in cold water Aluminium 2.5
would start shrinking due to contraction of the Brass 1.8
air inside. Iron 1.2
It is our common experience that most Copper 1.7
substances expand on heating and contract on Silver 1.9
cooling. A change in the temperature of a body Gold 1.4
causes change in its dimensions. The increase Glass (pyrex) 0.32
in the dimensions of a body due to the increase Lead 0.29
in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
The expansion in length is called linear
Similarly, we consider the fractional change
expansion. The expansion in area is called area
expansion. The expansion in volume is called ∆V
in volume, , of a substance for temperature
volume expansion (Fig. 11.5). V
change ∆T and define the coefficient of volume
expansion (or volume expansivity), α V as
∆V 1
αV = (11.5)
V ∆T
Here α V is also a characteristic of the
substance but is not strictly a constant. It
∆l ∆A ∆V depends in general on temperature (Fig 11.6). It
= a l ∆T = 2a l ∆T = 3a l ∆T
l A V is seen that αV becomes constant only at a high
temperature.
(a) Linear expansion (b) Area expansion (c) Volume expansion
∆l
= α1 ∆T (11.4)
l
where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear
expansion (or linear expansivity) and is
characteristic of the material of the rod. In Table
11.1, typical average values of the coefficient of Fig. 11.6 Coefficient of volume expansion of copper
linear expansion for some material in the as a function of temperature.
temperature range 0 °C to 100 °C are given. From
this Table, compare the value of αl for glass and Table 11.2 gives the values of coefficient of
copper. We find that copper expands about five volume expansion of some common substances
times more than glass for the same rise in in the temperature range 0–100 °C. You can see
temperature. Normally, metals expand more and that thermal expansion of these substances
have relatively high values of αl. (solids and liquids) is rather small, with material,
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like pyrex glass and invar (a special iron-nickel lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake
alloy) having particularly low values of αV. From cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses
this Table we find that the value of αv for energy to the atmosphere, becomes denser, and
alcohol (ethanol) is more than mercury and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the
expands more than mercury for the same rise bottom rises. However, once the colder water on
in temperature. top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it becomes
less dense and remains at the surface, where it
Table 11.2 Values of coefficient of volume freezes. If water did not have this property, lakes
expansion for some substances and ponds would freeze from the bottom up,
which would destroy much of their animal and
Material αv ( K–1) plant life.
Aluminium 7 × 10–5 Gases, at ordinary temperature, expand more
Brass 6 × 10–5 than solids and liquids. For liquids, the
Iron 3.55 × 10–5 coefficient of volume expansion is relatively
Paraffin 58.8 × 10–5 independent of the temperature. However, for
Glass (ordinary) 2.5 × 10–5 gases it is dependent on temperature. For an
Glass (pyrex) 1 × 10–5 ideal gas, the coefficient of volume expansion at
Hard rubber 2.4 × 10–4 constant pressure can be found from the ideal
Invar 2 × 10–6 gas equation:
Mercury 18.2 × 10–5 PV = µRT
Water 20.7 × 10–5 At constant pressure
Alcohol (ethanol) 110 × 10–5 P∆V = µR ∆T
∆V ∆T
Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour; it =
V T
contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C.
The volume of a given amount of water decreases 1
i.e., αv = for ideal gas (11.6)
as it is cooled from room temperature, until its T
temperature reaches 4 °C, [Fig. 11.7(a)]. Below At 0 °C, αv = 3.7 × 10–3 K–1, which is much
4 °C, the volume increases, and therefore, the larger than that for solids and liquids.
density decreases [Fig. 11.7(b)]. Equation (11.6) shows the temperature
This means that water has the maximum dependence of αv; it decreases with increasing
density at 4 °C. This property has an important temperature. For a gas at room temperature and
environmental effect: bodies of water, such as constant pressure, αv is about 3300 × 10–6 K–1, as
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11.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY heat absorbed or given off to change the
Take some water in a vessel and start heating it temperature of unit mass of it by one unit. This
on a burner. Soon you will notice that bubbles quantity is referred to as the specific heat
begin to move upward. As the temperature is capacity of the substance.
raised the motion of water particles increases If ∆Q stands for the amount of heat absorbed
till it becomes turbulent as water starts boiling. or given off by a substance of mass m when it
What are the factors on which the quantity of undergoes a temperature change ∆T, then the
heat required to raise the temperature of a specific heat capacity, of that substance is given
substance depend? In order to answer this by
question in the first step, heat a given quantity S 1 ∆Q
of water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C s= = (11.11)
m m ∆T
and note the time taken. Again take the same The specific heat capacity is the property of
amount of water and raise its temperature by the substance which determines the change in
40 °C using the same source of heat. Note the the temperature of the substance (undergoing
time taken by using a stopwatch. You will find no phase change) when a given quantity of heat
it takes about twice the time and therefore, is absorbed (or given off) by it. It is defined as the
double the quantity of heat required raising twice amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or given
the temperature of same amount of water. off by the substance to change its temperature
In the second step, now suppose you take by one unit. It depends on the nature of the
double the amount of water and heat it, using substance and its temperature. The SI unit of
the same heating arrangement, to raise the specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1.
temperature by 20 °C, you will find the time If the amount of substance is specified in
taken is again twice that required in the first terms of moles µ, instead of mass m in kg, we
step. can define heat capacity per mole of the
In the third step, in place of water, now heat substance by
the same quantity of some oil, say mustard oil,
and raise the temperature again by 20 °C. Now S 1 ∆Q
C= = (11.12)
note the time by the same stopwatch. You will µ µ ∆T
find the time taken will be shorter and therefore, where C is known as molar specific heat
the quantity of heat required would be less than capacity of the substance. Like S, C also
that required by the same amount of water for depends on the nature of the substance and its
the same rise in temperature. temperature. The SI unit of molar specific heat
The above observations show that the quantity capacity is J mol–1 K–1.
of heat required to warm a given substance However, in connection with specific heat
depends on its mass, m, the change in capacity of gases, additional conditions may be
temperature, ∆T and the nature of substance. needed to define C. In this case, heat transfer
The change in temperature of a substance, when can be achieved by keeping either pressure or
a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected volume constant. If the gas is held under
by it, is characterised by a quantity called the constant pressure during the heat transfer, then
heat capacity of that substance. We define heat it is called the molar specific heat capacity at
capacity, S of a substance as
constant pressure and is denoted by Cp. On
∆Q the other hand, if the volume of the gas is
S= (11.10)
∆T maintained during the heat transfer, then the
where ∆Q is the amount of heat supplied to corresponding molar specific heat capacity is
the substance to change its temperature from T called molar specific heat capacity at constant
to T + ∆T. volume and is denoted by Cv. For details see
You have observed that if equal amount of Chapter 12. Table 11.3 lists measured specific
heat is added to equal masses of different heat capacity of some substances at atmospheric
substances, the resulting temperature changes pressure and ordinary temperature while Table
will not be the same. It implies that every 11.4 lists molar specific heat capacities of some
substance has a unique value for the amount of gases. From Table 11.3 you can note that water
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 285
Table 11.3 Specific heat capacity of some substances at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure
Substance Specific heat capacity Substance Specific heat capacity
(J kg–1 K–1) (J kg–1 K–1)
Aluminium 900.0 Ice 2060
Carbon 506.5 Glass 840
Copper 386.4 Iron 450
Lead 127.7 Kerosene 2118
Silver 236.1 Edible oil 1965
Tungesten 134.4 Mercury 140
Water 4186.0
has the highest specific heat capacity compared equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
to other substances. For this reason water is also provided no heat is allowed to escape to the
used as a coolant in automobile radiators, as surroundings. A device in which heat
well as, a heater in hot water bags. Owing to its measurement can be done is called a
high specific heat capacity, water warms up calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and
more slowly than land during summer, and stirrer of the same material, like copper or
consequently wind from the sea has a cooling aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden
effect. Now, you can tell why in desert areas, jacket, which contains heat insulating material,
the earth surface warms up quickly during the like glass wool etc. The outer jacket acts as a
day and cools quickly at night.
heat shield and reduces the heat loss from the
Table 11.4 Molar specific heat capacities of inner vessel. There is an opening in the outer
some gases jacket through which a mercury thermometer
Gas Cp (J mol–1K–1) Cv(J mol–1K–1) can be inserted into the calorimeter (Fig. 11.20).
The following example provides a method by
He 20.8 12.5 which the specific heat capacity of a given solid
H2 28.8 20.4 can be determinated by using the principle, heat
gained is equal to the heat lost.
N2 29.1 20.8
Example 11.3 A sphere of 0.047 kg
t
O2 29.4 21.1
aluminium is placed for sufficient time in a
CO2 37.0 28.5 vessel containing boiling water, so that the
sphere is at 100 °C. It is then immediately
transfered to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter
11.7 CALORIMETRY
containing 0.25 kg water at 20 °C. The
A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or temperature of water rises and attains a
transfer of heat occurs between the system and steady state at 23 °C. Calculate the specific
its surroundings. When different parts of an heat capacity of aluminium.
isolated system are at different temperature, a
quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher Answer In solving this example, we shall use
temperature to the part at lower temperature. the fact that at a steady state, heat given by an
The heat lost by the part at higher temperature aluminium sphere will be equal to the heat
is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
temperature. Mass of aluminium sphere (m1) = 0.047 kg
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. Initial temperature of aluminium sphere =100 °C
When a body at higher temperature is brought Final temperature = 23 °C
in contact with another body at lower Change in temperature (∆T)=(100 °C -23 °C) = 77 °C
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is Let specific heat capacity of aluminium be sAl.
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Triple Point
The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state (phase change).
A graph between the temperature T and the Pressure P of the substance is called a phase
diagram or P – T diagram. The following figure shows the phase diagram of water and CO2.
Such a phase diagram divides the P – T plane into a solid-region, the vapour-region and the
liquid-region. The regions are separated by the curves such as sublimation curve (BO), fusion
curve (AO) and vaporisation curve (CO). The points on sublimation curve represent states
in which solid and vapour phases coexist. The point on the sublimation curve BO represent
states in which the solid and vapour phases co-exist. Points on the fusion curve AO represent
states in which solid and liquid phase coexist. Points on the vapourisation curve CO represent
states in which the liquid and vapour phases coexist. The temperature and pressure at which
the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve and the sublimation curve meet and all the three
phases of a substance coexist is called the triple point of the substance. For example the
triple point of water is represented by the temperature 273.16 K and pressure 6.11×10–3 Pa.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.11: Pressure-temperature phase diagrams for (a) water and (b) CO2 (not to the scale).
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thermometer and steam outlet through the cork cork. Keep the f lask turned upside down on the
of the flask (Fig. 11.11). As water gets heated in stand. Pour ice-cold water on the flask. Water
the flask, note first that the air, which was vapours in the flask condense reducing the
dissolved in the water, will come out as small pressure on the water surface inside the flask.
bubbles. Later, bubbles of steam will form at Water begins to boil again, now at a lower
the bottom but as they rise to the cooler water temperature. Thus boiling point decreases with
near the top, they condense and disappear. decrease in pressure.
Finally, as the temperature of the entire mass This explains why cooking is difficult on hills.
of the water reaches 100 °C, bubbles of steam At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower,
reach the surface and boiling is said to occur. reducing the boiling point of water as compared
The steam in the flask may not be visible but as to that at sea level. On the other hand, boiling
it comes out of the flask, it condenses as tiny point is increased inside a pressure cooker by
droplets of water, giving a foggy appearance. increasing the pressure. Hence cooking is faster.
The boiling point of a substance at standard
atmospheric pressure is called its normal
boiling point.
However, all substances do not pass through
the three states: solid-liquid-gas. There are
certain substances which normally pass from
the solid to the vapour state directly and vice
versa. The change from solid state to vapour
state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation, and the substance is said
to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also
iodine. During the sublimation process both the
solid and vapour states of a substance coexist
in thermal equilibrium.
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Table 11.5 Temperatures of the change of state and latent heats for various substances at
1 atm pressure
The heat required during a change of state Note that when heat is added (or removed)
depends upon the heat of transformation and during a change of state, the temperature
the mass of the substance undergoing a change remains constant. Note in Fig. 11.12 that the
of state. Thus, if mass m of a substance slopes of the phase lines are not all the same,
undergoes a change from one state to the other, which indicate that specific heats of the various
then the quantity of heat required is given by states are not equal. For water, the latent heat of
Q=mL fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 × 105 J kg–1
or L = Q/m (11.13) and Lv = 22.6 × 105 J kg–1, respectively. That is,
where L is known as latent heat and is a 3.33 × 105 J of heat is needed to melt 1 kg ice at
characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is 0 °C, and 22.6 × 105 J of heat is needed to convert
J kg–1. The value of L also depends on the 1 kg water into steam at 100 °C. So, steam at
pressure. Its value is usually quoted at standard 100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J kg–1 more heat than
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat for a solid- water at 100 °C. This is why burns from steam
liquid state change is called the latent heat of are usually more serious than those from
fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state change boiling water.
is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv).
These are often referred to as the heat of fusion Example 11.4 When 0.15 kg of ice at 0 °C
t
Answer
Heat lost by water = msw (θf–θi)w
= (0.30 kg ) (4186 J kg–1 K–1) (50.0 °C – 6.7 °C)
= 54376.14 J
Heat required to melt ice = m2Lf = (0.15 kg) Lf
Heat required to raise temperature of ice
water to final temperature = mIsw (θf–θi)I
= (0.15 kg) (4186 J kg–1 K –1) (6.7 °C – 0 °C)
= 4206.93 J
Heat lost = heat gained
Fig. 11.12 Temperature versus heat for water at 54376.14 J = (0.15 kg ) Lf + 4206.93 J
1 atm pressure (not to scale). Lf = 3.34×105 J kg–1. t
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Answer We have
Mass of the ice, m = 3 kg
specific heat capacity of ice, sice
= 2100 J kg–1 K–1
specific heat capacity of water, swater
= 4186 J kg–1 K–1
latent heat of fusion of ice, Lf ice
= 3.35 × 105 J kg–1
latent heat of steam, Lsteam Fig. 11.13 Heating by conduction, convection and
= 2.256 × 106 J kg–1 radiation.
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Answer
Given, L1 = L2= L = 0.1 m, A1 = A2= A= 0.02 m2
K 1 = 79 W m –1 K –1 , K 2 = 109 W m –1 K –1 ,
T1 = 373 K, and T2 = 273 K.
Under steady state condition, the heat
current (H1) through iron bar is equal to the
Fig. 11.15
heat current (H2) through brass bar.
Answer The insulating material around the So, H = H1 = H2
rods reduces heat loss from the sides of the rods.
Therefore, heat flows only along the length of K1 A1 ( T1 – T0 ) K 2 A 2 ( T 0 – T2 )
= =
the rods. Consider any cross section of the rod. L1 L2
In the steady state, heat flowing into the element For A1 = A2 = A and L1 = L2 = L, this equation
must equal the heat flowing out of it; otherwise leads to
there would be a net gain or loss of heat by the K1 (T1 – T0) = K2 (T0 – T2)
element and its temperature would not be Thus, the junction temperature T0 of the two
steady. Thus in the steady state, rate of heat bars is
flowing across a cross section of the rod is the
same at every point along the length of the ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
T0 =
combined steel-copper rod. Let T be the ( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the steel-copper junction in the
Using this equation, the heat current H through
steady state. Then,
either bar is
K1 A1 (300 − T ) K 2 A2 (T – 0) K1 A (T1 – T0 )
= K 2 A(T0 – T2 )
L1 L2 H= =
L L
where 1 and 2 refer to the steel and copper rod
respectively. For A1 = 2 A2, L1 = 15.0 cm,
L2 = 10.0 cm, K1 = 50.2 J s–1 m–1 K –1, K2 = 385 J
s–1 m–1 K –1, we have
50.2 × 2 ( 300 − T )
Using these equations, the heat current H′
385 T
= through the compound bar of length L1 + L2 = 2L
15 10
and the equivalent thermal conductivity K′, of
which gives T = 44.4 °C t the compound bar are given by
2 × (79 W m –1 K –1 ) × (109 W m –1 K –1 )
=
79 W m –1 K –1 +109 W m –1 K –1
Fig 11.16 = 91.6 W m–1 K–1
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 295
bodies like, the moon, Sun and other stars. Light For a body with emissivity e, the relation
from the moon is found to have a maximum modifies to
intensity near the wavelength 14 µm. By Wien’s
H = eσ A (T 4 – Ts4) (11.18)
law, the surface of the moon is estimated to have
a temperature of 200 K. Solar radiation has a As an example, let us estimate the heat
maximum at λm = 4753 Å. This corresponds to radiated by our bodies. Suppose the surface area
T = 6060 K. Remember, this is the temperature of a person’s body is about 1.9 m2 and the room
of the surface of the sun, not its interior. temperature is 22°C. The internal body
The most significant feature of the temperature, as we know, is about 37 °C. The
blackbody radiation curves in Fig. 11.18 is that skin temperature may be 28°C (say). The
they are universal. They depend only on the emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the
temperature and not on the size, shape or relevant region of electromagnetic radiation. The
material of the blackbody. Attempts to explain rate of heat loss is:
blackbody radiation theoretically, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, spurred the H = 5.67 × 10–8 × 1.9 × 0.97 × {(301)4 – (295)4}
quantum revolution in physics, as you will = 66.4 W
learn in later courses.
Energy can be transferred by radiation over which is more than half the rate of energy
large distances, without a medium (i.e., in production by the body at rest (120 W). To
vacuum). The total electromagnetic energy prevent this heat loss effectively (better than
radiated by a body at absolute temperature T ordinary clothing), modern arctic clothing has
is proportional to its size, its ability to radiate an additional thin shiny metallic layer next to
(called emissivity) and most importantly to its the skin, which reflects the body’s radiation.
temperature. For a body, which is a perfect
radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H) 11.9.5 Greenhouse Effect
is given by The earth’s surface is a source of thermal
H = AσT 4 (11.16) radiation as it absorbs energy received from the
Sun. The wavelength of this radiation lies in the
where A is the area and T is the absolute long wavelength (infrared) region. But a large
temperature of the body. This relation obtained portion of this radiation is absorbed by
experimentally by Stefan and later proved greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide
theoretically by Boltzmann is known as Stefan- (CO2); methane (CH 4); nitrous oxide (N 2O);
Boltzmann law and the constant σ is called chlorofluorocarbon (CFxClx); and tropospheric
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units ozone (O3). This heats up the atmosphere which,
is 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4. Most bodies emit only a in turn, gives more energy to earth, resulting in
fraction of the rate given by Eq. 11.16. A substance warmer surface. This increases the intensity of
like lamp black comes close to the limit. One, radiation from the surface. The cycle of
therefore, defines a dimensionless fraction e processes described above is repeated until no
called emissivity and writes, radiation is available for absorption. The net
H = AeσT 4 (11.17) result is heating up of earth’s surface and
Here, e = 1 for a perfect radiator. For a tungsten atmosphere. This is known as Greenhouse
lamp, for example, e is about 0.4. Thus, a tungsten Effect. Without the Greenhouse Effect, the
lamp at a temperature of 3000 K and a surface temperature of the earth would have been –18°C.
area of 0.3 cm2 radiates at the rate H = 0.3 × Concentration of greenhouse gases has
10–4 × 0.4 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3000)4 = 60 W. enhanced due to human activities, making the
A body at temperature T, with surroundings earth warmer. According to an estimate, average
temperature of earth has increased by 0.3 to
at temperatures Ts, emits, as well as, receives
0.6°C, since the beginning of this century
energy. For a perfect radiator, the net rate of
because of this enhancement. By the middle of
loss of radiant energy is
the next century, the earth’s global temperature
H = σA (T 4 – Ts4) may be 1 to 3°C higher than today. This global
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warming may cause problem for human life, From the graph you can infer how the cooling
plants and animals. Because of global warming, of hot water depends on the difference of its
ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising, temperature from that of the surroundings. You
and weather pattern is changing. Many coastal will also notice that initially the rate of cooling
cities are at the risk of getting submerged. The is higher and decreases as the temperature of
enhanced Greenhouse Effect may also result in the body falls.
expansion of deserts. All over the world, efforts The above activity shows that a hot body loses
are being made to minimise the effect of global heat to its surroundings in the form of heat
warming. radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on
the difference in temperature between the body
11.10 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING and its surroundings. Newton was the first to
study, in a systematic manner, the relation
We all know that hot water or milk when left on
between the heat lost by a body in a given
a table begins to cool, gradually. Ultimately it
enclosure and its temperature.
attains the temperature of the surroundings. To
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate
study how slow or fast a given body can cool on
of loss of heat, – dQ/dt of the body is directly
exchanging heat with its surroundings, let us
proportional to the difference of temperature
perform the following activity. ∆T = (T2–T1) of the body and the surroundings.
T a k e s o m e w a t e r, s a y 3 0 0 m L , i n a The law holds good only for small difference of
calorimeter with a stirrer and cover it with a temperature. Also, the loss of heat by radiation
two-holed lid. Fix the stirrer through one hole depends upon the nature of the surface of the
and fix a thermometer through another hole body and the area of the exposed surface. We
in the lid and make sure that the bulb of can write
thermometer is immersed in the water. Note
the reading of the thermometer. This reading – (11.19)
T1 is the temperature of the surroundings.
Heat the water kept in the calorimeter till it where k is a positive constant depending upon
attains a temperature, say 40 °C above room the area and nature of the surface of the body.
temperature (i.e., temperature of the Suppose a body of mass m and specific heat
surroundings). Then, stop heating the water capacity s is at temperature T2. Let T1 be the
by removing the heat source. Start the temperature of the surroundings. If the
stop-watch and note the reading of the temperature falls by a small amount dT2 in time
thermometer after a fixed interval of time, say dt, then the amount of heat lost is
after every one minute of stirring gently with dQ = ms dT2
the stirrer. Continue to note the temperature ∴ Rate of loss of heat is given by
(T2) of water till it attains a temperature about
5 °C above that of the surroundings. Then, plot dQ dT
= ms 2 (11.20)
a graph by taking each value of temperature dt dt
∆T = T2 – T1 along y-axis and the coresponding From Eqs. (11.15) and (11.16) we have
value of t along x-axis (Fig. 11.19). dT2
–m s = k (T2 – T1 )
dt
dT2 k
=– dt = – K dt (11.21)
T2 – T1 ms
where K = k/m s
∆
On integrating,
log e (T2 – T1) = – K t + c (11.22)
or T2 = T1 + C′ e –Kt; where C′ = e c (11.23)
Equation 11.23 enables you to calculate the
Fig. 11.19 Curve showing cooling of hot water time of cooling of a body through a particular
with time. range of temperature.
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 297
For small temperature differences, the rate time. A graph is plotted between log e (T2–T1)
of cooling, due to conduction, convection, and [or ln(T2–T1)] and time (t). The nature of the
radiation combined, is proportional to the graph is observed to be a straight line having
difference in temperature. It is a valid a negative slope as shown in Fig. 11.20(b). This
approximation in the transfer of heat from a is in support of Eq. 11.22.
radiator to a room, the loss of heat through the
Example 11.8 A pan filled with hot food
t
wall of a room, or the cooling of a cup of tea on
the table. cools from 94 °C to 86 °C in 2 minutes when
the room temperature is at 20 °C. How long
will it take to cool from 71 °C to 69 °C?
SUMMARY
1. Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by
virtue of temperature difference between them. The degree of hotness of the body is
quantitatively represented by temperature.
2. A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes use of some measurable property
(called thermometric property) that changes with temperature. Different thermometers
lead to different temperature scales. To construct a temperature scale, two fixed points
are chosen and assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two numbers fix
the origin of the scale and the size of its unit.
3. The Celsius temperature (tC) and the Farenheit temperare (tF)are related by
tF = (9/5) tC + 32
4. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
is :
PV = µRT
where µ is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant.
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5. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale corresponds to the temperature
where every substance in nature has the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin
absolute temperature scale (T ) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale (Tc ), but
differs in the origin :
TC = T – 273.15
6. The coefficient of linear expansion (αl ) and volume expansion (αv ) are defined by the
relations :
∆l
= α l ∆T
l
∆V
= αV ∆T
V
where ∆l and ∆V denote the change in length l and volume V for a change of temperature
∆T. The relation between them is :
αv = 3 αl
7. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance.
8. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance
from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of
vaporisation (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid
to the vapour state without change in the temperature and pressure.
9. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
10. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through
molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform
cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures TC and TD, the rate of flow of
heat H is :
T −T
C D
H=K A
L
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.
11. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings :
dQ
= – k (T2 – T1 )
dt
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of
the body.
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. The relation connecting Kelvin temperature (T ) and the Celsius temperature tc
T = tc + 273.15
and the assignment T = 273.16 K for the triple point of water are exact relations (by
choice). With this choice, the Celsius temperature of the melting point of water and
boiling point of water (both at 1 atm pressure) are very close to, but not exactly equal
to 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. In the original Celsius scale, these latter fixed points
were exactly at 0 °C and 100 °C (by choice), but now the triple point of water is the
preferred choice for the fixed point, because it has a unique temperature.
2. A liquid in equilibrium with vapour has the same pressure and temperature throughout
the system; the two phases in equilibrium differ in their molar volume (i.e. density).
This is true for a system with any number of phases in equilibrium.
3. Heat transfer always involves temperature difference between two systems or two parts
of the same system. Any energy transfer that does not involve temperature difference
in some way is not heat.
4. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its
parts. A hot bar placed under a running tap loses heat by conduction between the
surface of the bar and water and not by convection within water.
EXERCISES
11.1 The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K respectively.
Express these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
11.2 Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200 A and 350
B. What is the relation between TA and TB ?
11.3 The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with temperature
according to the approximate law :
R = Ro [1 + α (T – To )]
The resistance is 101.6 Ω at the triple-point of water 273.16 K, and 165.5 Ω at the
normal melting point of lead (600.5 K). What is the temperature when the resistance
is 123.4 Ω ?
11.4 Answer the following :
(a) The triple-point of water is a standard fixed point in modern thermometry.
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Why ? What is wrong in taking the melting point of ice and the boiling point of
water as standard fixed points (as was originally done in the Celsius scale) ?
(b) There were two fixed points in the original Celsius scale as mentioned above
which were assigned the number 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. On the absolute
scale, one of the fixed points is the triple-point of water, which on the Kelvin
absolute scale is assigned the number 273.16 K. What is the other fixed point
on this (Kelvin) scale ?
(c) The absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) T is related to the temperature tc on
the Celsius scale by
tc = T – 273.15
Why do we have 273.15 in this relation, and not 273.16 ?
(d) What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale
whose unit interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?
11.5 Two ideal gas thermometers A and B use oxygen and hydrogen respectively. The
following observations are made :
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 301
11.11 The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine is 49 × 10–5 K–1. What is the
fractional change in its density for a 30 °C rise in temperature ?
11.12 A 10 kW drilling machine is used to drill a bore in a small aluminium block of
mass 8.0 kg. How much is the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 minutes,
assuming 50% of power is used up in heating the machine itself or lost to the
surroundings. Specific heat of aluminium = 0.91 J g–1 K–1.
11.13 A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500 °C and
then placed on a large ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can
melt? (Specific heat of copper = 0.39 J g –1 K –1; heat of fusion of water
= 335 J g–1 ).
11.14 In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at
150 °C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing
150 cm3 of water at 27 °C. The final temperature is 40 °C. Compute the specific
heat of the metal. If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your
answer greater or smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal ?
11.15 Given below are observations on molar specific heats at room temperature of some
common gases.
Gas Molar specific heat (Cv )
(cal mo1–1 K–1)
Hydrogen 4.87
Nitrogen 4.97
Oxygen 5.02
Nitric oxide 4.99
Carbon monoxide 5.01
Chlorine 6.17
The measured molar specific heats of these gases are markedly different from
those for monatomic gases. Typically, molar specific heat of a monatomic gas is
2.92 cal/mol K. Explain this difference. What can you infer from the somewhat
larger (than the rest) value for chlorine ?
11.16 A child running a temperature of 101°F is given an antipyrin (i.e. a medicine that
lowers fever) which causes an increase in the rate of evaporation of sweat from his
body. If the fever is brought down to 98 °F in 20 minutes, what is the average rate
of extra evaporation caused, by the drug. Assume the evaporation mechanism to
be the only way by which heat is lost. The mass of the child is 30 kg. The specific
heat of human body is approximately the same as that of water, and latent heat of
evaporation of water at that temperature is about 580 cal g–1.
11.17 A ‘thermacole’ icebox is a cheap and an efficient method for storing small quantities
of cooked food in summer in particular. A cubical icebox of side 30 cm has a
thickness of 5.0 cm. If 4.0 kg of ice is put in the box, estimate the amount of ice
remaining after 6 h. The outside temperature is 45 °C, and co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of thermacole is 0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1. [Heat of fusion of water = 335 × 103
J kg–1]
11.18 A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and thickness 1.0 cm. It boils water at the
rate of 6.0 kg/min when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the part
of the flame in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass = 109 J s–1 m–1
K–1 ; Heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 × 103 J kg–1.
11.19 Explain why :
(a) a body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter
(b) a brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly day
(c) an optical pyrometer (for measuring high temperatures) calibrated for an ideal
black body radiation gives too low a value for the temperature of a red hot
iron piece in the open, but gives a correct value for the temperature when the
same piece is in the furnace
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ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
11.21 Answer the following questions based on the P-T phase diagram of carbon dioxide:
(a) At what temperature and pressure can the solid, liquid and vapour phases of
CO2 co-exist in equilibrium ?
(b) What is the effect of decrease of pressure on the fusion and boiling point of
CO2 ?
(c) What are the critical temperature and pressure for CO 2 ? What is their
significance ?
(d) Is CO2 solid, liquid or gas at (a) –70 °C under 1 atm, (b) –60 °C under 10 atm,
(c) 15 °C under 56 atm ?
11.22 Answer the following questions based on the P – T phase diagram of CO2:
(a) CO2 at 1 atm pressure and temperature – 60 °C is compressed isothermally.
Does it go through a liquid phase ?
(b) What happens when CO2 at 4 atm pressure is cooled from room temperature
at constant pressure ?
(c) Describe qualitatively the changes in a given mass of solid CO2 at 10 atm
pressure and temperature –65 °C as it is heated up to room temperature at
constant pressure.
(d) CO2 is heated to a temperature 70 °C and compressed isothermally. What
changes in its properties do you expect to observe ?
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CHAPTER TWELVE
THERMODYNAMICS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have studied thermal properties of
matter. In this chapter we shall study laws that govern
thermal energy. We shall study the processes where work is
12.1 Introduction
converted into heat and vice versa. In winter, when we rub
12.2 Thermal equilibrium our palms together, we feel warmer; here work done in rubbing
12.3 Zeroth law of produces the ‘heat’. Conversely, in a steam engine, the ‘heat’
Thermodynamics of the steam is used to do useful work in moving the pistons,
12.4 Heat, internal energy and which in turn rotate the wheels of the train.
work In physics, we need to define the notions of heat,
12.5 First law of temperature, work, etc. more carefully. Historically, it took a
thermodynamics long time to arrive at the proper concept of ‘heat’. Before the
12.6 Specific heat capacity modern picture, heat was regarded as a fine invisible fluid
12.7 Thermodynamic state filling in the pores of a substance. On contact between a hot
variables and equation of body and a cold body, the fluid (called caloric) flowed from
state the colder to the hotter body ! This is similar to what happens
12.8 Thermodynamic processes when a horizontal pipe connects two tanks containing water
12.9 Heat engines up to different heights. The flow continues until the levels of
12.10 Refrigerators and heat water in the two tanks are the same. Likewise, in the ‘caloric’
pumps picture of heat, heat flows until the ‘caloric levels’ (i.e., the
12.11 Second law of temperatures) equalise.
thermodynamics In time, the picture of heat as a fluid was discarded in
12.12 Reversible and irreversible favour of the modern concept of heat as a form of energy. An
processes important experiment in this connection was due to Benjamin
12.13 Carnot engine Thomson (also known as Count Rumford) in 1798. He
observed that boring of a brass cannon generated a lot of
Summary
heat, indeed enough to boil water. More significantly, the
Points to ponder
amount of heat produced depended on the work done (by the
Exercises
horses employed for turning the drill) but not on the
sharpness of the drill. In the caloric picture, a sharper drill
would scoop out more heat fluid from the pores; but this
was not observed. A most natural explanation of the
observations was that heat was a form of energy and the
experiment demonstrated conversion of energy from one form
to another–from work to heat.
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Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that in a different context : we say the state of a system
deals with the concepts of heat and temperature is an equilibrium state if the macroscopic
and the inter-conversion of heat and other forms variables that characterise the system do not
of energy. Thermodynamics is a macroscopic change in time. For example, a gas inside a closed
science. It deals with bulk systems and does not rigid container, completely insulated from its
go into the molecular constitution of matter. In surroundings, with fixed values of pressure,
fact, its concepts and laws were formulated in the volume, temperature, mass and composition that
nineteenth century before the molecular picture do not change with time, is in a state of
of matter was firmly established. Thermodynamic thermodynamic equilibrium.
description involves relatively few macroscopic
variables of the system, which are suggested by
common sense and can be usually measured
directly. A microscopic description of a gas, for
example, would involve specifying the co-ordinates
and velocities of the huge number of molecules
constituting the gas. The description in kinetic
theory of gases is not so detailed but it does involve
molecular distribution of velocities.
Thermodynamic description of a gas, on the other (a)
hand, avoids the molecular description altogether.
Instead, the state of a gas in thermodynamics is
specified by macroscopic variables such as
pressure, volume, temperature, mass and
composition that are felt by our sense perceptions
and are measurable*.
The distinction between mechanics and
thermodynamics is worth bearing in mind. In
mechanics, our interest is in the motion of particles (b)
or bodies under the action of forces and torques. Fig. 12.1 (a) Systems A and B (two gases) separated
Thermodynamics is not concerned with the by an adiabatic wall – an insulating wall
motion of the system as a whole. It is concerned that does not allow flow of heat. (b) The
with the internal macroscopic state of the body. same systems A and B separated by a
When a bullet is fired from a gun, what changes diathermic wall – a conducting wall that
is the mechanical state of the bullet (its kinetic allows heat to flow from one to another. In
this case, thermal equilibrium is attained
energy, in particular), not its temperature. When
in due course.
the bullet pierces a wood and stops, the kinetic
energy of the bullet gets converted into heat, In general, whether or not a system is in a state
changing the temperature of the bullet and the of equilibrium depends on the surroundings and
surrounding layers of wood. Temperature is the nature of the wall that separates the system
related to the energy of the internal (disordered) from the surroundings. Consider two gases A and
motion of the bullet, not to the motion of the bullet B occupying two different containers. We know
as a whole. experimentally that pressure and volume of a
given mass of gas can be chosen to be its two
12.2 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
independent variables. Let the pressure and
Equilibrium in mechanics means that the net volume of the gases be (PA, VA) and (PB, VB )
external force and torque on a system are zero. respectively. Suppose first that the two systems
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics appears are put in proximity but are separated by an
* Thermodynamics may also involve other variables that are not so obvious to our senses e.g. entropy, enthalpy,
etc., and they are all macroscopic variables. However, a thermodynamic state is specified by five state
variables viz., pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy and entropy. Entropy is a measure of disorderness
in the system. Enthalpy is a measure of total heat content of the system.
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adiabatic wall – an insulating wall (can be law in 1931 long after the first and second Laws
movable) that does not allow flow of energy (heat) of thermodynamics were stated and so numbered.
from one to another. The systems are insulated The Zeroth Law clearly suggests that when two
from the rest of the surroundings also by similar systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium,
adiabatic walls. The situation is shown there must be a physical quantity that has the
schematically in Fig. 12.1 (a). In this case, it is same value for both. This thermodynamic
found that any possible pair of values (PA, VA) will variable whose value is equal for two systems in
be in equilibrium with any possible pair of values thermal equilibrium is called temperature (T ).
(PB, VB ). Next, suppose that the adiabatic wall is Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium
replaced by a diathermic wall – a conducting wall with C, TA = TC and TB = TC. This implies that
that allows energy flow (heat) from one to another. TA = TB i.e. the systems A and B are also in
It is then found that the macroscopic variables of thermal equilibrium.
the systems A and B change spontaneously until We have arrived at the concept of temperature
both the systems attain equilibrium states. After formally via the Zeroth Law. The next question
that there is no change in their states. The is : how to assign numerical values to
situation is shown in Fig. 12.1(b). The pressure temperatures of different bodies ? In other words,
and volume variables of the two gases change to how do we construct a scale of temperature ?
(PB ′, VB ′) and (PA ′, VA ′) such that the new states Thermometry deals with this basic question to
of A and B are in equilibrium with each other*. which we turn in the next section.
There is no more energy flow from one to another.
We then say that the system A is in thermal
equilibrium with the system B.
What characterises the situation of thermal
equilibrium between two systems ? You can guess
the answer from your experience. In thermal
equilibrium, the temperatures of the two systems
are equal. We shall see how does one arrive at the
concept of temperature in thermodynamics? The
Zeroth law of thermodynamics provides the clue.
12.3 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (a)
Imagine two systems A and B, separated by an
adiabatic wall, while each is in contact with a third
system C, via a conducting wall [Fig. 12.2(a)]. The
states of the systems (i.e., their macroscopic
variables) will change until both A and B come to
thermal equilibrium with C. After this is achieved,
suppose that the adiabatic wall between A and B
is replaced by a conducting wall and C is insulated
from A and B by an adiabatic wall [Fig.12.2(b)]. It
is found that the states of A and B change no (b)
further i.e. they are found to be in thermal
Fig. 12.2 (a) Systems A and B are separated by an
equilibrium with each other. This observation adiabatic wall, while each is in contact
forms the basis of the Zeroth Law of with a third system C via a conducting
Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two wall. (b) The adiabatic wall between A
systems in thermal equilibrium with a third and B is replaced by a conducting wall,
system separately are in thermal equilibrium while C is insulated from A and B by an
with each other’. R.H. Fowler formulated this adiabatic wall.
* Both the variables need not change. It depends on the constraints. For instance, if the gases are in containers
of fixed volume, only the pressures of the gases would change to achieve thermal equilibrium.
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12.4 HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK associated with various random motions of its
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics led us to molecules. We will see in the next chapter that
the concept of temperature that agrees with our in a gas this motion is not only translational
commonsense notion. Temperature is a marker (i.e. motion from one point to another in the
of the ‘hotness’ of a body. It determines the volume of the container); it also includes
direction of flow of heat when two bodies are rotational and vibrational motion of the
placed in thermal contact. Heat flows from the molecules (Fig. 12.3).
body at a higher temperature to the one at lower
temperature. The flow stops when the
temperatures equalise; the two bodies are then
in thermal equilibrium. We saw in some detail
how to construct temperature scales to assign
temperatures to different bodies. We now
describe the concepts of heat and other relevant
quantities like internal energy and work. Fig. 12.3 (a) Internal energy U of a gas is the sum
of the kinetic and potential energies of its
The concept of internal energy of a system is
molecules when the box is at rest. Kinetic
not difficult to understand. We know that every energy due to various types of motion
bulk system consists of a large number of (translational, rotational, vibrational) is to
molecules. Internal energy is simply the sum of be included in U. (b) If the same box is
the kinetic energies and potential energies of moving as a whole with some velocity,
these molecules. We remarked earlier that in the kinetic energy of the box is not to be
thermodynamics, the kinetic energy of the included in U.
system, as a whole, is not relevant. Internal
energy is thus, the sum of molecular kinetic and
potential energies in the frame of reference
relative to which the centre of mass of the system
is at rest. Thus, it includes only the (disordered)
energy associated with the random motion of
molecules of the system. We denote the internal
energy of a system by U.
Though we have invoked the molecular
picture to understand the meaning of internal
energy, as far as thermodynamics is concerned,
U is simply a macroscopic variable of the system.
The important thing about internal energy is
that it depends only on the state of the system,
not on how that state was achieved. Internal
energy U of a system is an example of a
thermodynamic ‘state variable’ – its value
depends only on the given state of the system,
not on history i.e. not on the ‘path’ taken to arrive
at that state. Thus, the internal energy of a given
mass of gas depends on its state described by Fig. 12.4 Heat and work are two distinct modes of
specific values of pressure, volume and energy transfer to a system that results in
temperature. It does not depend on how this change in its internal energy. (a) Heat is
state of the gas came about. Pressure, volume, energy transfer due to temperature
difference between the system and the
temperature, and internal energy are
surroundings. (b) Work is energy transfer
thermodynamic state variables of the system brought about by means (e.g. moving the
(gas) (see section 12.7). If we neglect the small piston by raising or lowering some weight
intermolecular forces in a gas, the internal connected to it) that do not involve such a
energy of a gas is just the sum of kinetic energies temperature difference.
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What are the ways of changing internal 12.5 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
energy of a system ? Consider again, for We have seen that the internal energy U of a
simplicity, the system to be a certain mass of system can change through two modes of energy
gas contained in a cylinder with a movable transfer : heat and work. Let
piston as shown in Fig. 12.4. Experience shows
there are two ways of changing the state of the ∆Q = Heat supplied to the system by the
gas (and hence its internal energy). One way is surroundings
to put the cylinder in contact with a body at a ∆W = Work done by the system on the
higher temperature than that of the gas. The surroundings
temperature difference will cause a flow of ∆U = Change in internal energy of the system
energy (heat) from the hotter body to the gas, The general principle of conservation of
thus increasing the internal energy of the gas. energy then implies that
The other way is to push the piston down i.e. to ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W (12.1)
do work on the system, which again results in
increasing the internal energy of the gas. Of i.e. the energy (∆Q) supplied to the system goes
course, both these things could happen in the in partly to increase the internal energy of the
reverse direction. With surroundings at a lower system (∆U) and the rest in work on the
temperature, heat would flow from the gas to environment (∆W). Equation (12.1) is known as
the surroundings. Likewise, the gas could push the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is simply
the general law of conservation of energy applied
the piston up and do work on the surroundings.
to any system in which the energy transfer from
In short, heat and work are two different modes
or to the surroundings is taken into account.
of altering the state of a thermodynamic system
Let us put Eq. (12.1) in the alternative form
and changing its internal energy.
The notion of heat should be carefully ∆Q – ∆W = ∆U (12.2)
distinguished from the notion of internal energy.
Heat is certainly energy, but it is the energy in Now, the system may go from an initial state
transit. This is not just a play of words. The to the final state in a number of ways. For
distinction is of basic significance. The state of example, to change the state of a gas from
a thermodynamic system is characterised by its (P1, V 1) to (P2, V 2), we can first change the
internal energy, not heat. A statement like ‘a volume of the gas from V1 to V2, keeping its
gas in a given state has a certain amount of pressure constant i.e. we can first go the state
heat’ is as meaningless as the statement that (P1, V2) and then change the pressure of the
gas from P1 to P2, keeping volume constant, to
‘a gas in a given state has a certain amount
take the gas to (P2, V 2). Alternatively, we can
of work’. In contrast, ‘a gas in a given state
first keep the volume constant and then keep
has a certain amount of internal energy’ is a
the pressure constant. Since U is a state
perfectly meaningful statement. Similarly, the variable, ∆U depends only on the initial and
statements ‘a certain amount of heat is final states and not on the path taken by the
supplied to the system’ or ‘a certain amount gas to go from one to the other. However, ∆Q
of work was done by the system’ are perfectly and ∆W will, in general, depend on the path
meaningful. taken to go from the initial to final states. From
To summarise, heat and work in the First Law of Thermodynamics, Eq. (12.2),
thermodynamics are not state variables. They it is clear that the combination ∆Q – ∆W, is
are modes of energy transfer to a system however, path independent. This shows that
resulting in change in its internal energy, if a system is taken through a process in which
which, as already mentioned, is a state variable. ∆U = 0 (for example, isothermal expansion of
an ideal gas, see section 12.8),
In ordinary language, we often confuse heat
with internal energy. The distinction between ∆Q = ∆W
them is sometimes ignored in elementary
physics books. For proper understanding of i.e., heat supplied to the system is used up
thermodynamics, however, the distinction is entirely by the system in doing work on the
crucial. environment.
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∆Q ∆U ∆V
Cp = = +P
∆T p ∆T p ∆T p (12.10)
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310 PHYSICS
not be uniform throughout. Similarly, a mixture temperature do not. To decide which variable is
of gases undergoing an explosive chemical extensive and which intensive, think of a
reaction (e.g. a mixture of petrol vapour and relevant system in equilibrium, and imagine that
air when ignited by a spark) is not an it is divided into two equal parts. The variables
equilibrium state; again its temperature and that remain unchanged for each part are
pressure are not uniform [Fig. 12.6(b)]. intensive. The variables whose values get halved
Eventually, the gas attains a uniform in each part are extensive. It is easily seen, for
example, that internal energy U, volume V, total
temperature and pressure and comes to
mass M are extensive variables. Pressure P,
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with its
temperature T, and density ρ are intensive
surroundings.
variables. It is a good practice to check the
consistency of thermodynamic equations using
this classification of variables. For example, in
the equation
∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V
quantities on both sides are extensive*. (The
product of an intensive variable like P and an
extensive quantity ∆V is extensive.)
* As emphasised earlier, Q is not a state variable. However, ∆Q is clearly proportional to the total mass of
system and hence is extensive.
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process is, in principle, infinitely slow, hence the A process in which the temperature of the
name quasi-static (meaning nearly static). The system is kept fixed throughout is called an
system changes its variables (P, T, V ) so slowly isothermal process. The expansion of a gas in
that it remains in thermal and mechanical a metallic cylinder placed in a large reservoir of
equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. fixed temperature is an example of an isothermal
In a quasi-static process, at every stage, the process. (Heat transferred from the reservoir to
difference in the pressure of the system and the the system does not materially affect the
external pressure is infinitesimally small. The temperature of the reservoir, because of its very
same is true of the temperature difference large heat capacity.) In isobaric processes the
between the system and its surroundings pressure is constant while in isochoric
(Fig.12.7). To take a gas from the state (P, T ) to processes the volume is constant. Finally, if
another state (P ′, T ′ ) via a quasi-static process, the system is insulated from the surroundings
we change the external pressure by a very small and no heat flows between the system and the
surroundings, the process is adiabatic. The
amount, allow the system to equalise its pressure
definitions of these special processes are
with that of the surroundings and continue the
summarised in Table. 12.2
process infinitely slowly until the system
achieves the pressure P ′. Similarly, to change Table 12.2 Some special thermodynamic
the temperature, we introduce an infinitesimal processes
temperature difference between the system and
the surrounding reservoirs and by choosing
reservoirs of progressively different temperatures
T to T ′, the system achieves the temperature T ′.
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where in the second step we have made use of We can calculate, as before, the work done in
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT and taken the an adiabatic change of an ideal gas from the
constants out of the integral. For an ideal gas, state (P1, V1, T1) to the state (P2, V2, T2).
internal energy depends only on temperature.
V2
Thus, there is no change in the internal energy
W = ∫ P dV
of an ideal gas in an isothermal process. The
V1
First Law of Thermodynamics then implies that
heat supplied to the gas equals the work done
by the gas : Q = W. Note from Eq. (12.12) that
for V2 > V1, W > 0; and for V2 < V1, W < 0. That
is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas absorbs
heat and does work while in an isothermal
(12.15)
compression, work is done on the gas by the
environment and heat is released.
From Eq. (12.14), the constant is P1V1γ or P2V2γ
12.8.3 Adiabatic process
In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated 1 P2V2γ P1V1γ
W = − γ −1
from the surroundings and heat absorbed or 1 − γ V2γ −1 V1
released is zero. From Eq. (12.1), we see that
work done by the gas results in decrease in its 1 µR(T1 − T2 )
internal energy (and hence its temperature for
=
1−γ
[P2V2 − P1V1 ] = γ −1
(12.16)
an ideal gas). We quote without proof (the result
that you will learn in higher courses) that for As expected, if work is done by the gas in an
an adiabatic process of an ideal gas. adiabatic process (W > 0), from Eq. (12.16),
P V γ = const (12.13) T2 < T1. On the other hand, if work is done on
the gas (W < 0), we get T 2 > T 1 i.e., the
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (ordinary
temperature of the gas rises.
or molar) at constant pressure and at constant
volume. 12.8.4 Isochoric process
Cp
In an isochoric process, V is constant. No work
γ =
Cv is done on or by the gas. From Eq. (12.1), the
heat absorbed by the gas goes entirely to change
Thus if an ideal gas undergoes a change in
its internal energy and its temperature. The
its state adiabatically from (P1, V1) to (P2, V2) :
change in temperature for a given amount of
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (12.14) heat is determined by the specific heat of the
Figure12.8 shows the P-V curves of an ideal gas at constant volume.
gas for two adiabatic processes connecting two 12.8.5 Isobaric process
isotherms.
In an isobaric process, P is fixed. Work done by
the gas is
W = P (V2 – V1) = µ R (T2 – T1) (12.17)
Since temperature changes, so does internal
energy. The heat absorbed goes partly to
increase internal energy and partly to do work.
The change in temperature for a given amount
of heat is determined by the specific heat of the
gas at constant pressure.
12.8.6 Cyclic process
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its
Fig. 12.8 P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic
initial state. Since internal energy is a state
processes of an ideal gas. variable, ∆U = 0 for a cyclic process. From
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Eq. (12.1), the total heat absorbed equals the and W is the work done on the environment in
work done by the system. a cycle. In a cycle, a certain amount of heat (Q2)
may also be rejected to the environment. Then,
12.9 HEAT ENGINES
according to the First Law of Thermodynamics,
Heat engine is a device by which a system is over one complete cycle,
made to undergo a cyclic process that results
in conversion of heat to work.
W = Q1 – Q2 (12.19)
(1) It consists of a working substance–the
system. For example, a mixture of fuel i.e.,
vapour and air in a gasoline or diesel engine
or steam in a steam engine are the working Q
substances. η =1 − 2 (12.20)
Q1
(2) The working substance goes through a cycle
consisting of several processes. In some of For Q2 = 0, η = 1, i.e., the engine will have
these processes, it absorbs a total amount 100% efficiency in converting heat into work.
of heat Q1 from an external reservoir at some Note that the First Law of Thermodynamics i.e.,
high temperature T1. the energy conservation law does not rule out
(3) In some other processes of the cycle, the such an engine. But experience shows that
working substance releases a total amount such an ideal engine with η = 1 is never possible,
of heat Q2 to an external reservoir at some even if we can eliminate various kinds of losses
lower temperature T2. associated with actual heat engines. It turns
(4) The work done (W ) by the system in a cycle out that there is a fundamental limit on the
is transferred to the environment via some efficiency of a heat engine set by an independent
arrangement (e.g. the working substance principle of nature, called the Second Law of
may be in a cylinder with a moving piston
Thermodynamics (section 12.11).
that transfers mechanical energy to the
The mechanism of conversion of heat into
wheels of a vehicle via a shaft).
work varies for different heat engines. Basically,
The basic features of a heat engine are
there are two ways : the system (say a gas or a
schematically represented in Fig. 12.9.
mixture of gases) is heated by an external
furnace, as in a steam engine; or it is heated
internally by an exothermic chemical reaction
as in an internal combustion engine. The
various steps involved in a cycle also differ from
one engine to another.
Fig. 12.9 Schematic representation of a heat engine. 12.10 REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
The engine takes heat Q1 from a hot
A refrigerator is the reverse of a heat engine.
reservoir at temperature T1, releases heat
Q2 to a cold reservoir at temperature T2 Here the working substance extracts heat Q2
and delivers work W to the surroundings. from the cold reservoir at temperature T2, some
external work W is done on it and heat Q1 is
The cycle is repeated again and again to get released to the hot reservoir at temperature T1
useful work for some purpose. The discipline of (Fig. 12.10).
thermodynamics has its roots in the study of heat
engines. A basic question relates to the efficiency
of a heat engine. The efficiency (η) of a heat
engine is defined by
W
η= (12.18)
Q1
Fig. 12.10 Schematic representation of a refrigerator
where Q 1 is the heat input i.e., the heat or a heat pump, the reverse of a heat
absorbed by the system in one complete cycle engine.
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Pioneers of Thermodynamics
A heat pump is the same as a refrigerator. where Q2 is the heat extracted from the cold
What term we use depends on the purpose of reservoir and W is the work done on the
the device. If the purpose is to cool a portion of system–the refrigerant. (α for heat pump is
space, like the inside of a chamber, and higher defined as Q1/W) Note that while η by definition
temperature reservoir is surrounding, we call can never exceed 1, α can be greater than 1.
the device a refrigerator; if the idea is to pump By energy conservation, the heat released to the
heat into a portion of space (the room in a hot reservoir is
building when the outside environment is cold),
Q1 = W + Q2
the device is called a heat pump.
In a refrigerator the working substance Q2
i.e., α = (12.22)
(usually, in gaseous form) goes through the Q1 – Q2
following steps : (a) sudden expansion of the gas In a heat engine, heat cannot be fully
from high to low pressure which cools it and converted to work; likewise a refrigerator cannot
converts it into a vapour-liquid mixture, (b) work without some external work done on the
absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the system, i.e., the coefficient of performance in Eq.
region to be cooled converting it into vapour, (c) (12.21) cannot be infinite.
heating up of the vapour due to external work
12.11 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
done on the system, and (d) release of heat by
the vapour to the surroundings, bringing it to The First Law of Thermodynamics is the principle
the initial state and completing the cycle. of conservation of energy. Common experience
The coefficient of performance ( α ) of a shows that there are many conceivable
refrigerator is given by processes that are perfectly allowed by the First
Law and yet are never observed. For example,
Q2 nobody has ever seen a book lying on a table
α= (12.21)
W jumping to a height by itself. But such a thing
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would be possible if the principle of conservation Experience suggests that for most processes in
of energy were the only restriction. The table nature this is not possible. The spontaneous
could cool spontaneously, converting some of its processes of nature are irreversible. Several
internal energy into an equal amount of examples can be cited. The base of a vessel on
mechanical energy of the book, which would an oven is hotter than its other parts. When
then hop to a height with potential energy equal the vessel is removed, heat is transferred from
to the mechanical energy it acquired. But this the base to the other parts, bringing the vessel
never happens. Clearly, some additional basic to a uniform temperature (which in due course
principle of nature forbids the above, even cools to the temperature of the surroundings).
though it satisfies the energy conservation The process cannot be reversed; a part of the
principle. This principle, which disallows many vessel will not get cooler spontaneously and
phenomena consistent with the First Law of warm up the base. It will violate the Second Law
Thermodynamics is known as the Second Law of Thermodynamics, if it did. The free expansion
of Thermodynamics. of a gas is irreversible. The combustion reaction
The Second Law of Thermodynamics gives a of a mixture of petrol and air ignited by a spark
fundamental limitation to the efficiency of a heat cannot be reversed. Cooking gas leaking from a
engine and the co-efficient of performance of a gas cylinder in the kitchen diffuses to the
refrigerator. In simple terms, it says that entire room. The diffusion process will not
efficiency of a heat engine can never be unity. spontaneously reverse and bring the gas back
According to Eq. (12.20), this implies that heat to the cylinder. The stirring of a liquid in thermal
released to the cold reservoir can never be made contact with a reservoir will convert the work
zero. For a refrigerator, the Second Law says that done into heat, increasing the internal energy
the co-efficient of performance can never be of the reservoir. The process cannot be reversed
infinite. According to Eq. (12.21), this implies exactly; otherwise it would amount to conversion
that external work (W ) can never be zero. The of heat entirely into work, violating the Second
following two statements, one due to Kelvin and Law of Thermodynamics. Irreversibility is a rule
Planck denying the possibility of a perfect heat rather an exception in nature.
engine, and another due to Clausius denying Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:
the possibility of a perfect refrigerator or heat one, many processes (like a free expansion, or
pump, are a concise summary of these an explosive chemical reaction) take the system
observations. to non-equilibrium states; two, most processes
Kelvin-Planck statement involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative
No process is possible whose sole result is the effects (e.g., a moving body coming to a stop and
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the losing its mechanical energy as heat to the floor
complete conversion of the heat into work. and the body; a rotating blade in a liquid coming
to a stop due to viscosity and losing its
Clausius statement mechanical energy with corresponding gain in
No process is possible whose sole result is the the internal energy of the liquid). Since
transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter dissipative effects are present everywhere and
object. can be minimised but not fully eliminated, most
It can be proved that the two statements processes that we deal with are irreversible.
above are completely equivalent. A thermodynamic process (state i → state f )
12.12 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE is reversible if the process can be turned back
PROCESSES such that both the system and the surroundings
Imagine some process in which a thermodynamic return to their original states, with no other
system goes from an initial state i to a final change anywhere else in the universe. From the
state f. During the process the system absorbs preceding discussion, a reversible process is an
heat Q from the surroundings and performs idealised notion. A process is reversible only if
work W on it. Can we reverse this process and it is quasi-static (system in equilibrium with the
bring both the system and surroundings to their surroundings at every stage) and there are no
initial states with no other effect anywhere ? dissipative effects. For example, a quasi-static
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isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a from temperature T1 to T2 and then back from
cylinder fitted with a frictionless movable piston temperature T2 to T1. Which processes should
is a reversible process. we employ for this purpose that are reversible?
Why is reversibility such a basic concept in A little reflection shows that we can only adopt
thermodynamics ? As we have seen, one of the reversible adiabatic processes for these
concerns of thermodynamics is the efficiency purposes, which involve no heat flow from any
with which heat can be converted into work. reservoir. If we employ any other process that is
The Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out not adiabatic, say an isochoric process, to take
the possibility of a perfect heat engine with 100% the system from one temperature to another, we
efficiency. But what is the highest efficiency shall need a series of reservoirs in the
possible for a heat engine working between two temperature range T2 to T1 to ensure that at each
reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2 ? It turns stage the process is quasi-static. (Remember
out that a heat engine based on idealised again that for a process to be quasi-static and
reversible processes achieves the highest reversible, there should be no finite temperature
efficiency possible. All other engines involving difference between the system and the reservoir.)
irreversibility in any way (as would be the case But we are considering a reversible engine that
for practical engines) have lower than this operates between only two temperatures. Thus
limiting efficiency. adiabatic processes must bring about the
temperature change in the system from T1 to T2
12.13 CARNOT ENGINE and T2 to T1 in this engine.
Suppose we have a hot reservoir at temperature
T1 and a cold reservoir at temperature T2. What
is the maximum efficiency possible for a heat
engine operating between the two reservoirs and
what cycle of processes should be adopted to
achieve the maximum efficiency ? Sadi Carnot,
a French engineer, first considered this question
in 1824. Interestingly, Carnot arrived at the
correct answer, even though the basic concepts
of heat and thermodynamics had yet to be firmly
established.
We expect the ideal engine operating between
two temperatures to be a reversible engine.
Irreversibility is associated with dissipative
effects, as remarked in the preceding section, Fig. 12.11 Carnot cycle for a heat engine with an
and lowers efficiency. A process is reversible if ideal gas as the working substance.
it is quasi-static and non-dissipative. We have
A reversible heat engine operating between
seen that a process is not quasi-static if it
two temperatures is called a Carnot engine. We
involves finite temperature difference between
have just argued that such an engine must have
the system and the reservoir. This implies that
the following sequence of steps constituting one
in a reversible heat engine operating between
cycle, called the Carnot cycle, shown in Fig.
two temperatures, heat should be absorbed
12.11. We have taken the working substance of
(from the hot reservoir) isothermally and
released (to the cold reservoir) isothermally. We the Carnot engine to be an ideal gas.
thus have identified two steps of the reversible (a) Step 1 → 2 Isothermal expansion of the gas
heat engine : isothermal process at temperature taking its state from (P1, V1, T1) to
T1 absorbing heat Q1 from the hot reservoir, and (P2, V2, T1).
another isothermal process at temperature T2
releasing heat Q 2 to the cold reservoir. To The heat absorbed by the gas (Q1) from the
complete a cycle, we need to take the system reservoir at temperature T 1 is given by
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1 /( γ −1)
Eq. (12.12). This is also the work done (W1 → 2) V2 T
by the gas on the environment. i.e. = 2 (12.29)
V3 T1
V2
W1 → 2 = Q1 = µ R T1 ln (12.23) Similarly, since step 4 → 1 is an adiabatic
V1
process
(b) Step 2 → 3 Adiabatic expansion of the gas
from (P2, V2, T1) to (P3, V3, T2) γ −1 γ −1
T2 V4 = T1 V1
Work done by the gas, using
Eq. (12.16), is 1 / γ −1
V1 T2
µR (T1 − T2 ) i.e.
V4
=
T1
(12.30)
W2 → 3 = (12.24)
γ −1
From Eqs. (12.29) and (12.30),
(c) Step 3 → 4 Isothermal compression of the
gas from (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2). V3 V2
= (12.31)
V4 V1
Heat released (Q2) by the gas to the reservoir
at temperature T2 is given by Eq. (12.12). This
Using Eq. (12.31) in Eq. (12.28), we get
is also the work done (W3 → 4) on the gas by the
environment. T2
η =1 − (Carnot engine) (12.32)
V T1
W3 → 4 = Q2 = µRT2 ln 3 (12.25)
V4 We have already seen that a Carnot engine
(d) Step 4 → 1 Adiabatic compression of the is a reversible engine. Indeed it is the only
gas from (P4, V4, T2) to (P1,V1, T1). reversible engine possible that works between
two reservoirs at different temperatures. Each
Work done on the gas, [using Eq.(12.16), is step of the Carnot cycle given in Fig. 12.11 can
be reversed. This will amount to taking heat Q2
T − T2
W4 → 1 = µ R 1 from the cold reservoir at T2, doing work W on
γ -1
(12.26)
the system, and transferring heat Q1 to the hot
From Eqs. (12.23) to (12.26) total work done reservoir. This will be a reversible refrigerator.
by the gas in one complete cycle is We next establish the important result
(sometimes called Carnot’s theorem) that
W = W1 → 2 + W2 → 3 – W3 →4 – W4 → 1 (a) working between two given temperatures T1
V2 V3 and T2 of the hot and cold reservoirs respectively,
= µ RT1 ln – µ RT2 ln (12.27) no engine can have efficiency more than that of
1
V V4 the Carnot engine and (b) the efficiency of the
The efficiency η of the Carnot engine is Carnot engine is independent of the nature of
the working substance.
W Q2
η = =1 − To prove the result (a), imagine a reversible
Q1 Q1
(Carnot) engine R and an irreversible engine I
In V3 working between the same source (hot reservoir)
and sink (cold reservoir). Let us couple the
T V4
=1 − 2 engines, I and R, in such a way so that I acts
T1 V2 (12.28)
like a heat engine and R acts as a refrigerator.
In V
1 Let I absorb heat Q1 from the source, deliver
work W ′ and release the heat Q1- W′ to the sink.
Now since step 2 → 3 is an adiabatic process,
We arrange so that R returns the same heat Q1
γ −1 γ −1 to the source, taking heat Q2 from the sink and
T1 V2 = T2 V3 requiring work W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it.
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Now suppose η R < η I i.e. if R were to act than that of the Carnot engine. A similar
as an engine it would give less work output argument can be constructed to show that a
than that of I i.e. W < W ′ for a given Q1. With R reversible engine with one particular substance
acting like a refrigerator, this would mean cannot be more efficient than the one using
Q2 = Q1 – W > Q1 – W ′. Thus, on the whole, another substance. The maximum efficiency of
the coupled I-R system extracts heat a Carnot engine given by Eq. (12.32) is
(Q1 – W) – (Q1 – W ′) = (W ′ – W ) from the cold independent of the nature of the system
reservoir and delivers the same amount of work performing the Carnot cycle of operations. Thus
in one cycle, without any change in the source we are justified in using an ideal gas as a system
or anywhere else. This is clearly against the in the calculation of efficiency η of a Carnot
Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second Law of engine. The ideal gas has a simple equation of
Thermodynamics. Hence the assertion ηI > ηR state, which allows us to readily calculate η, but
is wrong. No engine can have efficiency greater the final result for η, [Eq. (12.32)], is true for
any Carnot engine.
This final remark shows that in a Carnot
cycle,
I Q1 T1
= (12.33)
Q 2 T2
is a universal relation independent of the nature
R of the system. Here Q1 and Q2 are respectively,
the heat absorbed and released isothermally
(from the hot and to the cold reservoirs) in a
W Carnot engine. Equation (12.33), can, therefore,
be used as a relation to define a truly universal
Fig. 12.12 An irreversible engine (I) coupled to a thermodynamic temperature scale that is
reversible refrigerator (R). If W ′ > W, this independent of any particular properties of the
would amount to extraction of heat system used in the Carnot cycle. Of course, for
W ′ – W from the sink and its full an ideal gas as a working substance, this
conversion to work, in contradiction with universal temperature is the same as the ideal
the Second Law of Thermodynamics. gas temperature introduced in section 12.11.
SUMMARY
1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other’. The Zeroth Law leads
to the concept of temperature.
2. Internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies of the
molecular constituents of the system. It does not include the over-all kinetic energy of
the system. Heat and work are two modes of energy transfer to the system. Heat is the
energy transfer arising due to temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings. Work is energy transfer brought about by other means, such as moving
the piston of a cylinder containing the gas, by raising or lowering some weight connected
to it.
3. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied to
any system in which energy transfer from or to the surroundings (through heat and
work) is taken into account. It states that
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
where ∆Q is the heat supplied to the system, ∆W is the work done by the system and ∆U
is the change in internal energy of the system.
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1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance. For a solid, the law of equipartition
of energy gives
C = 3R
which generally agrees with experiment at ordinary temperatures.
Calorie is the old unit of heat. 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C. 1 cal = 4.186 J.
5. For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat capacities at constant pressure and volume
satisfy the relation
Cp – Cv = R
where R is the universal gas constant.
6. Equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system are described by state variables. The
value of a state variable depends only on the particular state, not on the path used to
arrive at that state. Examples of state variables are pressure (P ), volume (V ), temperature
(T ), and mass (m ). Heat and work are not state variables. An Equation of State (like
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT ) is a relation connecting different state variables.
7. A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings throughout. In a
quasi-static process, the pressure and temperature of the environment can differ from
those of the system only infinitesimally.
8. In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T the
heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W ) by the gas, each given by
V2
Q = W = µRT ln V
1
9. In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas
γ
PV = constant
Cp
where γ =
Cv
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2)
is
µ R ( T1 − T2 )
W =
γ –1
10. Heat engine is a device in which a system undergoes a cyclic process resulting in
conversion of heat into work. If Q1 is the heat absorbed from the source, Q2 is the heat
released to the sink, and the work output in one cycle is W, the efficiency η of the engine
is:
W Q
η= =1− 2
Q1 Q1
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11. In a refrigerator or a heat pump, the system extracts heat Q2 from the cold reservoir and
releases Q1 amount of heat to the hot reservoir, with work W done on the system. The
co-efficient of performance of a refrigerator is given by
Q2 Q2
α= =
W Q1 − Q2
12. The second law of thermodynamics disallows some processes consistent with the First
Law of Thermodynamics. It states
Kelvin-Planck statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
hotter object.
Put simply, the Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency η equal to
1 or no refrigerator can have co-efficient of performance α equal to infinity.
13. A process is reversible if it can be reversed such that both the system and the surroundings
return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
Spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible. The idealised reversible process is a
quasi-static process with no dissipative factors such as friction, viscosity, etc.
14. Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between two temperatures T1 (source) and
T2 (sink). The Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal processes connected by two
adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
T2
η =1 − (Carnot engine)
T1
No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of
the Carnot engine.
15. If Q > 0, heat is added to the system
If Q < 0, heat is removed to the system
If W > 0, Work is done by the system
If W < 0, Work is done on the system
dt
Thermal Conductivity K [MLT–3 K–1] J s–1 K–1 H = – KA
dx
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. Temperature of a body is related to its average internal energy, not to the kinetic energy
of motion of its centre of mass. A bullet fired from a gun is not at a higher temperature
because of its high speed.
2. Equilibrium in thermodynamics refers to the situation when macroscopic variables
describing the thermodynamic state of a system do not depend on time. Equilibrium of
a system in mechanics means the net external force and torque on the system are zero.
3. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the microscopic constituents of a system are
not in equilibrium (in the sense of mechanics).
4. Heat capacity, in general, depends on the process the system goes through when heat is
supplied.
5. In isothermal quasi-static processes, heat is absorbed or given out by the system even
though at every stage the gas has the same temperature as that of the surrounding
reservoir. This is possible because of the infinitesimal difference in temperature between
the system and the reservoir.
EXERCISES
12.1 A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 3.0 litres per minute from 27 °C to 77 °C.
If the geyser operates on a gas burner, what is the rate of consumption of the fuel if
its heat of combustion is 4.0 × 104 J/g ?
12.2 What amount of heat must be supplied to 2.0 × 10–2 kg of nitrogen (at room
temperature) to raise its temperature by 45 °C at constant pressure ? (Molecular
mass of N2 = 28; R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1.)
12.3 Explain why
(a) Two bodies at different temperatures T1 and T2 if brought in thermal contact do
not necessarily settle to the mean temperature (T1 + T2 )/2.
(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent
the different parts of a plant from getting too hot) should have high specific
heat.
(c) Air pressure in a car tyre increases during driving.
(d) The climate of a harbour town is more temperate than that of a town in a desert
at the same latitude.
12.4 A cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at standard temperature
and pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat insulator, and the piston
is insulated by having a pile of sand on it. By what factor does the pressure of the
gas increase if the gas is compressed to half its original volume ?
12.5 In changing the state of a gas adiabatically from an equilibrium state A to another
equilibrium state B, an amount of work equal to 22.3 J is done on the system. If the
gas is taken from state A to B via a process in which the net heat absorbed by the
system is 9.35 cal, how much is the net work done by the system in the latter case ?
(Take 1 cal = 4.19 J)
12.6 Two cylinders A and B of equal capacity are connected to each other via a stopcock.
A contains a gas at standard temperature and pressure. B is completely evacuated.
The entire system is thermally insulated. The stopcock is suddenly opened. Answer
the following :
(a) What is the final pressure of the gas in A and B ?
(b) What is the change in internal energy of the gas ?
(c) What is the change in the temperature of the gas ?
(d) Do the intermediate states of the system (before settling to the final equilibrium
state) lie on its P-V-T surface ?
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12.7 A steam engine delivers 5.4×108J of work per minute and services 3.6 × 109J of heat
per minute from its boiler. What is the efficiency of the engine? How much heat is
wasted per minute?
12.8 An electric heater supplies heat to a system at a rate of 100W. If system performs
work at a rate of 75 joules per second. At what rate is the internal energy increasing?
12.9 A thermodynamic system is taken from an original state to an intermediate state by
the linear process shown in Fig. (12.13)
Fig. 12.13
Its volume is then reduced to the original value from E to F by an isobaric process.
Calculate the total work done by the gas from D to E to F
12.10 A refrigerator is to maintain eatables kept inside at 90C. If room temperature is 360C,
calculate the coefficient of performance.
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
KINETIC THEORY
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Boyle discovered the law named after him in 1661. Boyle,
Newton and several others tried to explain the behaviour of
13.1 Introduction gases by considering that gases are made up of tiny atomic
13.2 Molecular nature of matter particles. The actual atomic theory got established more than
13.3 Behaviour of gases 150 years later. Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases
13.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly moving
13.5 Law of equipartition of energy atoms or molecules. This is possible as the inter-atomic forces,
13.6 Specific heat capacity which are short range forces that are important for solids
13.7 Mean free path and liquids, can be neglected for gases. The kinetic theory
was developed in the nineteenth century by Maxwell,
Summary Boltzmann and others. It has been remarkably successful. It
Points to ponder gives a molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature
Exercises of a gas, and is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s
Additional exercises hypothesis. It correctly explains specific heat capacities of
many gases. It also relates measurable properties of gases
such as viscosity, conduction and diffusion with molecular
parameters, yielding estimates of molecular sizes and masses.
This chapter gives an introduction to kinetic theory.
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in Greece had suggested that matter may consist of matter. The theory is now well accepted by
of indivisible constituents. The scientific ‘Atomic scientists. However even at the end of the
Theory’ is usually credited to John Dalton. He nineteenth century there were famous scientists
proposed the atomic theory to explain the laws who did not believe in atomic theory !
of definite and multiple proportions obeyed by From many observations, in recent times we
elements when they combine into compounds. now know that molecules (made up of one or
The first law says that any given compound has, more atoms) constitute matter. Electron
a fixed proportion by mass of its constituents. microscopes and scanning tunnelling
The second law says that when two elements microscopes enable us to even see them. The
form more than one compound, for a fixed mass size of an atom is about an angstrom (10 -10 m).
of one element, the masses of the other elements In solids, which are tightly packed, atoms are
are in ratio of small integers. spaced about a few angstroms (2 Å) apart. In
To explain the laws Dalton suggested, about liquids the separation between atoms is also
200 years ago, that the smallest constituents about the same. In liquids the atoms are not
of an element are atoms. Atoms of one element as rigidly fixed as in solids, and can move
are identical but differ from those of other around. This enables a liquid to flow. In gases
elements. A small number of atoms of each the interatomic distances are in tens of
element combine to form a molecule of the angstroms. The average distance a molecule
compound. Gay Lussac’s law, also given in early can travel without colliding is called the mean
19th century, states: When gases combine free path. The mean free path, in gases, is of
chemically to yield another gas, their volumes the order of thousands of angstroms. The atoms
are in the ratios of small integers. Avogadro’s are much freer in gases and can travel long
law (or hypothesis) says: Equal volumes of all distances without colliding. If they are not
gases at equal temperature and pressure have enclosed, gases disperse away. In solids and
the same number of molecules. Avogadro’s law, liquids the closeness makes the interatomic force
when combined with Dalton’s theory explains important. The force has a long range attraction
Gay Lussac’s law. Since the elements are often and a short range repulsion. The atoms attract
in the form of molecules, Dalton’s atomic theory when they are at a few angstroms but repel when
can also be referred to as the molecular theory they come closer. The static appearance of a gas
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KINETIC THEORY 325
is misleading. The gas is full of activity and the for a given sample of the gas. Here T is the
equilibrium is a dynamic one. In dynamic temperature in kelvin or (absolute) scale. K is a
equilibrium, molecules collide and change their constant for the given sample but varies with
speeds during the collision. Only the average the volume of the gas. If we now bring in the
properties are constant. idea of atoms or molecules, then K is proportional
Atomic theory is not the end of our quest, but to the number of molecules, (say) N in the
the beginning. We now know that atoms are not sample. We can write K = N k . Observation tells
indivisible or elementary. They consist of a us that this k is same for all gases. It is called
nucleus and electrons. The nucleus itself is made Boltzmann constant and is denoted by k .
B
up of protons and neutrons. The protons and
P1V1 PV
neutrons are again made up of quarks. Even As = 2 2 = constant = kB (13.2)
N1T1 N 2 T2
quarks may not be the end of the story. There
may be string like elementary entities. Nature if P, V and T are same, then N is also same for
always has surprises for us, but the search for all gases. This is Avogadro’s hypothesis, that the
truth is often enjoyable and the discoveries number of molecules per unit volume is
beautiful. In this chapter, we shall limit ourselves the same for all gases at a fixed temperature and
to understanding the behaviour of gases (and a pressure. The number in 22.4 litres of any gas
little bit of solids), as a collection of moving is 6.02 × 1023. This is known as Avogadro
molecules in incessant motion. number and is denoted by NA. The mass of 22.4
litres of any gas is equal to its molecular weight
13.3 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES in grams at S.T.P (standard temperature 273 K
Properties of gases are easier to understand than and pressure 1 atm). This amount of substance
those of solids and liquids. This is mainly is called a mole (see Chapter 2 for a more precise
because in a gas, molecules are far from each definition). Avogadro had guessed the equality of
other and their mutual interactions are numbers in equal volumes of gas at a fixed
negligible except when two molecules collide. temperature and pressure from chemical
Gases at low pressures and high temperatures reactions. Kinetic theory justifies this hypothesis.
much above that at which they liquefy (or The perfect gas equation can be written as
solidify) approximately satisfy a simple relation PV = µ RT (13.3)
between their pressure, temperature and volume where µ is the number of moles and R = NA
given by (see Chapter 11) kB is a universal constant. The temperature T is
PV = KT (13.1) absolute temperature. Choosing kelvin scale for
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P (atm)
Fig.13.1 Real gases approach ideal gas behaviour
at low pressures and high temperatures.
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KINETIC THEORY 329
total pressure is obtained by summing over the the gas in equilibrium is the same as anywhere
contribution due to all groups: else. Second, we have ignored any collisions in
P = n m v x2 (13.12) the derivation. Though this assumption is
difficult to justify rigorously, we can qualitatively
where v x is the average of vx . Now the gas
2 2
see that it will not lead to erroneous results.
is isotropic, i.e. there is no preferred direction The number of molecules hitting the wall in time
of velocity of the molecules in the vessel. ∆t was found to be ½ n Avx ∆t. Now the collisions
Therefore, by symmetry, are random and the gas is in a steady state.
2 Thus, if a molecule with velocity (vx, vy, vz )
v 2x = vy = v z2 acquires a different velocity due to collision with
= (1/3) [ v 2x + v y2 + v z2 ] = (1/3) v 2 (13.13) some molecule, there will always be some other
molecule with a different initial velocity which
where v is the speed and v 2 denotes the mean after a collision acquires the velocity (vx, vy, vz ).
If this were not so, the distribution of velocities
of the squared speed. Thus
would not remain steady. In any case we are
P = (1/3) n m v 2 (13.14) finding v x2 . Thus, on the whole, molecular
Some remarks on this derivation. First, collisions (if they are not too frequent and the
though we choose the container to be a cube, time spent in a collision is negligible compared
the shape of the vessel really is immaterial. For to time between collisions) will not affect the
a vessel of arbitrary shape, we can always choose calculation above.
a small infinitesimal (planar) area and carry 13.4.2 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
through the steps above. Notice that both A and
∆t do not appear in the final result. By Pascal’s Equation (13.14) can be written as
law, given in Ch. 10, pressure in one portion of PV = (1/3) nV m v 2 (13.15a)
Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844 – 1906) bor n in
Vienna, Austria, worked on the kinetic theory of gases
independently of Maxwell. A firm advocate of atomism, that is
basic to kinetic theory, Boltzmann provided a statistical
interpretation of the Second Law of thermodynamics and the
concept of entropy. He is regarded as one of the founders of classical
statistical mechanics. The proportionality constant connecting
energy and temperature in kinetic theory is known as Boltzmann’s
constant in his honour.
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PV = (2/3) N x ½ m v 2 (13.15b) M N2 28
where N (= nV ) is the number of molecules in m = = = 4.65 × 10 –26 kg.
NA 6.02 × 1026
the sample.
The quantity in the bracket is the average v 2 = 3 kB T / m = (516)2 m2s-2
translational kinetic energy of the molecules in The square root of v 2 is known as root mean
the gas. Since the internal energy E of an ideal square (rms) speed and is denoted by vrms,
gas is purely kinetic*,
( We can also write v 2 as < v2 >.)
E = N × (1/2) m v 2 (13.16)
vrms = 516 m s-1
Equation (13.15) then gives : The speed is of the order of the speed of sound
PV = (2/3) E (13.17) in air. It follows from Eq. (13.19) that at the same
We are now ready for a kinetic interpretation temperature, lighter molecules have greater rms
of temperature. Combining Eq. (13.17) with the speed.
ideal gas Eq. (13.3), we get t
Example 13.5 A flask contains argon and
E = (3/2) kB NT (13.18) chlorine in the ratio of 2:1 by mass. The
or E/ N = ½ m v 2 = (3/2) kBT (13.19) temperature of the mixture is 27 °C. Obtain
i.e., the average kinetic energy of a molecule is the ratio of (i) average kinetic energy per
proportional to the absolute temperature of the molecule, and (ii) root mean square speed
gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or vrms of the molecules of the two gases.
the nature of the ideal gas. This is a fundamental Atomic mass of argon = 39.9 u; Molecular
result relating temperature, a macroscopic mass of chlorine = 70.9 u.
measurable parameter of a gas
(a thermodynamic variable as it is called) to a Answer The important point to remember is that
molecular quantity, namely the average kinetic
the average kinetic energy (per molecule) of any
energy of a molecule. The two domains are
(ideal) gas (be it monatomic like argon, diatomic
connected by the Boltzmann constant. We note
in passing that Eq. (13.18) tells us that internal like chlorine or polyatomic) is always equal to
energy of an ideal gas depends only on (3/2) kBT. It depends only on temperature, and
temperature, not on pressure or volume. With is independent of the nature of the gas.
this interpretation of temperature, kinetic theory (i) Since argon and chlorine both have the same
of an ideal gas is completely consistent with the temperature in the flask, the ratio of average
ideal gas equation and the various gas laws kinetic energy (per molecule) of the two gases
based on it. is 1:1.
For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases, the (ii) Now ½ m vrms2 = average kinetic energy per
total pressure gets contribution from each gas molecule = (3/2) ) kBT where m is the mass
in the mixture. Equation (13.14) becomes of a molecule of the gas. Therefore,
P = (1/3) [n1m1 v12 + n2 m2 v 22 +… ] (13.20)
In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of (v )
2
rms Ar
=
(m )Cl
=
(M )Cl 70.9
the molecules of different gases will be equal.
That is,
(v )
2
rms Cl (m )Ar ( M ) Ar =
39.9
=1.77
* E denotes the translational part of the internal energy U that may include energies due to other degrees of
freedom also. See section 13.5.
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In a similar way the molecular speed distribution gives the number of molecules between
2
the speeds v and v+ dv. dN(v) = 4p N a3e–bv v2 dv = nvdv. This is called Maxwell distribution.
The plot of nv against v is shown in the figure. The fraction of the molecules with speeds v and
v+dv is equal to the area of the strip shown. The average of any quantity like v2 is defined by
the integral <v2> = (1/N ) ∫ v2 dN(v) = ª(3kB T/m) which agrees with the result derived from
more elementary considerations.
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the slower one and so there is more of the lighter is V + u towards the bat. When the ball rebounds
molecule (enrichment) outside the porous (after hitting the massive bat) its speed, relative
cylinder (Fig. 13.5). The method is not very to bat, is V + u moving away from the bat. So
efficient and has to be repeated several times relative to the wicket the speed of the rebounding
for sufficient enrichment.]. t ball is V + (V + u) = 2V + u, moving away from
When gases diffuse, their rate of diffusion is the wicket. So the ball speeds up after the
inversely proportional to square root of the collision with the bat. The rebound speed will
masses (see Exercise 13.12 ). Can you guess the be less than u if the bat is not massive. For a
explanation from the above answer? molecule this would imply an increase in
temperature.
You should be able to answer (b) (c) and (d)
based on the answer to (a).
(Hint: Note the correspondence, pistonà bat,
cylinder à wicket, molecule à ball.) t
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* Rotation along the line joining the atoms has very small moment of inertia and does not come into play for
quantum mechanical reasons. See end of section 13.6.
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i.e.,Cv = (3 + f ) R, Cp = (4 + f ) R,
3 3
U = k B T × N A = RT (13.27)
2 2 (4 + f )
γ = (13.36)
(3 + f )
The molar specific heat at constant volume,
Cv, is Note that Cp – Cv = R is true for any ideal
gas, whether mono, di or polyatomic.
dU 3
Cv (monatomic gas) = = RT (13.28) Table 13.1 summarises the theoretical
dT 2 predictions for specific heats of gases ignoring
For an ideal gas, any vibrational modes of motion. The values are
Cp – Cv = R (13.29) in good agreement with experimental values of
where Cp is the molar specific heat at constant specific heats of several gases given in Table 13.2.
pressure. Thus, Of course, there are discrepancies between
5 predicted and actual values of specific heats of
Cp = R (13.30)
several other gases (not shown in the table), such
2
as Cl2, C2H6 and many other polyatomic gases.
Cp 5 Usually, the experimental values for specific
The ratio of specific heats γ = = (13.31)
Cv 3 heats of these gases are greater than the
predicted values as given in Table13.1 suggesting
13.6.2 Diatomic Gases that the agreement can be improved by including
vibrational modes of motion in the calculation.
As explained earlier, a diatomic molecule treated
The law of equipartition of energy is, thus, well
as a rigid rotator, like a dumbbell, has 5 degrees
of freedom: 3 translational and 2 rotational.
Using the law of equipartition of energy, the total Table 13.1 Predicted values of specific heat
internal energy of a mole of such a gas is capacities of gases (ignoring
5 5 vibrational modes)
U = kBT × N A = RT (13.32)
2 2
Nature of Cv Cp Cp - Cv
The molar specific heats are then given by
g
Gas 1 1 1 1 1 1
(J mol- K- ) (J mol- K- ) (J mol- K- )
5 7
Cv (rigid diatomic) = R, Cp = R (13.33) Monatomic 12.5 20.8 8.31 1.67
2 2
Diatomic 20.8 29.1 8.31 1.40
7
γ (rigid diatomic) = (13.34) Triatomic 24.93 33.24 8.31 1.33
5
If the diatomic molecule is not rigid but has
in addition a vibrational mode Table13.2 Measured values of specific heat
5 7 capacities of some gases
U = k BT + k B T N A = RT
2 2
7 9 9
Cv = R, C p = R, γ = R (13.35)
2 2 7
13.6.3 Polyatomic Gases
In general a polyatomic molecule has 3
translational, 3 rotational degrees of freedom
and a certain number ( f ) of vibrational modes.
According to the law of equipartition of energy,
it is easily seen that one mole of such a gas has
3
U = kBT +
3
kBT + f kBT NA
2 2
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Seeing is Believing
Can one see atoms rushing about. Almost but not quite. One can see pollen grains of a flower being
pushed around by molecules of water. The size of the grain is ~ 10-5 m. In 1827, a Scottish botanist
Robert Brown, while examining, under a microscope, pollen grains of a flower suspended in water
noticed that they continuously moved about in a zigzag, random fashion.
Kinetic theory provides a simple explanation of the phenomenon. Any object suspended in water is
continuously bombarded from all sides by the water molecules. Since the motion of molecules is random,
the number of molecules hitting the object in any direction is about the same as the number hitting in
the opposite direction. The small difference between these molecular hits is negligible compared to the
total number of hits for an object of ordinary size, and we do not notice any movement of the object.
When the object is sufficiently small but still visible under a microscope, the difference in molecular
hits from different directions is not altogether negligible, i.e. the impulses and the torques given to the
suspended object through continuous bombardment by the molecules of the medium (water or some
other fluid) do not exactly sum to zero. There is a net impulse and torque in this or that direction. The
suspended object thus, moves about in a zigzag manner and tumbles about randomly. This motion
called now ‘Brownian motion’ is a visible proof of molecular activity. In the last 50 years or so molecules
have been seen by scanning tunneling and other special microscopes.
In 1987 Ahmed Zewail, an Egyptian scientist working in USA was able to observe not only the
molecules but also their detailed interactions. He did this by illuminating them with flashes of laser
light for very short durations, of the order of tens of femtoseconds and photographing them. ( 1 femto-
second = 10-15 s ). One could study even the formation and breaking of chemical bonds. That is really
seeing !
move straight unhindered; their paths keep will collide with it (see Fig. 13.7). If n is the
getting incessantly deflected. number of molecules per unit volume, the
molecule suffers nπd2 <v> ∆t collisions in time
∆t. Thus the rate of collisions is nπd2 <v> or the
time between two successive collisions is on the
average,
τ = 1/(nπ <v> d2 ) (13.38)
The average distance between two successive
collisions, called the mean free path l, is :
t
v l = <v> τ = 1/(nπd2) (13.39)
d In this derivation, we imagined the other
molecules to be at rest. But actually all molecules
are moving and the collision rate is determined
d by the average relative velocity of the molecules.
Thus we need to replace <v> by <v > in Eq.
r
(13.38). A more exact treatment gives
l = 1/ ( 2 nπ d 2 ) (13.40)
Let us estimate l and τ for air molecules with
Fig. 13.7 The volume swept by a molecule in time ∆t
average speeds <v> = ( 485m/s). At STP
in which any molecule will collide with it.
(0.02 × 10 ) 23
the average speed <v>. It will suffer collision with = 2.7 × 10 25 m -3.
any molecule that comes within a distance d Taking, d = 2 × 10–10 m,
between the centres. In time ∆t, it sweeps a τ = 6.1 × 10–10 s
volume πd2 <v> ∆t wherein any other molecule and l = 2.9 × 10–7 m ≈ 1500d (13.41)
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KINETIC THEORY 337
SUMMARY
1. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P ), volume (V ) and absolute temperature
(T ) is
PV = µ RT = kB NT
where µ is the number of moles and N is the number of molecules. R and kB are universal
constants.
R
R = 8.314 J mol–1 K–1, kB = = 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1
NA
Real gases satisfy the ideal gas equation only approximately, more so at low pressures
and high temperatures.
2. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation
1
P= n m v2
3
where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and v 2 is the
mean of squared speed. Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
interpretation of temperature.
1 3
( ) 3k B T
1/ 2
m v 2 = k B T , vrms = v 2 =
2 2 m
This tells us that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of a molecule, independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. In a mixture of gases at
a fixed temperature the heavier molecule has the lower average speed.
3. The translational kinetic energy
E=
3 kB NT.
2
This leads to a relation
2
PV = E
3
4. The law of equipartition of energy states that if a system is in equilibrium at absolute
temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of
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absorption, the energy in each mode being equal to ½ kB T. Each translational and
rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one energy mode of absorption and has
energy ½ kB T. Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic and potential)
with corresponding energy equal to
2 × ½ kB T = kB T.
5. Using the law of equipartition of energy, the molar specific heats of gases can be
determined and the values are in agreement with the experimental values of specific
heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by including vibrational modes
of motion.
6. The mean free path l is the average distance covered by a molecule between two successive
collisions :
1
l=
2 n π d2
where n is the number density and d the diameter of the molecule.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Pressure of a fluid is not only exerted on the wall. Pressure exists everywhere in a fluid.
Any layer of gas inside the volume of a container is in equilibrium because the pressure
is the same on both sides of the layer.
3. The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy for each degree of freedom
in thermal equilibrium is ½ k T. Each quadratic term in the total energy expression of
B
a molecule is to be counted as a degree of freedom. Thus, each vibrational mode gives
2 (not 1) degrees of freedom (kinetic and potential energy modes), corresponding to the
energy 2 × ½ k T = k T.
B B
4. Molecules of air in a room do not all fall and settle on the ground (due to gravity)
because of their high speeds and incessant collisions. In equilibrium, there is a very
slight increase in density at lower heights (like in the atmosphere). The effect is small
since the potential energy (mgh) for ordinary heights is much less than the average
kinetic energy ½ mv2 of the molecules.
5. < v2 > is not always equal to ( < v >)2. The average of a squared quantity is not necessarily
the square of the average. Can you find examples for this statement.
EXERCISES
13.1 Estimate the fraction of molecular volume to the actual volume occupied by oxygen
gas at STP. Take the diameter of an oxygen molecule to be 3 Å.
13.2 Molar volume is the volume occupied by 1 mol of any (ideal) gas at standard
temperature and pressure (STP : 1 atmospheric pressure, 0 °C). Show that it is 22.4
litres.
13.3 Figure 13.8 shows plot of PV/T versus P for 1.00×10–3 kg of oxygen gas at two
different temperatures.
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KINETIC THEORY 339
T1
PV (J K–1) T2
T
P x
Fig. 13.8
13.4 An oxygen cylinder of volume 30 litres has an initial gauge pressure of 15 atm and
a temperature of 27 °C. After some oxygen is withdrawn from the cylinder, the gauge
pressure drops to 11 atm and its temperature drops to 17 °C. Estimate the mass of
oxygen taken out of the cylinder (R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, molecular mass of O2 = 32 u).
13.5 An air bubble of volume 1.0 cm3 rises from the bottom of a lake 40 m deep at a
temperature of 12 °C. To what volume does it grow when it reaches the surface,
which is at a temperature of 35 °C ?
13.6 Estimate the total number of air molecules (inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water
vapour and other constituents) in a room of capacity 25.0 m3 at a temperature of
27 °C and 1 atm pressure.
13.7 Estimate the average thermal energy of a helium atom at (i) room temperature
(27 °C), (ii) the temperature on the surface of the Sun (6000 K), (iii) the temperature
of 10 million kelvin (the typical core temperature in the case of a star).
13.8 Three vessels of equal capacity have gases at the same temperature and pressure.
The first vessel contains neon (monatomic), the second contains chlorine (diatomic),
and the third contains uranium hexafluoride (polyatomic). Do the vessels contain
equal number of respective molecules ? Is the root mean square speed of molecules
the same in the three cases? If not, in which case is vrms the largest ?
13.9 At what temperature is the root mean square speed of an atom in an argon gas
cylinder equal to the rms speed of a helium gas atom at – 20 °C ? (atomic mass of Ar
= 39.9 u, of He = 4.0 u).
13.10 Estimate the mean free path and collision frequency of a nitrogen molecule in a
cylinder containing nitrogen at 2.0 atm and temperature 17 0C. Take the radius of a
nitrogen molecule to be roughly 1.0 Å. Compare the collision time with the time the
molecule moves freely between two successive collisions (Molecular mass of N2 =
28.0 u).
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Additional Exercises
13.11 A metre long narrow bore held horizontally (and closed at one end) contains a 76 cm
long mercury thread, which traps a 15 cm column of air. What happens if the tube
is held vertically with the open end at the bottom ?
13.12 From a certain apparatus, the diffusion rate of hydrogen has an average value of
28.7 cm3 s–1. The diffusion of another gas under the same conditions is measured to
have an average rate of 7.2 cm3 s–1. Identify the gas.
[Hint : Use Graham’s law of diffusion: R1/R2 = ( M2 /M1 )1/2, where R1, R2 are diffusion
rates of gases 1 and 2, and M1 and M2 their respective molecular masses. The law is
a simple consequence of kinetic theory.]
13.13 A gas in equilibrium has uniform density and pressure throughout its volume. This
is strictly true only if there are no external influences. A gas column under gravity,
for example, does not have uniform density (and pressure). As you might expect, its
density decreases with height. The precise dependence is given by the so-called law
of atmospheres
where n2, n1 refer to number density at heights h2 and h1 respectively. Use this
relation to derive the equation for sedimentation equilibrium of a suspension in a
liquid column:
n2 = n1 exp [ -mg NA (ρ - ρ′ ) (h2 –h1)/ (ρ RT)]
where ρ is the density of the suspended particle, and ρ′ , that of surrounding medium.
[NA is Avogadro’s number, and R the universal gas constant.] [Hint : Use Archimedes
principle to find the apparent weight of the suspended particle.]
13.14 Given below are densities of some solids and liquids. Give rough estimates of the
size of their atoms :
[Hint : Assume the atoms to be ‘tightly packed’ in a solid or liquid phase, and use the
known value of Avogadro’s number. You should, however, not take the actual numbers
you obtain for various atomic sizes too literally. Because of the crudeness of the
tight packing approximation, the results only indicate that atomic sizes are in the
range of a few Å].
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
OSCILLATIONS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life we come across various kinds of motions.
You have already learnt about some of them, e.g., rectilinear
14.1 Introduction motion and motion of a projectile. Both these motions are
14.2 Periodic and oscillatory non-repetitive. We have also learnt about uniform circular
motions motion and orbital motion of planets in the solar system. In
14.3 Simple harmonic motion these cases, the motion is repeated after a certain interval of
14.4 Simple harmonic motion time, that is, it is periodic. In your childhood, you must have
and uniform circular enjoyed rocking in a cradle or swinging on a swing. Both
motion these motions are repetitive in nature but different from the
14.5 Velocity and acceleration periodic motion of a planet. Here, the object moves to and fro
in simple harmonic motion about a mean position. The pendulum of a wall clock executes
14.6 Force law for simple a similar motion. Examples of such periodic to and fro
harmonic motion
motion abound: a boat tossing up and down in a river, the
14.7 Energy in simple harmonic
piston in a steam engine going back and forth, etc. Such a
motion
motion is termed as oscillatory motion. In this chapter we
14.8 Some systems executing
simple harmonic motion
study this motion.
14.9 Damped simple harmonic The study of oscillatory motion is basic to physics; its
motion concepts are required for the understanding of many physical
14.10 Forced oscillations and phenomena. In musical instruments, like the sitar, the guitar
resonance or the violin, we come across vibrating strings that produce
pleasing sounds. The membranes in drums and diaphragms
Summary
in telephone and speaker systems vibrate to and fro about
Points to ponder
their mean positions. The vibrations of air molecules make
Exercises
Additional Exercises the propagation of sound possible. In a solid, the atoms vibrate
about their equilibrium positions, the average energy of
vibrations being proportional to temperature. AC power
supply give voltage that oscillates alternately going positive
and negative about the mean value (zero).
The description of a periodic motion, in general, and
oscillatory motion, in particular, requires some fundamental
concepts, like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude
and phase. These concepts are developed in the next section.
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14.2 PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTIONS Very often, the body undergoing periodic
Fig. 14.1 shows some periodic motions. Suppose motion has an equilibrium position somewhere
an insect climbs up a ramp and falls down, it inside its path. When the body is at this position
comes back to the initial point and repeats the no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the
process identically. If you draw a graph of its
body is given a small displacement from the
height above the ground versus time, it would
position, a force comes into play which tries to
look something like Fig. 14.1 (a). If a child climbs
bring the body back to the equilibrium point,
up a step, comes down, and repeats the process
giving rise to oscillations or vibrations. For
identically, its height above the ground would
example, a ball placed in a bowl will be in
look like that in Fig. 14.1 (b). When you play the
equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little
game of bouncing a ball off the ground, between
from the point, it will perform oscillations in the
your palm and the ground, its height versus time
bowl. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but
graph would look like the one in Fig. 14.1 (c).
every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
Note that both the curved parts in Fig. 14.1 (c)
Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is
are sections of a parabola given by the Newton’s not oscillatory.
equation of motion (see section 3.6), There is no significant difference between
1 2 oscillations and vibrations. It seems that when
h = ut + gt for downward motion, and
the frequency is small, we call it oscillation (like,
2
the oscillation of a branch of a tree), while when
1 2 the frequency is high, we call it vibration (like,
h = ut – gt for upward motion,
2 the vibration of a string of a musical instrument).
with different values of u in each case. These Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form
are examples of periodic motion. Thus, a motion of oscillatory motion. This motion arises when
that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is the force on the oscillating body is directly
called periodic motion. proportional to its displacement from the mean
position, which is also the equilibrium position.
Further, at any point in its oscillation, this force
is directed towards the mean position.
In practice, oscillating bodies eventually
(a) come to rest at their equilibrium positions
because of the damping due to friction and other
dissipative causes. However, they can be forced
to remain oscillating by means of some external
periodic agency. We discuss the phenomena of
damped and forced oscillations later in the
chapter.
Any material medium can be pictured as a
(b) collection of a large number of coupled
oscillators. The collective oscillations of the
constituents of a medium manifest themselves
as waves. Examples of waves include water
waves, seismic waves, electromagnetic waves.
We shall study the wave phenomenon in the next
chapter.
(c) 14.2.1 Period and frequency
We have seen that any motion that repeats itself
at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion. The smallest interval of time after
which the motion is repeated is called its
Fig. 14.1 Examples of periodic motion. The period T period. Let us denote the period by the symbol
is shown in each case. T. Its SI unit is second. For periodic motions,
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which are either too fast or too slow on the scale as a displacement variable [see Fig.14.2(b)]. The
of seconds, other convenient units of time are term displacement is not always to be referred
used. The period of vibrations of a quartz crystal
is expressed in units of microseconds (10–6 s)
abbreviated as µs. On the other hand, the orbital
period of the planet Mercury is 88 earth days.
The Halley’s comet appears after every 76 years.
The reciprocal of T gives the number of
repetitions that occur per unit time. This
quantity is called the frequency of the periodic
motion. It is represented by the symbol ν. The
relation between ν and T is
Fig. 14.2(a) A block attached to a spring, the other
ν = 1/T (14.1) end of which is fixed to a rigid wall. The
block moves on a frictionless surface. The
The unit of ν is thus s–1. After the discoverer of
motion of the block can be described in
radio waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894), terms of its distance or displacement x
a special name has been given to the unit of from the equilibrium position.
frequency. It is called hertz (abbreviated as Hz).
Thus,
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1s–1
(14.2)
Note, that the frequency, ν, is not necessarily
an integer.
u Example 14.1 On an average, a human
heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute.
Calculate its frequency and period.
Answer The beat frequency of heart = 75/(1 min) Fig.14.2(b) An oscillating simple pendulum; its
= 75/(60 s) motion can be described in terms of
angular displacement θ from the vertical.
= 1.25 s–1
= 1.25 Hz
in the context of position only. There can be
The time period T = 1/(1.25 s–1)
many other kinds of displacement variables. The
= 0.8 s t
voltage across a capacitor, changing with time
14.2.2 Displacement
in an A C circuit, is also a displacement variable.
In section 4.2, we defined displacement of a
In the same way, pressure variations in time in
particle as the change in its position vector. In
the propagation of sound wave, the changing
this chapter, we use the term displacement
electric and magnetic fields in a light wave are
in a more general sense. It refers to change
examples of displacement in different contexts.
with time of any physical property under
The displacement variable may take both
consideration. For example, in case of rectilinear
positive and negative values. In experiments on
motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance
oscillations, the displacement is measured for
from the starting point as a function of time is
different times.
its position displacement. The choice of origin
The displacement can be represented by a
is a matter of convenience. Consider a block
mathematical function of time. In case of periodic
attached to a spring, the other end of the spring
motion, this function is periodic in time. One of
is fixed to a rigid wall [see Fig.14.2(a)]. Generally, the simplest periodic functions is given by
it is convenient to measure displacement of the
body from its equilibrium position. For an f (t) = A cos ωt (14.3a)
oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the If the argument of this function, ωt, is
vertical as a function of time may be regarded increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians,
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Finally, the quantity ω can be seen to be This function represents a simple harmonic
related to the period of motion T. Taking, for motion having a period T = 2π/ω and a
simplicity, φ = 0 in Eq. (14.4), we have phase angle (–π/4) or (7π/4)
(b) sin2 ωt
x(t ) = A cos ωt (14.5) = ½ – ½ cos 2 ωt
Since the motion has a period T, x (t) is equal to The function is periodic having a period
x (t + T ). That is, T = π/ω. It also represents a harmonic
motion with the point of equilibrium
A cos ωt = A cos ω (t + T ) (14.6) occurring at ½ instead of zero. t
Now the cosine function is periodic with period 14.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND
2π, i.e., it first repeats itself when the argument UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
changes by 2π. Therefore, In this section, we show that the projection of
ω(t + T ) = ωt + 2π uniform circular motion on a diameter of the
circle follows simple harmonic motion. A
that is ω = 2π/ T (14.7) simple experiment (Fig. 14.9) helps us visualise
this connection. Tie a ball to the end of a string
ω is called the angular frequency of SHM. Its and make it move in a horizontal plane about
S.I. unit is radians per second. Since the
a fixed point with a constant angular speed.
frequency of oscillations is simply 1/T, ω is 2π
The ball would then perform a uniform circular
times the frequency of oscillation. Two simple
motion in the horizontal plane. Observe the
harmonic motions may have the same A and φ,
ball sideways or from the front, fixing your
but different ω, as seen in Fig. 14.8. In this plot
attention in the plane of motion. The ball will
the curve (b) has half the period and twice the
appear to execute to and fro motion along a
frequency of the curve (a).
horizontal line with the point of rotation as
the midpoint. You could alternatively observe
the shadow of the ball on a wall which is
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. In this
process what we are observing is the motion
of the ball on a diameter of the circle normal
to the direction of viewing.
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Fig. 14.10
will make an angle of ω t + φ with the +ve
x-axis. Next, consider the projection of the
position vector OP on the x-axis. This will be Answer
OP′. The position of P′ on the x-axis, as the (a) At t = 0, OP makes an angle of 45o = π/4 rad
particle P moves on the circle, is given by with the (positive direction of ) x-axis. After
x(t ) = A cos (ωt + φ )
which is the defining equation of SHM. This time t, it covers an angle 2πt in the
T
shows that if P moves uniformly on a circle, anticlockwise sense, and makes an angle
its projection P′ on a diameter of the circle
executes SHM. The particle P and the circle of 2πt + π with the x-axis.
on which it moves are sometimes referred to T 4
as the reference particle and the reference circle, The projection of OP on the x-axis at time t
respectively. is given by,
We can take projection of the motion of P on
any diameter, say the y-axis. In that case, the
x (t) = A cos
2π π
displacement y(t) of P′ on the y-axis is given by t+
T 4
y = A sin (ωt + φ ) For T = 4 s,
which is also an SHM of the same amplitude
as that of the projection on x-axis, but differing
x(t) = A cos
2π π
by a phase of π/2. t+
4 4
In spite of this connection between circular
motion and SHM, the force acting on a particle which is a SHM of amplitude A, period 4 s,
in linear simple harmonic motion is very
different from the centripetal force needed to and an initial phase* = π .
keep a particle in uniform circular motion. 4
* The natural unit of angle is radian, defined through the ratio of arc to radius. Angle is a dimensionless
quantity. Therefore it is not always necessary to mention the unit ‘radian’ when we use π , its multiples
or submultiples. The conversion between radian and degree is not similar to that between metre and
centimetre or mile. If the argument of a trigonometric function is stated without units, it is understood
that the unit is radian. On the other hand, if degree is to be used as the unit of angle, then it must be
shown explicitly. For example, sin(150) means sine of 15 degree, but sin(15) means sine of 15 radians.
Hereafter, we will often drop ‘rad’ as the unit, and it should be understood that whenever angle is
mentioned as a numerical value, without units, it is to be taken as radians.
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(b) In this case at t = 0, OP makes an angle of where the negative sign shows that v (t) has a
direction opposite to the positive direction of
90o = π with the x-axis. After a time t, it
2 x-axis. Eq. (14.9) gives the instantaneous
covers an angle of 2π t in the clockwise velocity of a particle executing SHM, where
T displacement is given by Eq. (14.4). We can, of
course, obtain this equation without using
sense and makes an angle of −
π 2π
t
2 T
geometrical argument, directly by differentiating
(Eq. 14.4) with respect of t:
with the x-axis. The projection of OP on the
x-axis at time t is given by d
v(t) = x (t ) (14.10)
dt
x(t) = B cos −
π 2π
t
2 T
The method of reference circle can be similarly
used for obtaining instantaneous acceleration
= B sin t
2π of a particle undergoing SHM. We know that the
T centripetal acceleration of a particle P in uniform
For T = 30 s, circular motion has a magnitude v2/A or ω2A,
and it is directed towards the centre i.e., the
x(t) = B sin t direction is along PO. The instantaneous
π
15 acceleration of the projection particle P′ is then
(See Fig. 14.12)
Writing this as x (t ) = B cos t − , and
π π
15 a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
2
comparing with Eq. (14.4). We find that this = –ω2x (t) (14.11)
represents a SHM of amplitude B, period 30 s,
π
and an initial phase of − . t
2
d (14.12)
a (t ) = v (t )
dt
We note from Eq. (14.11) the important
Fig. 14.11 The velocity, v (t), of the particle P′ is the property that acceleration of a particle in SHM
projection of the velocity v of the is proportional to displacement. For x(t) > 0,
reference particle, P. a(t) < 0 and for x(t) < 0, a(t) > 0. Thus, whatever
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the value of x between –A and A, the acceleration (b) Using Eq. (14.9), the speed of the body
a(t) is always directed towards the centre. = – (5.0 m)(2π s –1) sin [(2 π s –1) ×1.5 s
For simplicity, let us put φ = 0 and write the + π/4]
expression for x (t), v (t) and a(t) = – (5.0 m)(2π s–1) sin [(3π + π/4)]
x(t) = A cos ωt, v(t) = – ω Asin ωt, a(t)=–ω2 A cos ωt = 10 π × 0.707 m s–1
The corresponding plots are shown in Fig. 14.13. = 22 m s–1
All quantities vary sinusoidally with time; only (c) Using Eq.(14.10), the acceleration of the
their maxima differ and the different plots differ body
in phase. x varies between –A to A; v(t) varies = –(2π s–1)2 × displacement
from –ωA to ωA and a(t) from –ω2A to ω2A. With = – (2π s–1)2 × (–3.535 m)
respect to displacement plot, velocity plot has a = 140 m s–2 t
phase difference of π/2 and acceleration plot
has a phase difference of π. 14.6 FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Using Newton’s second law of motion, and the
expression for acceleration of a particle
undergoing SHM (Eq. 14.11), the force acting
on a particle of mass m in SHM is
F (t ) = ma
= –mω2 x (t )
i.e., F (t ) = –k x (t ) (14.13)
where k = mω2 (14.14a)
k
or ω = (14.14b)
m
Like acceleration, force is always directed
towards the mean position—hence it is sometimes
called the restoring force in SHM. To summarise
the discussion so far, simple harmonic motion can
be defined in two equivalent ways, either by Eq.
(14.4) for displacement or by Eq. (14.13) that gives
Fig. 14.13 Displacement, velocity and acceleration of its force law. Going from Eq. (14.4) to Eq. (14.13)
a particle in simple harmonic motion have required us to differentiate two times. Likewise,
the same period T, but they differ in phase by integrating the force law Eq. (14.13) two times,
we can get back Eq. (14.4).
u Example 14.5 A body oscillates with SHM Note that the force in Eq. (14.13) is linearly
according to the equation (in SI units), proportional to x(t). A particle oscillating under
x = 5 cos [2π t + π/4]. such a force is, therefore, calling a linear
harmonic oscillator. In the real world, the force
At t = 1.5 s, calculate the (a) displacement,
may contain small additional terms proportional
(b) speed and (c) acceleration of the body.
to x2, x3, etc. These then are called non-linear
oscillators.
Answer The angular frequency ω of the body
= 2π s–1 and its time period T = 1 s. u Example 14.6 Two identical springs of
At t = 1.5 s spring constant k are attached to a block
(a) displacement = (5.0 m) cos [(2 π s –1) × of mass m and to fixed supports as shown
1.5 s + π/4] in Fig. 14.14. Show that when the mass is
= (5.0 m) cos [(3π + π/4)] displaced from its equilibrium position on
= –5.0 × 0.707 m either side, it executes a simple harmonic
= –3.535 m motion. Find the period of oscillations.
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1
= m ω 2 A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2
1
= k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ ) (14.15)
2
is also a periodic function of time, being zero
when the displacement is maximum and
maximum when the particle is at the mean
Fig. 14.15
position. Note, since the sign of v is immaterial
elongated by a length equal to x and that on in K, the period of K is T/2.
the right side gets compressed by the same What is the potential energy (U) of a particle
length. The forces acting on the mass are executing simple harmonic motion? In
then, Chapter 6, we have seen that the concept of
F1 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on potential energy is possible only for conservative
the left side, trying to pull the forces. The spring force F = –kx is a conservative
mass towards the mean force, with associated potential energy
position) 1
U= k x2 (14.16)
F2 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on 2
the right side, trying to push the Hence the potential energy of a particle
mass towards the mean executing simple harmonic motion is,
position)
The net force, F, acting on the mass is then 1
given by, U(x) = k x2
2
F = –2kx
Hence the force acting on the mass is 1
proportional to the displacement and is directed = k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) (14.17)
2
towards the mean position; therefore, the motion
executed by the mass is simple harmonic. The Thus, the potential energy of a particle
time period of oscillations is, executing simple harmonic motion is also
periodic, with period T/2, being zero at the mean
m position and maximum at the extreme
T = 2π t
2k displacements.
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It follows from Eqs. (14.15) and (14.17) that Observe that both kinetic energy and
the total energy, E, of the system is, potential energy in SHM are seen to be always
E =U+K positive in Fig. 14.16. Kinetic energy can, of
course, be never negative, since it is
proportional to the square of speed. Potential
1 1 energy is positive by choice of the undermined
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2 2 constant in potential energy. Both kinetic
energy and potential energy peak twice during
each period of SHM. For x = 0, the energy is
1
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ ) kinetic; at the extremes x = ±A, it is all potential
2
energy. In the course of motion between these
Using the familiar trigonometric identity, the limits, kinetic energy increases at the expense
value of the expression in the brackets is unity. of potential energy or vice-versa.
Thus,
u Example 14.7 A block whose mass is 1 kg
is fastened to a spring. The spring has a
1
E= k A2 (14.18) spring constant of 50 N m–1. The block is
2 pulled to a distance x = 10 cm from its
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
oscillator is thus independent of time as expected surface from rest at t = 0. Calculate the
kinetic, potential and total energies of the
for motion under any conservative force. The
block when it is 5 cm away from the mean
time and displacement dependence of the
position.
potential and kinetic energies of a linear simple
harmonic oscillator are shown in
Fig. 14.16. Answer The block executes SHM, its angular
frequency, as given by Eq. (14.14b), is
k
ω =
m
–1
50 N m
=
1kg
Fig. 14.16 Kinetic energy, potential energy and total Or cos (7.07t) = 0.5 and hence
energy as a function of time [shown in (a)]
and displacement [shown in (b)] of a particle
in SHM. The kinetic energy and potential 3
energy both repeat after a period T/2. The sin (7.07t) = = 0.866
total energy remains constant at all t or x.
2
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500 N m –1
= 0.1 ×
5 kg
= 1 m s–1
and it occurs at x = 0
(c) The acceleration of the collar at the (a)
displacement x (t ) from the equilibrium is
given by,
a (t) = –ω2 x(t)
k
=– x(t)
m
Therefore, the maximum acceleration is,
amax = ω2 A
–1
500 N m
= x 0.1 m
5 kg
= 10 m s–2
and it occurs at the extremities. t
(b)
14.8.2 The Simple Pendulum
Fig. 14.18 (a) A bob oscillating about its mean
It is said that Galileo measured the periods of a position. (b) The radial force T-mg cosθ
swinging chandelier in a church by his pulse provides centripetal force but no torque
beats. He observed that the motion of the about the support. The tangential force
mg sinθ provides the restoring torque.
chandelier was periodic. The system is a kind
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L
T = 2π
g
gT 2
L =
4π 2
The time period of a simple pendulum, which Fig. 14.19 The viscous surrounding medium exerts
ticks seconds, is 2 s. Therefore, for g = 9.8 m s–2 a damping force on an oscillating spring,
and T = 2 s, L is eventually bringing it to rest.
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* Under gravity, the block will be at a certain equilibrium position O on the spring; x here represents the
displacement from that position.
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d2 x
m + b dx + kx = Fo cos ωd t (14.37b)
dt 2 dt b=50g/s (least
damping)
This is the equation of an oscillator of mass
m on which a periodic force of (angular)
frequency ωd is applied. The oscillator, initially,
oscillates with its natural frequency ω. When b=70g/s
Fig. 14.21 shows the dependence of the This makes it clear that the maximum
displacement amplitude of an oscillator on the possible amplitude for a given driving frequency
angular frequency of the driving force for is governed by the driving frequency and the
different amounts of damping present in the damping, and is never infinity. The phenomenon
system. It may be noted that in all cases the of increase in amplitude when the driving force
amplitude is the greatest when ωd /ω = 1. The is close to the natural frequency of the oscillator
curves in this figure show that smaller the is called resonance.
damping, the taller and narrower is the In our daily life, we encounter phenomena
resonance peak. which involve resonance. Your experience with
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swings is a good example of resonance. You motion is gradually damped and not sustained.
might have realised that the skill in swinging to Their frequencies of oscillation gradually
greater heights lies in the synchronisation of change, and ultimately, they oscillate with the
the rhythm of pushing against the ground with frequency of pendulum 1, i.e., the frequency of
the natural frequency of the swing. the driving force but with different amplitudes.
To illustrate this point further, let us They oscillate with small amplitudes. The
consider a set of five simple pendulums of response of pendulum 4 is in contrast to this
assorted lengths suspended from a common rope set of pendulums. It oscillates with the same
as shown in Fig. 14.22. The pendulums 1 and 4 frequency as that of pendulum 1 and its
have the same lengths and the others have amplitude gradually picks up and becomes very
different lengths. Now, let us set pendulum 1 large. A resonance-like response is seen.
into motion. The energy from this pendulum gets This happens because in this the condition for
transferred to other pendulums through the resonance is satisfied, i.e. the natural frequency
connecting rope and they start oscillating. The of the system coincides with that of the
driving force is provided through the connecting driving force.
rope. The frequency of this force is the frequency We have so far considered oscillating systems
with which pendulum 1 oscillates. If we observe which have just one natural frequency. In
the response of pendulums 2, 3 and 5, they first general, a system may have several natural
start oscillating with their natural frequencies frequencies. You will see examples of such
of oscillations and different amplitudes, but this systems (vibrating strings, air columns, etc.) in
the next chapter. Any mechanical structure, like
a building, a bridge, or an aircraft may have
several possible natural frequencies. An
external periodic force or disturbance will set
the system in forced oscillation. If, accidentally,
the forced frequency ωd happens to be close to
one of the natural frequencies of the system,
the amplitude of oscillation will shoot up
(resonance), resulting in possible damage. This
is why, soldiers go out of step while crossing a
bridge. For the same reason, an earthquake will
not cause uniform damage to all buildings in
an affected area, even if they are built with the
same strength and material. The natural
frequencies of a building depend on its height,
other size parameters, and the nature of
Fig. 14.22 Five simple pendulums of different building material. The one with its natural
lengths suspended from a common frequency close to the frequency of seismic wave
support. is likely to be damaged more.
SUMMARY
1
T=
ν
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3. In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x (t) of a particle from its
equilibrium position is given by,
in which A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (ωt + φ ) is the phase of
the motion, and φ is the phase constant. The angular frequency ω is related to the
period and frequency of the motion by,
2π
ω= = 2πν (angular frequency).
T
4. Simple harmonic motion can also be viewed as the projection of uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle in which the latter motion occurs.
5. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by,
k
ω = (angular frequency)
m
m
T = 2π (period)
k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
9. The motion of a simple pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately
simple harmonic. The period of oscillation is given by,
L
T = 2π
g
10. The mechanical energy in a real oscillating system decreases during oscillations because
external forces, such as drag, inhibit the oscillations and transfer mechanical energy
to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion are then said to be damped. If the
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damping force is given by Fd = –bv, where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a
damping constant, then the displacement of the oscillator is given by,
x (t) = A e–bt/2m cos (ω′t + φ )
where ω′, the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is given by
k b2
ω′ = −
m 4m 2
If the damping constant is small then ω′ ≈ ω, where ω is the angular frequency of the
undamped oscillator. The mechanical energy E of the damped oscillator is given by
1
E(t) = kA 2 e −bt / m
2
11. If an external force with angular frequency ωd acts on an oscillating system with natural
angular frequency ω, the system oscillates with angular frequency ωd. The amplitude of
oscillations is the greatest when
ωd = ω
a condition called resonance.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. The period T is the least time after which motion repeats itself. Thus, motion repeats
itself after nT where n is an integer.
2. Every periodic motion is not simple harmonic motion. Only that periodic motion
governed by the force law F = – k x is simple harmonic.
3. Circular motion can arise due to an inverse-square law force (as in planetary motion)
as well as due to simple harmonic force in two dimensions equal to: –mω2r. In the
latter case, the phases of motion, in two perpendicular directions (x and y) must differ
by π/2. Thus, for example, a particle subject to a force –mω2r with initial position (0,
A) and velocity (ωA, 0) will move uniformly in a circle of radius A.
4. For linear simple harmonic motion with a given ω, two initial conditions are necessary
and sufficient to determine the motion completely. The initial conditions may be (i)
initial position and initial velocity or (ii) amplitude and phase or (iii) energy
and phase.
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5. From point 4 above, given amplitude or energy, phase of motion is determined by the
initial position or initial velocity.
6. A combination of two simple harmonic motions with arbitrary amplitudes and phases
is not necessarily periodic. It is periodic only if frequency of one motion is an integral
multiple of the other’s frequency. However, a periodic motion can always be expressed
as a sum of infinite number of harmonic motions with appropriate amplitudes.
7. The period of SHM does not depend on amplitude or energy or the phase constant.
Contrast this with the periods of planetary orbits under gravitation (Kepler’s third
law).
8. The motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic for small angular displacement.
x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt
The three forms are completely equivalent (any one can be expressed in terms of any
other two forms).
Thus, damped simple harmonic motion [Eq. (14.31)] is not strictly simple harmonic. It
is approximately so only for time intervals much less than 2m/b where b is the damping
constant.
10. In forced oscillations, the steady state motion of the particle (after the forced oscillations
die out) is simple harmonic motion whose frequency is the frequency of the driving
frequency ωd, not the natural frequency ω of the particle.
11. In the ideal case of zero damping, the amplitude of simple harmonic motion at resonance
is infinite. Since all real systems have some damping, however small, this situation is
never observed.
12. Under forced oscillation, the phase of harmonic motion of the particle differs from the
phase of the driving force.
Exercises
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Fig. 14.23
14.4 Which of the following functions of time represent (a) simple harmonic, (b) periodic
but not simple harmonic, and (c) non-periodic motion? Give period for each case of
periodic motion (ω is any positive constant):
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt
(b) sin3 ωt
(c) 3 cos (π/4 – 2ωt)
(d) cos ωt + cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt
(e) exp (–ω2t2)
(f) 1 + ωt + ω2t2
14.5 A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm
apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
14.6 Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the displacement
x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = –200x2
(c) a = –10x
(d) a = 100x3
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14.7 The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is ω cm/s,
what are its amplitude and initial phase angle ? The angular frequency of the
particle is π s–1. If instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to
describe the SHM : x = B sin (ωt + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the
particle with the above initial conditions.
14.8 A spring balance has a scale that reads from 0 to 50 kg. The length of the scale is 20
cm. A body suspended from this balance, when displaced and released, oscillates
with a period of 0.6 s. What is the weight of the body ?
14.9 A spring having with a spring constant 1200 N m–1 is mounted on a horizontal
table as shown in Fig. 14.24. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the
spring. The mass is then pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released.
Fig. 14.24
Determine (i) the frequency of oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass,
and (iii) the maximum speed of the mass.
14.10 In Exercise 14.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as
x = 0, and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of
x-axis. Give x as a function of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we
start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass is
(a) at the mean position,
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
(c) at the maximum compressed position.
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in
amplitude or the initial phase?
14.11 Figures 14.25 correspond to two circular motions. The radius of the circle, the
period of revolution, the initial position, and the sense of revolution (i.e. clockwise
or anti-clockwise) are indicated on each figure.
Fig. 14.25
Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius
vector of the revolving particle P, in each case.
14.12 Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
motions. Indicate the initial (t =0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle,
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and the angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation
may be fixed to be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).
(a) x = –2 sin (3t + π/3)
(b) x = cos (π/6 – t)
(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
(d) x = 2 cos πt
14.13 Figure 14.26 (a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and
a mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the
spring. Figure 14.26 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to
a mass m at either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 14.26(b) is stretched by the
same force F.
Fig. 14.26
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases ?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the
period of oscillation in each case ?
14.14 The piston in the cylinder head of a locomotive has a stroke (twice the amplitude)
of 1.0 m. If the piston moves with simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency
of 200 rad/min, what is its maximum speed ?
14.15 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 m s–2. What is the time
period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the surface
of earth is 3.5 s ? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 m s–2)
14.16 Answer the following questions :
(a) Time period of a particle in SHM depends on the force constant k and mass m
of the particle:
m
T = 2π . A simple pendulum executes SHM approximately. Why then is
k
the time period of a pendulum independent of the mass of the pendulum?
(b) The motion of a simple pendulum is approximately simple harmonic for small
angle oscillations. For larger angles of oscillation, a more involved analysis
l
shows that T is greater than 2π . Think of a qualitative argument to
g
appreciate this result.
(c) A man with a wristwatch on his hand falls from the top of a tower. Does the
watch give correct time during the free fall ?
(d) What is the frequency of oscillation of a simple pendulum mounted in a cabin
that is freely falling under gravity ?
14.17 A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a car.
The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period ?
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14.18 A cylindrical piece of cork of density of base area A and height h floats in a liquid of
density ρl. The cork is depressed slightly and then released. Show that the cork
oscillates up and down simple harmonically with a period
hρ
T = 2π
ρ1g
where ρ is the density of cork. (Ignore damping due to viscosity of the liquid).
14.19 One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the
other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the
two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury
in the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.
Additional Exercises
14.20 An air chamber of volume V has a neck area of cross section a into which a ball of
mass m just fits and can move up and down without any friction (Fig.14.27). Show
that when the ball is pressed down a little and released , it executes SHM. Obtain
an expression for the time period of oscillations assuming pressure-volume variations
of air to be isothermal [see Fig. 14.27].
Fig.14.27
14.21 You are riding in an automobile of mass 3000 kg. Assuming that you are examining
the oscillation characteristics of its suspension system. The suspension sags
15 cm when the entire automobile is placed on it. Also, the amplitude of oscillation
decreases by 50% during one complete oscillation. Estimate the values of (a) the
spring constant k and (b) the damping constant b for the spring and shock absorber
system of one wheel, assuming that each wheel supports 750 kg.
14.22 Show that for a particle in linear SHM the average kinetic energy over a period of
oscillation equals the average potential energy over the same period.
14.23 A circular disc of mass 10 kg is suspended by a wire attached to its centre. The wire
is twisted by rotating the disc and released. The period of torsional oscillations is
found to be 1.5 s. The radius of the disc is 15 cm. Determine the torsional spring
constant of the wire. (Torsional spring constant α is defined by the relation
J = –α θ , where J is the restoring couple and θ the angle of twist).
14.24 A body describes simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 5 cm and a period of
0.2 s. Find the acceleration and velocity of the body when the displacement is
(a) 5 cm (b) 3 cm (c) 0 cm.
14.25 A mass attached to a spring is free to oscillate, with angular velocity ω, in a horizontal
plane without friction or damping. It is pulled to a distance x0 and pushed towards
the centre with a velocity v0 at time t = 0. Determine the amplitude of the resulting
oscillations in terms of the parameters ω, x0 and v0. [Hint : Start with the equation
x = a cos (ωt+θ) and note that the initial velocity is negative.]
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WAVES
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Chapter, we studied the motion of objects
oscillating in isolation. What happens in a system, which is
a collection of such objects? A material medium provides
15.1 Introduction
such an example. Here, elastic forces bind the constituents
15.2 Transverse and to each other and, therefore, the motion of one affects that of
longitudinal waves
the other. If you drop a little pebble in a pond of still water,
15.3 Displacement relation in a
the water surface gets disturbed. The disturbance does not
progressive wave
remain confined to one place, but propagates outward along
15.4 The speed of a travelling
a circle. If you continue dropping pebbles in the pond, you
wave
see circles rapidly moving outward from the point where the
15.5 The principle of
water surface is disturbed. It gives a feeling as if the water is
superposition of waves
moving outward from the point of disturbance. If you put
15.6 Reflection of waves
some cork pieces on the disturbed surface, it is seen that
15.7 Beats
the cork pieces move up and down but do not move away
15.8 Doppler effect from the centre of disturbance. This shows that the water
Summary mass does not flow outward with the circles, but rather a
Points to ponder moving disturbance is created. Similarly, when we speak,
Exercises the sound moves outward from us, without any flow of air
Additional exercises from one part of the medium to another. The disturbances
produced in air are much less obvious and only our ears or
a microphone can detect them. These patterns, which move
without the actual physical transfer or flow of matter as a
whole, are called waves. In this Chapter, we will study such
waves.
Waves transport energy and the pattern of disturbance has
information that propagate from one point to another. All our
communications essentially depend on transmission of sig-
nals through waves. Speech means production of sound
waves in air and hearing amounts to their detection. Often,
communication involves different kinds of waves. For exam-
ple, sound waves may be first converted into an electric cur-
rent signal which in turn may generate an electromagnetic
wave that may be transmitted by an optical cable or via a
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satellite. Detection of the original signal will usu- We shall illustrate this connection through
ally involve these steps in reverse order. simple examples.
Not all waves require a medium for their Consider a collection of springs connected to
propagation. We know that light waves can one another as shown in Fig. 15.1. If the spring
travel through vacuum. The light emitted by at one end is pulled suddenly and released, the
stars, which are hundreds of light years away, disturbance travels to the other end. What has
reaches us through inter-stellar space, which
is practically a vacuum.
The most familiar type of waves such as waves
on a string, water waves, sound waves, seismic
waves, etc. is the so-called mechanical waves. Fig. 15.1 A collection of springs connected to each
These waves require a medium for propagation, other. The end A is pulled suddenly
they cannot propagate through vacuum. They generating a disturbance, which then
involve oscillations of constituent particles and propagates to the other end.
depend on the elastic properties of the medium.
The electromagnetic waves that you will learn happened? The first spring is disturbed from its
in Class XII are a different type of wave. equilibrium length. Since the second spring is
Electromagnetic waves do not necessarily require connected to the first, it is also stretched or
a medium - they can travel through vacuum. compressed, and so on. The disturbance moves
Light, radiowaves, X-rays, are all electromagnetic from one end to the other; but each spring only
waves. In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves executes small oscillations about its equilibrium
have the same speed c, whose value is : position. As a practical example of this situation,
consider a stationary train at a railway station.
c = 299, 792, 458 ms–1. (15.1)
Different bogies of the train are coupled to each
A third kind of wave is the so-called Matter other through a spring coupling. When an
waves. They are associated with constituents of engine is attached at one end, it gives a push to
matter : electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and the bogie next to it; this push is transmitted from
molecules. They arise in quantum mechanical one bogie to another without the entire train
description of nature that you will learn in your being bodily displaced.
later studies. Though conceptually more abstract Now let us consider the propagation of sound
than mechanical or electro-magnetic waves, they waves in air. As the wave passes through air, it
have already found applications in several compresses or expands a small region of air. This
devices basic to modern technology; matter causes a change in the density of that region,
waves associated with electrons are employed say δρ, this change induces a change in pressure,
in electron microscopes. δp, in that region. Pressure is force per unit area,
In this chapter we will study mechanical so there is a restoring force proportional to
waves, which require a material medium for the disturbance, just like in a spring. In this
their propagation. case, the quantity similar to extension or
The aesthetic influence of waves on art and compression of the spring is the change in
literature is seen from very early times; yet the density. If a region is compressed, the molecules
first scientific analysis of wave motion dates back in that region are packed together, and they tend
to the seventeenth century. Some of the famous to move out to the adjoining region, thereby
scientists associated with the physics of wave increasing the density or creating compression
motion are Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), in the adjoining region. Consequently, the air
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton. The in the first region undergoes rarefaction. If a
understanding of physics of waves followed the region is comparatively rarefied the surrounding
physics of oscillations of masses tied to springs air will rush in making the rarefaction move to
and physics of the simple pendulum. Waves in the adjoining region. Thus, the compression or
elastic media are intimately connected with rarefaction moves from one region to another,
harmonic oscillations. (Stretched strings, coiled making the propagation of a disturbance
springs, air, etc., are examples of elastic media). possible in air.
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2π 2π 1 ω
λ= ν= = (15.8)
or k = (15.6) T 2π
k λ
ν is usually measured in hertz.
k is the angular wave number or propagation
In the discussion above, reference has always
constant; its SI unit is radian per metre or
been made to a wave travelling along a string or
rad m−1 * a transverse wave. In a longitudinal wave, the
displacement of an element of the medium is
15.3.3 Period, Angular Frequency and parallel to the direction of propagation of the
Frequency wave. In Eq. (15.2), the displacement function
Fig. 15.7 shows again a sinusoidal plot. It for a longitudinal wave is written as,
describes not the shape of the wave at a certain
s(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ ) (15.9)
instant but the displacement of an element (at
any fixed location) of the medium as a function where s(x, t) is the displacement of an element
of time. We may for, simplicity, take Eq. (15.2) of the medium in the direction of propagation
with φ = 0 and monitor the motion of the element of the wave at position x and time t. In Eq. (15.9),
say at x = 0 . We then get a is the displacement amplitude; other
quantities have the same meaning as in case
y(0,t ) = a sin( −ωt ) of a transverse wave except that the
displacement function y (x, t ) is to be replaced
= −a sin ωt by the function s (x, t).
* Here again, ‘radian’ could be dropped and the units could be written merely as m–1. Thus, k represents 2π
times the number of waves (or the total phase difference) that can be accommodated per unit length, with SI
units m–1.
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2π kx – ω t = k(x+∆x) – ω(t+∆t)
=
3.0 s
−1 or k ∆x – ω ∆t =0
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in general) and elastic properties (Young’s The dimension of µ is [ML–1] and that of T is
modulus for linear media/ shear modulus, bulk like force, namely [MLT–2]. We need to combine
modulus) of the medium. The medium these dimensions to get the dimension of speed
determines the speed; Eq. (15.12) then relates v [LT –1]. Simple inspection shows that the
wavelength to frequency for the given speed. Of quantity T/µ has the relevant dimension
course, as remarked earlier, the medium can
support both transverse and longitudinal waves, MLT −2
= L2 T −2
which will have different speeds in the same ML −1
medium. Later in this chapter, we shall obtain
specific expressions for the speed of mechanical Thus if T and µ are assumed to be the only
waves in some media. relevant physical quantities,
15.4.1 Speed of a Transverse Wave on
T
Stretched String v =C (15.13)
µ
The speed of a mechanical wave is determined
where C is the undetermined constant of
by the restoring force setup in the medium when
dimensional analysis. In the exact formula, it
it is disturbed and the inertial properties (mass
turms out, C=1. The speed of transverse waves
density) of the medium. The speed is expected to
on a stretched string is given by
be directly related to the former and inversely to
the latter. For waves on a string, the restoring
T
force is provided by the tension T in the string. v = (15.14)
µ
The inertial property will in this case be linear
mass density µ, which is mass m of the string Note the important point that the speed v
divided by its length L. Using Newton’s Laws of depends only on the properties of the medium T
Motion, an exact formula for the wave speed on and µ (T is a property of the stretched string
a string can be derived, but this derivation is arising due to an external force). It does not
outside the scope of this book. We shall, depend on wavelength or frequency of the wave
therefore, use dimensional analysis. We already itself. In higher studies, you will come across
know that dimensional analysis alone can never waves whose speed is not independent of
yield the exact formula. The overall frequency of the wave. Of the two parameters λ
dimensionless constant is always left and ν the source of disturbance determines the
undetermined by dimensional analysis. frequency of the wave generated. Given the
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are much more difficult to compress than gases The result shown in Eq.(15.23) is about 15%
and so have much higher values of bulk modulus. smaller as compared to the experimental value
Now, see Eq. (15.19). Solids and liquids have of 331 m s–1 as given in Table 15.1. Where
higher mass densities ( ρ ) than gases. But the did we go wrong ? If we examine the basic
corresponding increase in both the modulus (B) assumption made by Newton that the pressure
of solids and liquids is much higher. This is the variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal, we find that this is not
reason why the sound waves travel faster in
correct. It was pointed out by Laplace that the
solids and liquids.
pressure variations in the propagation of sound
We can estimate the speed of sound in a gas
waves are so fast that there is little time for the
in the ideal gas approximation. For an ideal gas, heat flow to maintain constant temperature.
the pressure P, volume V and temperature T are These variations, therefore, are adiabatic and
related by (see Chapter 11). not isothermal. For adiabatic processes the ideal
PV = NkBT (15.21) gas satisfies the relation (see Section 12.8),
PV γ = constant
where N is the number of molecules in volume
i.e. ∆(PV γ ) = 0
V, kB is the Boltzmann constant and T the
temperature of the gas (in Kelvin). Therefore, for or P γ V γ –1 ∆V + V γ ∆P = 0
an isothermal change it follows from Eq.(15.21) where γ is the ratio of two specific heats,
that Cp/Cv.
V∆P + P∆V = 0 Thus, for an ideal gas the adiabatic bulk
modulus is given by,
or ∆P
− =P
∆V/V
Bad = − ∆P
Hence, substituting in Eq. (15.16), we have ∆V/V
B=P = γP
Therefore, from Eq. (15.19) the speed of a The speed of sound is, therefore, from Eq.
longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given by, (15.19), given by,
v = P (15.22) v= γ P (15.24)
ρ ρ
This relation was first given by Newton and
is known as Newton’s formula. This modification of Newton’s formula is referred
to as the Laplace correction. For air
u Example 15.4 Estimate the speed of γ = 7/5. Now using Eq. (15.24) to estimate the speed
sound in air at standard temperature and of sound in air at STP, we get a value 331.3 m s–1,
pressure. The mass of 1 mole of air is which agrees with the measured speed.
29.0 ×10–3 kg.
Answer We know that 1 mole of any gas 15.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
occupies 22.4 litres at STP. Therefore, density OF WAVES
of air at STP is: What happens when two wave pulses travelling
ρo = (mass of one mole of air)/ (volume of one in opposite directions cross each other
mole of air at STP) (Fig. 15.9)? It turns out that wave pulses
29.0 × 10 −3 kg continue to retain their identities after they have
=
22.4 × 10 −3 m 3 crossed. However, during the time they overlap,
= 1.29 kg m–3 the wave pattern is different from either of the
pulses. Figure 15.9 shows the situation when
According to Newton’s formula for the speed
two pulses of equal and opposite shapes move
of sound in a medium, we get for the speed of
towards each other. When the pulses overlap,
sound in air at STP,
the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum
= 280 m s–1 (15.23) of the displacement due to each pulse. This is
known as the principle of superposition of waves.
t
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n
= ∑ f ( x − vt ) (15.26)
i
i =1
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If on the other hand, the boundary point is = a [sin (kx – ω t) + sin (kx + ω t)]
not rigid but completely free to move (such as in Using the familiar trignometric identity
the case of a string tied to a freely moving ring Sin (A+B) + Sin (A–B) = 2 sin A cosB we get,
on a rod), the reflected pulse has the same phase
and amplitude (assuming no energy dissipation) y (x, t) = 2a sin kx cos ω t (15.37)
as the incident pulse. The net maximum Note the important difference in the wave
displacement at the boundary is then twice the pattern described by Eq. (15.37) from that
amplitude of each pulse. An example of non- rigid described by Eq. (15.2) or Eq. (15.4). The terms
boundary is the open end of an organ pipe. kx and ω t appear separately, not in the
To summarise, a travelling wave or pulse combination kx - ωt. The amplitude of this wave
suffers a phase change of π on reflection at a is 2a sin kx. Thus, in this wave pattern, the
rigid boundary and no phase change on amplitude varies from point-to-point, but each
reflection at an open boundary. To put this element of the string oscillates with the same
mathematically, let the incident travelling wave angular frequency ω or time period. There is no
be phase difference between oscillations of different
elements of the wave. The string as a whole
y2 ( x, t ) = a sin ( kx − ωt ) vibrates in phase with differing amplitudes at
At a rigid boundary, the reflected wave is given different points. The wave pattern is neither
by moving to the right nor to the left. Hence, they
yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + π ). are called standing or stationary waves. The
= – a sin (kx – ω t) (15.35) amplitude is fixed at a given location but, as
At an open boundary, the reflected wave is given remarked earlier, it is different at different
by locations. The points at which the amplitude is
yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + 0). zero (i.e., where there is no motion at all) are
= a sin (kx – ω t) (15.36) nodes; the points at which the amplitude is the
largest are called antinodes. Fig. 15.12 shows
Clearly, at the rigid boundary, y = y2 + yr = 0 a stationary wave pattern resulting from
at all times. superposition of two travelling waves in
15.6.1 Standing Waves and Normal Modes opposite directions.
The most significant feature of stationary
We considered above reflection at one boundary. waves is that the boundary conditions constrain
But there are familiar situations (a string fixed the possible wavelengths or frequencies of
at either end or an air column in a pipe with vibration of the system. The system cannot
either end closed) in which reflection takes place oscillate with any arbitrary frequency (contrast
at two or more boundaries. In a string, for this with a harmonic travelling wave), but is
example, a wave travelling in one direction will characterised by a set of natural frequencies or
get reflected at one end, which in turn will travel normal modes of oscillation. Let us determine
and get reflected from the other end. This will these normal modes for a stretched string fixed
go on until there is a steady wave pattern set at both ends.
up on the string. Such wave patterns are called First, from Eq. (15.37), the positions of nodes
standing waves or stationary waves. To see this (where the amplitude is zero) are given by
mathematically, consider a wave travelling sin kx = 0 .
along the positive direction of x-axis and a which implies
reflected wave of the same amplitude and
kx = n π; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
wavelength in the negative direction of x-axis.
From Eqs. (15.2) and (15.4), with φ = 0, we get: Since, k = 2π/λ , we get
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t) nλ
x= ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (15.38)
y2(x, t) = a sin (kx + ω t) 2
Clearly, the distance between any two
The resultant wave on the string is, according
to the principle of superposition:
successive nodes is
λ In the same way, the
.
y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t) 2
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Fig. 15.12 Stationary waves arising from superposition of two harmonic waves travelling in opposite directions.
Note that the positions of zero displacement (nodes) remain fixed at all times.
positions of antinodes (where the amplitude is Thus, the possible wavelengths of stationary
the largest) are given by the largest value of sin waves are constrained by the relation
kx :
sin k x = 1 2L
which implies λ = ; n = 1, 2, 3, … (15.41)
n
kx = (n + ½) π ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
with corresponding frequencies
With k = 2π/λ, we get
v=
nv , for n = 1, 2, 3, (15.42)
λ
x = (n + ½) ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (15.39) 2L
2
Again the distance between any two consecutive We have thus obtained the natural frequencies
λ - the normal modes of oscillation of the system.
antinodes is . Eq. (15.38) can be applied to The lowest possible natural frequency of a
2
the case of a stretched string of length L fixed system is called its fundamental mode or the
at both ends. Taking one end to be at x = 0, the first harmonic. For the stretched string fixed
boundary conditions are that x = 0 and x = L
v
are positions of nodes. The x = 0 condition is at either end it is given by v =, corresponding
already satisfied. The x = L node condition 2L
requires that the length L is related to λ by to n = 1 of Eq. (15.42). Here v is the speed of
wave determined by the properties of the
λ medium. The n = 2 frequency is called the
L=n ; n = 1, 2, 3, ... (15.40)
2 second harmonic; n = 3 is the third harmonic
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1 λ v
L= n + , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … and is given by . The higher frequencies
2 2 4L
are odd harmonics, i.e., odd multiples of the
The possible wavelengths are then restricted by
the relation : v v
fundamental frequency : 3 , 5 , etc.
4L 4L
2L Fig. 15.14 shows the first six odd harmonics of
λ = , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,... (15.43) air column with one end closed and the other
(n + 1 / 2) open. For a pipe open at both ends, each end is
an antinode. It is then easily seen that an open
The normal modes – the natural frequencies – air column at both ends generates all harmonics
of the system are (See Fig. 15.15).
The systems above, strings and air columns,
1 v can also undergo forced oscillations (Chapter
ν = n + ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (15.44) 14). If the external frequency is close to one of
2 2L
the natural frequencies, the system shows
The fundamental frequency corresponds to n = 0, resonance.
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Musical Pillars
Temples often have
some pillars
portraying human
figures playing
musical instru-
ments, but seldom
do these pillars
themselves produce
music. At the
Nellaiappar temple
Fig. 15.15 Standing waves in an open pipe, first four
harmonics are depicted. in Tamil Nadu,
gentle taps on a
are heard at the same time, we hear a sound of cluster of pillars carved out of a single piece
similar frequency (the average of two close of rock produce the basic notes of Indian
frequencies), but we hear something else also. classical music, viz. Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha,
We hear audibly distinct waxing and waning of Ni, Sa. Vibrations of these pillars depend on
the intensity of the sound, with a frequency elasticity of the stone used, its density and
equal to the difference in the two close shape.
frequencies. Artists use this phenomenon often Musical pillars are categorised into three
while tuning their instruments with each other. types: The first is called the Shruti Pillar,
They go on tuning until their sensitive ears do as it can produce the basic notes — the
not detect any beats. “swaras”. The second type is the Gana
To see this mathematically, let us consider Thoongal, which generates the basic tunes
two harmonic sound waves of nearly equal that make up the “ragas”. The third variety
angular frequency ω1 and ω2 and fix the location is the Laya Thoongal pillars that produce
to be x = 0 for convenience. Eq. (15.2) with a “taal” (beats) when tapped. The pillars at the
suitable choice of phase (φ = π/2 for each) and, Nellaiappar temple are a combination of the
assuming equal amplitudes, gives Shruti and Laya types.
s1 = a cos ω1t and s2 = a cos ω2t (15.45) Archaeologists date the Nelliappar
Here we have replaced the symbol y by s, temple to the 7th century and claim it was
since we are referring to longitudinal not built by successive rulers of the Pandyan
transverse displacement. Let ω1 be the (slightly) dynasty.
greater of the two frequencies. The resultant The musical pillars of Nelliappar and
displacement is, by the principle of several other temples in southern India like
superposition, those at Hampi (picture), Kanyakumari, and
s = s1 + s2 = a (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t) Thiruvananthapuram are unique to the
Using the familiar trignometric identity for country and have no parallel in any other
cos A + cosB, we get part of the world.
= 2 a cos
( ω1 − ω2 ) t cos
( ω1 + ω2 ) t
(15.46)
2 2
which may be written as : ωa >> ωb, we can interpret Eq. (15.47) as follows.
s = [ 2 a cos ωb t ] cos ωat (15.47) The resultant wave is oscillating with the average
If |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, ω2, ωa >> ωb, th angular frequency ωa; however its amplitude is
where not constant in time, unlike a pure harmonic
wave. The amplitude is the largest when the
ωb = ( ω1 − ω2 ) and ωa = (ω1 + ω2 ) term cos ωb t takes its limit +1 or –1. In other
2 2 words, the intensity of the resultant wave waxes
Now if we assume |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, which means and wanes with a frequency which is 2ωb = ω1 –
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SUMMARY
1. Mechanical waves can exist in material media and are governed by Newton’s Laws.
2. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.
3. Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.
4. Progressive wave is a wave that moves from one point of medium to another.
2π
T =
ω
8. Frequency v of a wave is defined as 1/T and is related to angular frequency by
ω
ν=
2π
T
v=
µ
11. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel through solids, liquids,
or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density ρ is
B
v=
ρ
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is
Y
v=
ρ
For gases, since B = γP, the speed of sound is
γP
v=
ρ
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12. When two or more waves traverse simultaneously in the same medium, the
displacement of any element of the medium is the algebraic sum of the displacements
due to each wave. This is known as the principle of superposition of waves
n
y = ∑ f i ( x − vt )
i =1
13. Two sinusoidal waves on the same string exhibit interference, adding or cancelling
according to the principle of superposition. If the two are travelling in the same
direction and have the same amplitude a and frequency but differ in phase by a phase
constant φ, the result is a single wave with the same frequency ω :
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18. The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source (S)
or the observer (O) or both move(s) relative to the medium. For sound the observed
frequency ν is given in terms of the source frequency νo by
v +v
v = vo 0
v +v
s
here v is the speed of sound through the medium, vo is the velocity of observer relative
to the medium, and vs is the source velocity relative to the medium. In using this
formula, velocities in the direction OS should be treated as positive and those opposite
to it should be taken to be negative.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. A wave is not motion of matter as a whole in a medium. A wind is different from the
sound wave in air. The former involves motion of air from one place to the other. The
latter involves compressions and rarefactions of layers of air.
2. In a wave, energy and not the matter is transferred from one point to the other.
3. In a mechanical wave, energy transfer takes place because of the coupling through
elastic forces between neighbouring oscillating parts of the medium.
4. Transverse waves can propagate only in medium with shear modulus of elasticity,
Longitudinal waves need bulk modulus of elasticity and are therefore, possible in all
media, solids, liquids and gases.
5. In a harmonic progressive wave of a given frequency, all particles have the same
amplitude but different phases at a given instant of time. In a stationary wave, all
particles between two nodes have the same phase at a given instant but have different
amplitudes.
6. Relative to an observer at rest in a medium the speed of a mechanical wave in that
medium (v) depends only on elastic and other properties (such as mass density) of
the medium. It does not depend on the velocity of the source.
7. For an observer moving with velocity vo relative to the medium, the speed of a wave is
obviously different from v and is given by v ± vo.
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EXERCISES
15.1 A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N. The length of the stretched
string is 20.0 m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string, how long
does the disturbance take to reach the other end?
15.2 A stone dropped from the top of a tower of height 300 m splashes into the water of
a pond near the base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the top given that
the speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1 ? (g = 9.8 m s–2)
15.3 A steel wire has a length of 12.0 m and a mass of 2.10 kg. What should be the
tension in the wire so that speed of a transverse wave on the wire equals the speed
of sound in dry air at 20 °C = 343 m s–1.
γP
15.4 Use the formula v = to explain why the speed of sound in air
ρ
(a) is independent of pressure,
(b) increases with temperature,
(c) increases with humidity.
15.5 You have learnt that a travelling wave in one dimension is represented by a function
y = f (x, t) where x and t must appear in the combination x – v t or x + v t, i.e.
y = f (x ± v t). Is the converse true? Examine if the following functions for y can
possibly represent a travelling wave :
(a) (x – vt )2
(b) log [(x + vt)/x0]
(c) 1/(x + vt)
15.6 A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 1000 kHz in air. If the sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (a) the reflected sound, (b) the transmitted
sound? Speed of sound in air is 340 m s –1 and in water 1486 m s–1.
15.7 A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a tissue. What is the
wavelength of sound in the tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 km s–1 ? The
operating frequency of the scanner is 4.2 MHz.
15.8 A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by
y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0.018 x + π/4)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right.
(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave ?
If it is travelling, what are the speed and direction of its propagation ?
(b) What are its amplitude and frequency ?
(c) What is the initial phase at the origin ?
(d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave ?
15.9 For the wave described in Exercise 15.8, plot the displacement (y) versus (t) graphs
for x = 0, 2 and 4 cm. What are the shapes of these graphs? In which aspects does
the oscillatory motion in travelling wave differ from one point to another: amplitude,
frequency or phase ?
15.10 For the travelling harmonic wave
y(x, t) = 2.0 cos 2π (10t – 0.0080 x + 0.35)
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where x and y are in cm and t in s. Calculate the phase difference between oscillatory
motion of two points separated by a distance of
(a) 4 m,
(b) 0.5 m,
(c) λ/2,
(d) 3λ/4
15.11 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its both ends) is given by
2π
y(x, t) = 0.06 sin x cos (120 πt)
3
where x and y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is
3.0 ×10–2 kg.
Answer the following :
(a) Does the function represent a travelling wave or a stationary wave?
(b) Interpret the wave as a superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. What is the wavelength, frequency, and speed of each wave ?
(c) Determine the tension in the string.
15.12 (i) For the wave on a string described in Exercise 15.11, do all the points on the
string oscillate with the same (a) frequency, (b) phase, (c) amplitude? Explain
your answers. (ii) What is the amplitude of a point 0.375 m away from one end?
15.13 Given below are some functions of x and t to represent the displacement (transverse
or longitudinal) of an elastic wave. State which of these represent (i) a travelling
wave, (ii) a stationary wave or (iii) none at all:
(b) y = 2 x − vt
(c) y = 3 sin (5x – 0.5t) + 4 cos (5x – 0.5t)
(d) y = cos x sin t + cos 2x sin 2t
15.14 A wire stretched between two rigid supports vibrates in its fundamental mode with
a frequency of 45 Hz. The mass of the wire is 3.5 × 10–2 kg and its linear mass density
is 4.0 × 10–2 kg m–1. What is (a) the speed of a transverse wave on the string, and
(b) the tension in the string?
15.15 A metre-long tube open at one end, with a movable piston at the other end, shows
resonance with a fixed frequency source (a tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz) when
the tube length is 25.5 cm or 79.3 cm. Estimate the speed of sound in air at the
temperature of the experiment. The edge effects may be neglected.
15.16 A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of
longitudinal vibrations of the rod are given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
15.17 A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source ? Will the same source be in resonance with
the pipe if both ends are open? (speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1).
15.18 Two sitar strings A and B playing the note ‘Ga’ are slightly out of tune and produce
beats of frequency 6 Hz. The tension in the string A is slightly reduced and the
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beat frequency is found to reduce to 3 Hz. If the original frequency of A is 324 Hz,
what is the frequency of B?
15.19 Explain why (or how):
(a) in a sound wave, a displacement node is a pressure antinode and vice versa,
(b) bats can ascertain distances, directions, nature, and sizes of the obstacles
without any “eyes”,
(c) a violin note and sitar note may have the same frequency, yet we can
distinguish between the two notes,
(d) solids can support both longitudinal and transverse waves, but only
longitudinal waves can propagate in gases, and
(e) the shape of a pulse gets distorted during propagation in a dispersive medium.
15.20 A train, standing at the outer signal of a railway station blows a whistle of frequency
400 Hz in still air. (i) What is the frequency of the whistle for a platform observer
when the train (a) approaches the platform with a speed of 10 m s–1, (b) recedes
from the platform with a speed of 10 m s–1? (ii) What is the speed of sound in each
case ? The speed of sound in still air can be taken as 340 m s–1.
15.21 A train, standing in a station-yard, blows a whistle of frequency 400 Hz in still
air. The wind starts blowing in the direction from the yard to the station with a
speed of 10 m s–1. What are the frequency, wavelength, and speed of sound for an
observer standing on the station’s platform? Is the situation exactly identical to
the case when the air is still and the observer runs towards the yard at a speed of
10 m s–1? The speed of sound in still air can be taken as 340 m s–1
Additional Exercises
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15.26 Earthquakes generate sound waves inside the earth. Unlike a gas, the earth can
experience both transverse (S) and longitudinal (P) sound waves. Typically the speed
of S wave is about 4.0 km s–1, and that of P wave is 8.0 km s–1. A seismograph
records P and S waves from an earthquake. The first P wave arrives 4 min before the
first S wave. Assuming the waves travel in straight line, at what distance does the
earthquake occur ?
15.27 A bat is flitting about in a cave, navigating via ultrasonic beeps. Assume that the
sound emission frequency of the bat is 40 kHz. During one fast swoop directly
toward a flat wall surface, the bat is moving at 0.03 times the speed of sound in air.
What frequency does the bat hear reflected off the wall ?
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ANSWERS
Chapter 9
9.1 1.8
9.2 (a) From the given graph for a stress of 150 × 106 N m–2 the strain is 0.002
9.8 0.127
4
9.9 7.07 × 10 N
9.14 0.0027
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9.20 260 kN
Chapter 10
10.3 (a) decreases (b) η of gases increases, η of liquid decreases with temperature (c) shear
strain, rate of shear strain (d) conservation of mass, Bernoulli’s equation (e) greater.
10.6 10.5 m
10.7 Pressure at that depth in the sea is about 3 × 107 Pa. The structure is suitable since it
can withstand far greater pressure or stress.
10.9 0.800
10.10 Mercury will rise in the arm containing spirit; the difference in levels of mercury will be
0.221 cm.
10.12 No, unless the atmospheric pressures at the two points where Bernoulli’s equation is
applied are significantly different.
10.13 9.8 × 102 Pa (The Reynolds number is about 0.3 so the flow is laminar).
10.15 Fig (a) is incorrect [Reason: at a constriction (i.e. where the area of cross-section of the
tube is smaller), flow speed is larger due to mass conservation. Consequently pressure
there is smaller according to Bernoulli’s equation. We assume the fluid to be
incompressible].
10.18 4.5 × 10–2 N for (b) and (c), the same as in (a).
10.19 Excess pressure = 310 Pa, total pressure = 1.0131 × 105 Pa. However, since data are
correct to three significant figures, we should write total pressure inside the drop as
1.01 × 105 Pa.
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10.20 Excess pressure inside the soap bubble = 20.0 Pa; excess pressure inside the air bubble
in soap solution = 10.0 Pa. Outside pressure for air bubble = 1.01 × 105 + 0.4 × 103 × 9.8
× 1.2 = 1.06 × 105 Pa. The excess pressure is so small that up to three significant
figures, total pressure inside the air bubble is 1.06 × 105 Pa.
10.21 55 N (Note, the base area does not affect the answer)
10.22 (a) absolute pressure = 96 cm of Hg; gauge pressure = 20 cm of Hg for (a), absolute
pressure = 58 cm of Hg, gauge pressure = -18 cm of Hg for (b); (b) mercury would rise in
the left limb such that the difference in its levels in the two limbs becomes19 cm.
10.23 Pressure (and therefore force) on the two equal base areas are identical. But force is
exerted by water on the sides of the vessels also, which has a nonzero vertical component
when the sides of the vessel are not perfectly normal to the base. This net vertical
component of force by water on sides of the vessel is greater for the first vessel than the
second. Hence the vessels weigh different even when the force on the base is the same
in the two cases.
10.24 0.2 m
10.25 (a) The pressure drop is greater (b) More important with increasing flow velocity.
10.26 (a) 0.98 m s–1; (b) 1.24 × 10–5 m3 s–1
10.27 4393 kg
10.28 5.8 cm s–1, 3.9 × 10–10 N
10.29 5.34 mm
10.30 For the first bore, pressure difference (between the concave and convex side) = 2 × 7.3
× 10–2 / 3 × 10–3 = 48.7 Pa. Similarly for the second bore, pressure difference = 97.3 Pa.
Consequently, the level difference in the two bores is [48.7 / ( 103 × 9.8 )] m = 5.0 mm.
The level in the narrower bore is higher. (Note, for zero angle of contact, the radius of the
meniscus equals radius of the bore. The concave side of the surface in each bore is at 1 atm).
10.31 (b) 8 km. If we consider the variation of g with altitude the height is somewhat more,
about 8.2 km.
Chapter 11
9
(use tF = t c + 32 )
5
11.2 TA = ( 4/7) TB
11.3 384.8 K
11.4 (a) Triple-point has a unique temperature; fusion point and boiling point temperatures
depend on pressure; (b) The other fixed point is the absolute zero itself; (c) Triple-point
is 0.01°C, not 0 °C; (d) 491.69.
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11.5 (a) TA = 392.69 K, TB = 391.98 K; (b) The discrepancy arises because the gases are not
perfectly ideal. To reduce the discrepancy, readings should be taken for lower and
lower pressures and the plot between temperature measured versus absolute pressure
of the gas at triple point should be extrapolated to obtain temperature in the limit
pressure tends to zero, when the gases approach ideal gas behaviour.
11.6 Actual length of the rod at 45.0 °C = (63.0 + 0.0136) cm = 63.0136 cm. (However, we
should say that change in length up to three significant figures is 0.0136 cm, but the
total length is 63.0 cm, up to three significant places. Length of the same rod at 27.0 °C
= 63.0 cm.
11.7 When the shaft is cooled to temperature – 690C the wheel can slip on the shaft.
11.8 The diameter increases by an amount = 1.44 × 10–2 cm.
11.9 3.8 × 102 N
11.10 Since the ends of the combined rod are not clamped, each rod expands freely.
∆lbrass = 0.21 cm, ∆lsteel = 0.126 cm = 0.13 cm
Total change in length = 0.34 cm. No ‘thermal stress’ is developed at the junction since
the rods freely expand.
11.11 0.0147 = 1.5 × 10– 2
11.12 103 °C
11.13 1.5 kg
11.14 0.43 J g –1 K–1 ; smaller
11.15 The gases are diatomic, and have other degrees of freedom (i.e. have other modes of
motion) possible besides the translational degrees of freedom. To raise the temperature
of the gas by a certain amount, heat is to be supplied to increase the average energy of
all the modes. Consequently, molar specific heat of diatomic gases is more than that of
monatomic gases. It can be shown that if only rotational modes of motion are considered,
the molar specific heat of diatomic gases is nearly (5/2) R which agrees with the
observations for all the gases listed in the table, except chlorine. The higher value of
molar specific heat of chlorine indicates that besides rotational modes, vibrational modes
are also present in chlorine at room temperature.
11.16 4.3 g/min
11.17 3.7 kg
11.18 238 °C
11.20 9 min
11.21 (a) At the triple point temperature = – 56.6 °C and pressure = 5.11 atm.
(b) Both the boiling point and freezing point of CO2 decrease if pressure decreases.
(c) The critical temperature and pressure of CO2 are 31.1 °C and 73.0 atm, respectively.
Above this temperature, CO2 will not liquefy even if compressed to high pressures.
(d) (a) vapour (b) solid (c) liquid
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(c) It turns to liquid phase and then to vapour phase. The fusion and boiling points
are where the horizontal line on P –T diagram at the constant pressure of 10 atm
intersects the fusion and vaporisation curves.
(d) It will not exhibit any clear transition to the liquid phase, but will depart more and
more from ideal gas behaviour as its pressure increases.
Chapter 12
12.2 934 J
12.4 2.64
12.5 16.9 J
12.6 (a) 0.5 atm (b) zero (c) zero (assuming the gas to be ideal) (d) No, since the process
(called free expansion) is rapid and cannot be controlled. The intermediate states are
non-equilibrium states and do not satisfy the gas equation. In due course, the gas
does return to an equilibrium state.
12.8 25 W
12.9 450 J
12.10 10.4
Chapter 13
13.1 4 × 10–4
13.3 (a) The dotted plot corresponds to ‘ideal’ gas behaviour; (b) T1 > T2; (c) 0.26 J K–1;
(d) No, 6.3 × 10–5 kg of H2 would yield the same value
13.4 0.14 kg
13.7 (a) 6.2 × 10–21 J (b) 1.24 × 10–19 J (c) 2.1 × 10–16 J
13.8 Yes, according to Avogadro’s law. No, vrms is largest for the lightest of the three gases;
neon.
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1
l=
2πnd 2
where d is the diameter of a molecule. For the given pressure and temperature
N/V = 5.10 × 1025 m–3 and = 1.0 × 10–7 m. vrms = 5.1 × 102 m s–1.
v rms
collisional frequency = = 5.1 × 109 s –1 . Time taken for the collision = d / v = 4 × 10–13 s.
rms
l
Time taken between successive collisions = l / vrms = 2 × 10-10 s. Thus the time taken
between successive collisions is 500 times the time taken for a collision. Thus a molecule
in a gas moves essentially free for most of the time.
13.11 Nearly 24 cm of mercury flows out, and the remaining 52 cm of mercury thread plus the
48 cm of air above it remain in equilibrium with the outside atmospheric pressure (We
assume there is no change in temperature throughout).
13.12 Oxygen
13.14 Carbon[1.29 Å ]; Gold [1.59 Å]; Liquid Nitrogen [1.77 Å ]; Lithium [ 1.73 Å ]; Liquid
fluorine[1.88 Å ]
Chapter 14
14.2 (b) and (c): SHM; (a) and (d) represent periodic but not SHM [A polyatomic molecule has a
number of natural frequencies; so in general, its vibration is a superposition of SHM’s of
a number of different frequencies. This superposition is periodic but not SHM].
14.3 (b) and (d) are periodic, each with a period of 2 s; (a) and (c) are not periodic. [Note in (c),
repetition of merely one position is not enough for motion to be periodic; the entire
motion during one period must be repeated successively].
14.4 (a) Simple harmonic, T = (2π/ω); (b) periodic, T =(2π/ω) but not simple harmonic;
(c) simple harmonic, T = (π/ω); (d) periodic, T = (2π/ω) but not simple harmonic;
(e) non-periodic; (f) non-periodic (physically not acceptable as the function → ∞ as t → ∞.
14.9 Frequency 3.2 s–1; maximum acceleration of the mass 8.0 m s–2; maximum speed of the
mass 0.4 m s–1.
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ANSWERS 401
(b) x = – 2 cos
π where x is in cm.
t
2
m
(b) T = 2π k for (a) and 2π m for (b)
2k
14.15 8.4 s
(b) sin θ < θ ; if the restoring force, mg sin θ is replaced by mgθ, this amounts to
effective reduction in angular acceleration [Eq.(14.27)] for large angles and hence
an increase in time period T over that given by the formula T = 2π l where one
g
assumes sinθ = θ.
(c) Yes, the motion in the wristwatch depends on spring action and has nothing to do
with acceleration due to gravity.
(d) Gravity disappears for a man under free fall, so frequency is zero.
l
14.17 T = 2π . Hint: Effective acceleration due to gravity will get reduced
g2 + v 4 / R 2
due to radial acceleration v2/R acting in the horizontal plane.
14.18 In equilibrium, weight of the cork equals the up thrust. When the cork is depressed
by an amount x, the net upward force is Axρl g. Thus the force constant k = Aρl g .
m
Using m = Ahρ, and T = 2π one gets the given expression.
k
14.19 When both the ends are open to the atmosphere, and the difference in levels of the
liquid in the two arms is h, the net force on the liquid column is Ahρg where A is the
area of cross-section of the tube and ρ is the density of the liquid. Since restoring force
is proportional to h, motion is simple harmonic.
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T T
14.22 Hint: Average K.E. = 1 1 2 ; Average P.E.= 1 1
∫ ∫ 2 kx dt
2
mv dt
T 2 T
0 0
14.23 Hint: The time period of a torsional pendulum is given by T = 2π I , where I is the
α
moment of inertia about the axis of rotation. In our case I = 1 MR 2 , where M is the
2
mass of the disk and R its radius. Substituting the given values, α = 2.0 N m rad–1.
14.24 (a) – 5π2 m s–2 ; 0; (b) – 3π2 m s–2; 0.4π m s–1; (c) 0 ; 0.5 π m s–1
2 v 02
14.25 x0 + 2
ω
Chapter 15
15.1 0.5 s
15.2 8.7 s
15.4 Assume ideal gas law: P = ρRT , where ρ is the density, M is the molecular mass, and
M
γRT
T is the temperature of the gas. This gives v = . This shows that v is:
M
(b) Increases as T .
(c) The molecular mass of water (18) is less than that of N2 (28) and O2 (32).
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ANSWERS 403
15.5 The converse is not true. An obvious requirement for an acceptable function for a
travelling wave is that it should be finite everywhere and at all times. Only function (c)
satisfies this condition, the remaining functions cannot possibly represent a travelling
wave.
15.8 (a) A travelling wave. It travels from right to left with a speed of 20 ms–1.
(c) π/4
(d) 3.5 m
15.9 All the graphs are sinusoidal. They have same amplitude and frequency, but
different initial phases.
(c) π rad
(c ) 648 N
15.12 (a) All the points except the nodes on the string have the same frequency and
phase, but not the same amplitude.
(b) 0.042 m
(b) 248 N
( 2n − 1 )v
Hint : vn = ; n = 1,2,3,….for a pipe with one end closed
4l
15.16 5.06 km s–1
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15.18 318 Hz
15.20 (i) (a) 412 Hz, (b) 389 Hz, (ii) 340 m s–1 in each case.
15.21 400 Hz, 0.875 m, 350 m s–1. No, because in this case, with respect to the medium,
both the observer and the source are in motion.
15.22 (a) 1.666 cm, 87.75 cm s–1; No, the velocity of wave propagation is – 24 m s–1
(b) All points at distances of n λ ( n = ±1, ±2, ±3,….) where λ = 12.6 m from the point
x = 1 cm.
15.23 (a) The pulse does not have a definite wavelength or frequency, but has a definite
speed of propagation (in a non-dispersive medium).
(b) No
15.24 y = 0.05 sin(ωt – kx); here ω = 1.61 ×103 s–1, k = 4.84 m–1; x and y are in m.
15.26 1920 km
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXTBOOKS
For additional reading on the topics covered in this book, you may like to consult one or
more of the following books. Some of these books however are more advanced and contain
many more topics than this book.
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PHYSICS 406
GENERAL BOOKS
For instructive and entertaining general reading on science, you may like to read some of
the following books. Remember however, that many of these books are written at a level far
beyond the level of the present book.
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INDEX
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408 PHYSICS
G L
Gauge pressure 253 Laminar flow 258, 264
Geocentric model 183 Laplace correction 376
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INDEX 409
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410 PHYSICS
2020-21
INDEX 411
Waves 368 Y
Waxing and waning of sound 385
Yield Point 238
Weak nuclear force 9
Yield strength 238
Weightlessness 197
Young's modulus 239
Work done by variable force 118
Work 116
Work-Energy Theorem 116 Z
Working substance 313 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics 305
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412 PHYSICS
NOTES
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