SPE 7041
Micellar/Polymer Flooding - An Overview
W. B. Gogarty, SPE-AIME, Marathon Oil Co.
Introduction
Surfactant flooding is one enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
method being developed to increase the U.S. energy
supply. Other methods include thermal techniques, CO 2
flooding, polymer flooding, and the use of caustic solu-
tions. Micellar systems are injected to improve displace-
ment efficiency in the reservoir. These solutions have
been shown to reduce residual oil saturations in the
laboratory and field far below those values obtained with
a waterflood. Polymer solutions are injected next to
propagate the expensive micellar system efficiently
through the reservoir. The polymer solutions improve the
over-all reservoir conformance by providing mobility
control. Finally, water is injected after the polymer
solution.
Surfactant use to improve oil recovery began in the late
1920's and early 1930's. Essentially, two different con-
cepts have developed for using surfactants.l One con-
cept uses a large pore volume of a low-concentration
surfactant solution. The use of low-concentration surfac-
tant solutions has led to low-tension waterflood pro-
cesses. The second concept uses a small pore volume of a
high-concentration surfactant dispersion. Dispersions
containing high-surfactant concentration sometimes are
called micellar solutions. Certain subclasses are referred
to as microemulsions, swollen micelles, fine emulsions,
or soluble oils. The use of small pore volumes of highly
concentrated surfactant dispersions has led to a miscible-
type recovery process known as Maraflood,@l a soluble
0149-2136/78/0008-7041 $00.25
© 1978 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
This paper presents an overview of the continuing development of low-tension surfactant and
micellar (or microemulsion)jlooding. Current technology is considered from the standpoint
of DOE and other projects undertaken in industry. Commercial application and economics
also are considered.
AUGUST,1978
oil recovery process known as Uniflood,@l and other
patented processes.
This paper presents an overview of the continuing
development of low-tension surfactant flooding and
micellar, or microemulsion, flooding. Current technol-
ogy is considered from the standpoint of DOE and other
projects undertaken in industry. Some recent projects
have shown an expanding technology. Based on the
number of new tests, field activity is continuing at a high
level. This paper also discusses commercial application
in terms of lead time and expenditures. The potential for
commercial application is considered in view of the
Lewin and Assocs., Inc., National Petroleum Council
(NPC), and Office of Technology Assessment (OTA)
reports. Improvements needed for further technological
development are presented. Timing for large-scale appli-
cations is reviewed in terms of supply and demand and
competition from other liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Spe-
cific economic cases based on Marathon Oil Co. 's expe-
rience in Illinois are compared using 1975 and 1978
costs.
High-Surfactant vs Low-Surfactant Projects
Three sources 2 -4 were assumed to represent the current
status of surfactant or micellar methods. Table 1 shows
micellar/polymer field projects funded, either in part or
entirely, by DOE. Other projects listed in the NPC report
that began after 1973 are shown in Table 2. These tests
are funded entirely by industry. Projects given in Tables 1
and 2 do not represent a complete list.
1089
 The EI Dorado project (Table 1) compares a low-
concentration surfactant system designed by Shell Oil
Co. in one pattern with a high-concentration system de-
signed by Union Oil Co. in an adjacent pattern. All other
projects are using fluid systems with high-surfactant con-
centrations. Gary Operating CO.5 combined labora-
tory testing and computer simulation to select the fluid
system for the Bell Creek Field project. As reported, they
selected an oil-external, high-surfactant concentration
system over a water-external, low-surfactant concentra-
tion system. Presumably, other contractors, or their sub-
contractors, have conducted similar testing to select the
fluid systems used in the DOE projects. If this is true, the
laboratory design data apparently favor the high-
concentration surfactant systems. Based on this data set,
technology development seems to tend toward the small
pore volume, more highly concentrated surfactant
systems.
Field results are needed to confirm the effectiveness of
these high-concentration systems. No project in Table 1
has been completed and evaluated. Injection of surfactant
began in the Delaware-Childers project in April 1976.
Response was predicted for Oct. 1976. No increase in oil
production has been reported to date. Surfactant injection
began in the North Burbank project in Aug. 1976. By
mid-November, the WOR began to decline. In June
1977, oil production was at 190 BOPD, compared with
58 BOPD before chemical flooding, and 19,000 bbl of
tertiary oil had been recovered. 6 Other projects are in
various stages; several more years must pass before an
evaluation can be completed. For example, final evalua-
tion of the Commercial Scale Demonstration project
(M-l project) is scheduled for 1986.
The Sloss Field test used a slug containing 8% surfac-
tant, while all other tests shown in Table 2 used about
2.5% surfactant solutions. Sulfonate injection for Con-
tinental Oil Co. 's Big Muddy test began in Nov. 1974. As
of Aug. 1977, enhanced oil recovery was 147 bbl/acre-ft,
indicating a technical success for Conoco's process. Sur-
factant injection started in Oct. 1975 in Mobil Oil Corp. 's
Wichita County Regular test. No response has been ob-
served. The Salem test, operated by Texaco Inc. and
using the Mobil process, recovered less than the antici-
pated amount of oil. Reasons reported for the low recov-
ery include inadequate conditioning of the reservoir,
greater than anticipated retention of surfactant, and a
pressure gradient across the test area. 7 ,8 Slug injection
started in the Sloss Field test in Feb. 1977. By June 1977,
the production rate had increased from 4 to 50 BOPD.
Results indicate that this project might become a techni-
cal success. Mobil has reported that its low-tension wa-
terflood (LTWF) process was tested successfully in the
West Ranch Field. 9 The LTWF process reduced the oil
saturation to about 5% in the swept area.
Field Testing
Tables 1 and 2 indicate that micellar-dispersion flooding
technology is expanding. The Bradford Field project
occurs in a reservoir with an average permeability of only
7 md. The reservoir oil viscosity in the Wilmington Field
project is a comparatively high 31. 7 cpo The Sloss and
West Ranch tests are using high- and low-surfactant
0
concentration solutions at temperatures of 165 and
169°F, respectively. Several tests are being conducted
under conditions of adverse reservoir water salinity.
Undoubtedly, various companies have tested and de-
veloped their fluid systems in the laboratory before trying
expensive field trials (Tables 1 and 2). Marathon experi-

TABLE 1-DOE FUNDED SURFACTANT OR MICELLAR/POLYMER PROJECTS

Reservoir Salinity
Perme- Oil Temper- (ppm total Tertiary Target"
Depth Area ability Viscosity ature dissolved (millionbbl
Project (OF) solids) oil in place)
Operator ~ (acres) ~ (cp)
EI Dorado (KA) Cities Service 650 51.2 162 4.8 69 82,600 72
North Burbank (OK) Phillips 2,900 90 50 3 120 75,000 400
Commercial Scale
Demonstration, M-1
Project (IL) Marathon 925 407 103 5.5 72 16,500
Bell Creek Field (MT) Gary Operating 4,550 160 300 4.6 110 3,450 64
Bradford Field (PA) Penn Grade Crude 1,300 24 7 4.5 64 3,000 1,200
Oil Assoc.
Wilmington Field (CA) City of Long Beach 2,900 10.7 180 31.7 125 30,000 3,600
Delaware-Childers (OK)' B&NOilCo. 620 10 80 10.9 86 11,000
Robinson Field (IL) Marathon 336
'100% DOE funding
"Estimated oil in place after waterflooding.

TABLE 2-SUMMARY OF SURFACTANT FIELD TESTS FUNDED BY INDUSTRY

Reservoir
Perme- Oil Temper-
Depth Area ability Viscosity ature Salinity
Field (OF) (ppm)
Operator ~ (acres) (md) (cp)
Big Muddy (WY) Conoco 3,100 1 52 5.6 114 7,700 total dissolved solids
Griffin
Consolidated (IN) Conoco 2,400 0.8 75 Not available Not available Not available
Wichita County
Regular (TX) Mobil 1,750 209 53 2.2 89 160,000 total dissolved solids
Salem (IL) Texaco 1,750 5.8 87 3.6 85 40,OOOCI-
Sloss (NE) Amoco 6,250 10.0 93 0~8 165 2,457 total dissolved solids
West Ranch (TX) Mobil 5,700 2.5 950 0.7 169 60,OOOCI-
La Barge (WY) Texaco 700 1.7 450 17.0 60 1,017 Ca++ and Mg++

1090 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 TABLE 3-RANGE OF OILFIELD CHARACTERISTICS FOR CURRENT PROJECTS
Commercial Scale
Demonstration
Wilmington Bradford (M-1 Project)
Reservoir temperature, of 125 64 72
Permeability, md 100to 200 1 to 10 50 to 200
Type of sandstone Unconsolidated Well cemented Cemented
Connate water, ppm
total dissolved solids 30,000 3,000 10,000 to 20,000
Crude gravity, °API at 60°F 15 to 18 40t045 30 to 35
Crude viscosity, cp 31.7 4.5 5.5
Crude oil type Aromatic Paraffinic Naphthenic

enced this when expanding the applicability of its micel- remains at a high level. Table 4 shows the number of
lar polymer process. Table 3 shows the range of oilfield projects active in early 1976 by company. 10 Table 5 lists
characteristics where the Maraflood process is now being new projects reported to have started in 1976.
applied. Marathon is prime contractor for the M-l project Most field trials listed in Tables 4 and 5 represent the
and subcontractor for the Wilmington and Bradford Field culmination of laboratory development on a particular
projects (Table 1). Fluid system design has been com- fluid system for a given reservoir. Marathon's experience
pleted for the M-l and Bradford Field projects, and slug has indicated that multiple field tests are required to
injection is under way. Laboratory work is on schedule optimize the surfactant/polymer system. Field results
for the Wilmington Field project. serve as new input for laboratory studies. Tests with
Early field work with the process occurred in the Il- different types and sizes of patterns also are important.
linois Basin, where the M-l project is now under way. Improved fluid systems designed in the laboratory then
The Wilmington and Bradford characteristics in Table 3, are field tested. This interactive procedure results in long
when compared with the Commercial Scale Demonstra- lead times and large expenditures. Each project in Tables
tion, show a wide variation in environment. The Wil- 4 and 5 may be only the initial step in a cycle that leads to
mington project has a higher temperature and viscosity, is an economical system for a particular area.
in an unconsolidated formation, has a significantly higher
connate water salinity, and has an aromatic-type crude Marathon's Experience
oil. The Bradford Field (Lawry) project is being con- Table 6 lists tests of the Maraflood process that have been
ducted in an extremely low-permeability reservoir con- initiated during the past 15 years in Crawford County, IL.
taining a fresh-water environment with a highly paraffinic These tests were aimed at developing a commercial pro-
crude-oil type. Development in the laboratory and field cess for the Robinson sandstone reservoir. The Dedrick
was required to adapt the process to the wide range of and Wilkin tests used the process in small patterns under
reservoir conditions shown in Table 3. This type of work secondary and tertiary conditions, respectively, with
will be needed with other surfactant or micellar/polymer emulsions for mobility control. The Henry West and East
processes. projects tested different pattern and slug sizes and used
polymer solutions for mobility control. Test 119-R used
Level of Activity an experimental gas-oil sulfonate with a line-drive pat-
Field testing with surfactant for enhanced oil recovery tern to simulate fluid movement from an injection to a
producing well in a 10-acre five-spot pattern. The Henry
TABLE 4-MICELLARISURFACTANT PROJECTS'· S Mini-Test proved that displacement efficiency of a
Company Number micellar/polymer system could be determined on a short
Texaco 3 time basis. Mini-Tests 1 and 2 determined displacement
Marathon 2 (119-R and 219-R) efficiency of a fluid system using surfactant manufac-
Conoco 2 tured by sulfonating crude oil. Mini-Test 4 used commer-
Pennzoil 2 (one with ERDA)
Mobil 2
cial sulfonate and provided data for comparison with
Shell 1 Mini-Tests 1 and 2. Mini-Test 6 used no polymer and
Cities Service 1 (with ERDA) Mini-Test 7 used biopolymer to obtain performance data
Phillips 1 (with ERDA) for comparison with other fluid systems. Test 219-R used
B& N lease 1 (ERDA alone)
surfactant manufactured in Marathon's 5,OOO-B/D,
Total 15
sulfonate-slug manufacturing facility at the refinery in
TABLE 5-"NEW" SURFACTANT PROJECTS IN 1976
Company Number
Amoco 3 Sloss, NE; Salt Creek, Torchlight, WY
Gulf 2 Kern Bluff, Lost Hills, CA
Texaco 2 Manuel, Slaughter, TX
Gary (ERDA) 1 Bell Creek, MT
City of Long Beach (ERDA) 1 Wilmington, CA
Getty 1 Main Consolidated, IL
Phillips 1 Cut Bank, MT
Skelly 1 Velma, OK
Belco 1 Ruben, WY
Marathon (ERDA) 1 Main Consolidated, IL (M-1 Project)
Total 14

AUGUST, 1978 1091

Robinson, IL. Finally, the Commercial Scale Demon- time are possible when moving a micellar/polymer pro-
stration (M-l project) was initiated to determine the in- cess from one area to another. However, some field
vestment and expense associated with recovering tertiary testing is necessary before commercialization when any
oil on a commercial scale in the Robinson reservoir. significant variable is changed. The Bradford Field DOE
Results from some of these field tests were project in Table 1 is an example of this requirement. This
published. 1, 11-14 Table 7 highlights results from the com- project is in the same reservoir as the previous Pennsyl-
pleted 119-R and ongoing 219-R projects. As of Jan. 1, vania tests. The only significant difference is the low
1978, these projects had produced more than 473,000 bbl reservoir permeability. The fluid system developed in the
of tertiary oil. The 219-R project produced more than 500 laboratory to optimize recovery for the tight reservoir is
BOPD for 3 months before starting to decline. 14 significantly different from the one used in the higher-
Process Development permeability part of the reservoir. This project covers 24
acres. The same number of injectors and producers are
Table 8 gives information about the Commercial Scale used (but with closer spacing) as in the 46-acre expansion
Demonstration project. This project compares process of the more permeable reservoir. This approach reduces
performance on 2.5- and 5.0-acre spacing using repeated development time by eliminating the small inverted
five-spot configurations. The initial evaluation of the five-spot test used in the high-permeability part of the
2.5-acre portion of this large project will be completed reservoir. If the 24-acre project is successful, a commer-
by the end of 1981. Final evaluation of the project is cial scale project could begin immediately.
scheduled for 1986. At that time, almost 25 years will This procedure for testing the low-permeability part of
have elapsed since field testing of the process began in the the reservoir could be the model for developing a particu-
Robinson reservoir. until evaluation of the M-l project. lar micellar/polymer system in a given area. Laboratory
These results for the Robinson reservoir indicate that long work should proceed to the point where fluid system
lead times are needed to develop micellar/polymer flood design achieves optimal cost effectiveness. Laboratory
technology for a given area. work could take as much as I year. A field test then could
Could results in Illinois reduce the time required for begin with enough repeated patterns to allow for effective
application in another area? Experience along those lines evaluation. For example, a five-spot development using
was obtained when using the Maraflood process in the 16 injectors and 25 producers could take 4 years. A
Bradford Field of Pennsylvania. In 1967, development of full-scale commercial project then could be started, but
a fluid system began for a high-permeability section of about 5 more years could elapse before an evaluation
that field. Slug injection started in a small inverted five- could be made. Based on this testing sequence, at least 10
spot in Dec. 1968. Based on results from this project, an years would elapse from the start of laboratory testing
expanded project was undertaken. IS Highlights are given until evaluation of the commercial scale project.
in Table 9. Based on published results, even if injection
began in 1979, a larger commercial scale project could Potential for Future Application
not be evaluated completely before 1986. Thus, at least Government Projections
19 years would elapse from start to finish of a commercial Extensive studies have discussed potential oil recovery
scale project. and/or production rates resulting from enhanced oil-
Results for Pennsylvania show that some economies of recovery processes. 4,16-18 In these studies, each reservoir
in a given data base was considered as a possible project.
TABLE 6-FIELD TESTS IN CRAWFORD COUNTY, IL Oil recovery and economic simulations approximated
Test Date Started TABLE 8-COMMERCIAL SCALE DEMONSTRATION - M-1
Dedrick 11/62 PROJECT
Wilkin 1/64 2.5-Acre 5.0-Acre
Henry West 11/65
Spacing Spacing Total
Henry East 11/65
119-R 9/68 Size, acres 248 159 407
Henry S Mini-Test 10/69 Oil wells 91 39 130
Mini-Test 1 3/73 Injection wells 85 29 114
Mini-Test 2 10/73 Slug injection, % PV* 7.1 3.8
Mini-Test 4 5/74 Proposal submitted to ERDA: March 1976
Mini-Test 6 6/75 Contract signed: Sept. 1976
219-R 10/75 Reservoir engineering work completed: Sept. 1976
Mini-Test 7 8/76 Fluid system design completed: Jan. 1977
Commercial Scale Demonstration Slug injection started: Feb. 1977
(M-1 Project) 2/77 Total cost: $43 million
DOE funding: $14 million
'As of Jan. 1, 1978.
TABLE 7 -HIGHLIGHTS FROM 119-R AND 219-R PROJECTS
119-R 219-R TABLE 9-HIGHLIGHTS FROM BINGHAM EXPANSION
Size, acres 40 117 PROJECT
Pattern Line drive Five spot
Spacing, acres 3.0 Size, acres 46
2.5
Injection started 9/68 10/75 Pattern Five spot
Recovery, bbl Spacing, acres 3
254,000 219,000'
Recovery, % Injection started 3/71
38** 18*'
Project completed 12/76 1/80t Recovery, bbl 174,000
Recovery, % 43*
'AsofJan.1,1978.
**Based on an estimated oil saturation afterwaterflood of 40%.
Project completed 2/75
tBased on time for injecting about 1.5 PVtotal fluid. * Based on an estimated oil saturation after waterflood of 40%.

1092 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 TABLE 10-PROJECTED DISTRIBUTION OF KNOWN OIL Tables 10 and 11 indicate the total potential for all
IN THE U.S.'·
EOR processes. Table 12 shows results from the OTA
(Dec. 31,1975)
study for surfactant/polymer flooding. 18 Within the var-
Billions Percentage iance of Table 11, results in Table 12 should represent
of of Original
Barrels Oil in Place the expected potential from future applications of
Produced 109.0 24.7 surfactant/polymer flooding.
Proven reserve (including North Another way to look at the potential for future applica-
Slope,AK) 32.7 7.4 tion of surfactant flooding is to consider the ongoing
Indicated reserve 5.0 1.1 DOE projects listed in Table 1. These projects are located
Net oil recoverable by enhanced
oil processes in high process
in areas where, if successful, technology can be applied
performance case at $30/bbl 46.5 10.5 to develop extensive tertiary reserves. Tertiary targets for
Unrecoverable oil: six DOE projects are listed in Table 1. These targets
Recoverable at price greater than represent oil remaining after waterflooding becomes un-
$30/bbl 2.3 0.5 economical. Based on a recovery factor of 33%, 1.9
Oil left in reservoirs after
enhanced oil recovery processes
billion bbl of reserve are indicated. The rapidity with
were applied and oil consumed which these reserves are developed will depend on
as part of the recovery process 170.4 38.6 economic conditions.
Oil in reservoirs where no enhanced
oil recovery process was Current Developments
applicable at prices of $30/bbl 76.1 17.2
Validity of the results in Table 12, and hence the OTA
Totals 442.0 100.0
and other studies, needs to be considered in light of other
commercial development by industry. The Lewin and data. Table 12 indicates a cumulative production in 1985
Assocs. Inc., FEA and NPC studies used a common of from 100 to 300 million bbl. To date, the 119-R,
data base of 245 reservoirs in California, Texas, and 219-R, and Bingham expansion projects are the only ones
Louisiana. This was expanded to 352 reservoirs in 17 reported that produced significant quantities of tertiary
states for Lewin's ERDA study. The study for OTA oil by surfactant/polymer flooding. With the completion
incorporated, revised, and expanded the Lewin-ERDA of the 219-R project in early 1980, total recovery from
data base to 835 reservoirs that contain 52% of the re- these three projects might equal about 800,000 bbl. No
maining known oil in the U.S. Table 10 gives the pro- possibility appears likely of reaching even the lower
jected distribution of known oil in the U. S. as of Dec. 31, value of 100 million bbl by 1985.
1975, from the OT A study. 18 Based on an oil price of Cumulative production by 1985 can be estimated from
$30Ibbl, a total of 46.5 billion bbl is the net recoverable the acres under flood and the total projects. According to
oil using enhanced oil-recovery (EOR) methods. Table the OTA report, only 1,418 acres are now under
11 compares potential ultimate recovery and production surfactant/polymer flood. With an average thickness of
rates for EOR in 1985 from the four studies. 18 Ultimate 30 ft and a recovery of 250 bbl/acre-ft, a cumulative
recovery values agree reasonably well, but producing recovery of only 11 million bbl would be obtained. The
rates vary widely among the studies. only current projects larger than 200 acres are the Com-

TABLE 11-PROJECTIONS OF ULTIMATE RECOVERY AND PRODUCTION RATE FROM THE APPLICATION OF ENHANCED
OIL RECOVERY PROCESSES"
Minimum Rate
of Return Potential Ultimate Potential Production
Reference for Projection Oil Price Recovery Rate in 1985
Date (%) (dollars/bbl) (billion bbl) (million BID)
OTA
Low process performance 1976 10 11.62 8.0 0.4
13.75 11.1 0.5
High process performance 11.62 21.2 0.5
13.75 29.4 1.0
NPC
Poor performance 1976 10 10.00 3.1
Expected performance (base case) 7.2 0.5
Better performance 13.4
Poor performance 15.00 6.3 0.5
Expected performance (base case) 13.2 0.9
Better performance 26.9 1.5
ERDA
Industry base case* 1976 8 11.63 11.9 0.6
13.00 13.1 0.6
Industry base case with ERDA 11.63 26.2 1.7
Research and development* 13.00 30.1 2.1
FEA
California, Texas, and Louisiana 1975
Lower bound 20 11.28 15.6** 1.0
Upper bound 8 11.28 30.5 2.0
* Current tax case, 10% investment tax credit and expensing of injection materials and intangibles, with current environmental constraints.
"Reserves added by the year 2000.

AUGUST, 1978 1093

 TABLE 12-ESTIMATED RECOVERIES FOR ADVANCING TECHNOLOGY - LOW AND HIGH PROCESS PERFORMANCE
CASES, SURFACTANT/POLYMER'·
Low Process Performance Case High Process Performance Case
Upper Tier World Oil Alternate Fuels Upper Tier World Oil Alternate Fuels
Price Price Price Price Price Price
($11.62/bbl) ($13.75/bbl) ($22/bbl) ($11.62/bbl) ($13.75/bbl) ($22/bbl)
Ultimate Recovery
(billion bbl) 1.0 2.3 7.1 7.2 10.0 12.2
Production rate
(millionS/D)
1980
1985 0.1 0.2 0.2
1990 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.7
1995 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.8 1.3
2000 0.2 0.2 1.3 0.9 1.9 2.5
Cumulative Production
(million bbl)
1980
1985 100 100 200 100 300 300
1990 100 100 600 400 900 1,000
1995 100 200 900 700 1,800 2,000
2000 300 500 2,700 1,800 4,400 6,200
*Technical and economic pilots.

mercia! Scale Demonstration (Table 1) and Mobil's
209-acre (Table 2) projects. The M-l project recovery is
estimated at 2.5 million bbl and is scheduled for comple-
tion after 1985. Mobil has seen no response. Even if a
200-acre project in the Penn Grade area began in the near
future, recovery would be only about 750,000 bbl, based
on Pennzoil's 46-acre project performance. This oil
could not be obtained before 1985. Based on ongoing and
projected projects, less than 4 million bbl of oil will be
obtained.
Needed Developments
To achieve the projected recovery value of 100 million
bbl by 1985, about 40 M-1-type projects would have to
begin immediately (1978). This would mean that 16,000
acres needs to be developed during 1978. If the acreage
were developed on 2.5-acre spacing, 10,130 new wells
would have to be drilled and conditioned. On 5.0-acre
spacing, the number of wells would be 6,440, and oil
recovery would take longer. In 1979, 2.3 billion lb of
surfactant would have to be injected. Following surfac-
tant, 131 million lb ofpolymer would have to be injected
over the next few years. The total cost of this activity
would be $1. 7 billion.
The rate data in Table 12 indicate about the same level
of development. In 1985, with high performance and
world oll price, a value of 67,000 BOPD is indicated for
100 million bbl of cumulative production. The M-l proj-
ect is estimated to peak at about 1,800 BOPD. About 37
M-l projects would have to be developed immediately to
reach the projected 1985 rate. From the standpoint of
surfactant/polymer flooding, there seems no way that the
1985 projections in Table 12 will be reached.
Future application and development of surfactant/
polymer flooding probably will not follow the criteria
outlined in the Lewin FEA and ERDA, NPC, and OTA
studies. Instead, economic potential and individual com-
pany needs will dictate the reservoirs where application is
attempted. Table 13 compares the screening criteria used
for the Lewin FEA, NPC, and OT A reports. In no case is
micellar/polymer flooding supposed applicable in reser-
voirs with a permeability of less than 20 md. The Brad-
ford Field represents a significant tertiary potential to the
Pennsylvania operators. A micellar/polymer system was
developed in the laboratory because of this need. More
than 75% of the slug now has been injected into this 7-md
field and will be followed with a polymer drive. The
screening criteria indicate that technology will not be
available until 1995 to flood a reservoir with oil having a
viscosity greater than 30 cpo A micellar/polymer process
has been used successfully in the laboratory to displace
the 31.7-cp crude oil from Wilmington cores. Again, the
large recovery potential (see Table 1) has spurred this
development. Finally, Texaco has a surfactant/polymer
pilot flood in a limestone section of the San Andres
formation in the Slaughter Field. 10 The criteria of Table
13 show application only for sandstone lithology. Thus,
both laboratory and field experience indicate that
micellar/polymer flooding is applicable to more reser-
voirs than indicated by Table 13.
Improvements Needed in Technology
Oil Recovery and Chemicals
Results such as those in Fig. 1 illustrate the importance of
oil price and process performance to the continued de-
velopment of surfactant/polymer flooding. Work on im-

TABLE 13-SCREENING CRITERIA FOR SURFACTANT/POLYMER FLOODING

NPC OTA
Property Lewin, FEA 1976 1980 1995 1976 1980 1995
Oil viscosity, cp < 20 10 20 30 .; 10 .; 20 .; 30
Temperature, OF <200 120 170 250 .;120 .;170 .;250
Permeability, md > 20 50 20 20 ;;. 20
Salinity of brine
(wt % total
dissolved solids) < 5 2 15 20 .; 20
Rock type Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone

1094 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

proving technology should focus on increasing oil recov-
ery with the different processes. As discussed earlier,
critical tests are needed, both in the laboratory and field,
to determine whether oil recovery is better with low- or
high-concentration surfactant systems. The EI Dorado
DOE project is the first field comparison. 2 ,3
Different processes use a wide range of chemicals.
Interaction of these chemicals with each other and the
reservoir fluids and rock determines performance. Pro-
cess type (low- or high-surfactant concentration, etc.)
affect chemical selection. Surfactant and polymer repre-
sent most of the chemicals injected and, therefore, have
the most effect on process economics. In addition to
effect of surfactant and polymer on oil recovery perfor-
mance, operating problems such as injectivity and oil and
water treating must be considered.
Economic oil recovery with surfactant/polymer flood-
ing depends on the ability of process technology to reduce
the average residual oil saturation. Any decrease in this
minimum resulting from improved technology enhances
the economics. Fig: 1 shows incremental ultimate recov-
ery as a function of oil price for different reductions in
waterflood residual oil saturation. Recoveries are those
projected for the V.S. by the NPCreport and are based on
10% discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) after
federal income taxes. The saturation reduction varies by
± 5% PV for the high and low performance cases from
that of the base case. If oil were $151bbl and surfactant
floods exhibited low performance, essentially no oil
could be obtained economically (10% DCFROR) on a
company project basis. If improvements in technology
changed performance from low to high, the recovery
potential in the V. S. from surfactant flooding would
increase to more than 11 billion bbl. These results indi-
cate the incentive for improving oil recovery perfor-
mance by surfactant flooding. Calculations for the
Robinson Field in Illinois also show the economic incen-
tive for improving oil recovery. 1 With 2.5-acre spacing
and $15.50Ibbl oil, a 22% improvement in oil recovery
from 230 bbl/acre-ft would increase the DCFROR from
about 10% to 20%.
Chemical costs are another important factor when de-
termining the potential of surfactant/polymer flooding.
Fig. 2 gives incremental ultimate recovery as a function
of oil price. Calculations are based on the same proce-
dures used to obtain Fig. 1. The base-case chemical costs
varied by ± 25%. For $ 15lbbl oil, Fig. 2 indicates that a
reduction of 50% in chemical cost would allow economi-
cally recoverable oil recovery in the V. S. to increase by
about 5.0 billion bbl. This result reflects the high frac-
tion of investment that chemicals represent in a
surfactant/polymer flood. For example, the chemicals in
the M-l project account for more than 65% of the invest-
ment. Reduction in chemical costs through improved
technology would have a significant effect on large-scale
development of surfactant/polymer flooding.
Current Research
Gary Operating Co. presents laboratory data for its Bell
Creek Field project, showing that oil recovery is higher
with a particular high-surfactant concentration system
than a particular low-concentration surfactant system. 5
Laboratory studies on preinjection of polymer to improve
oil recovery have been reported for high-concentration
surfactant systems. 19,20 In some cases, polymer is mixed
into the micellar surfactant slug. This procedure was used
successfully by Conoco in its low-concentration Big
Muddy test. The technique is supposed to improve reser-
voir conformance by increasing volumetric sweep and
negating the problems of reservoir heterogeneity, such as
fracturing. Other innovations are needed with surfactant
flooding to increase oil recovery.
Laboratory and field studies are needed to improve
technology in all areas of sulfonate or polymer technol-

14 1o.----.-----,----,-----.----,
oil

~0 12
./
.' -- .!!
.
~
0

-
.Q

0
oil
c 10
Lower
Residual I
.Q
(;
oil
8

C
0 saturationl 0

.Q
I .Q 6
8
t' >-
Q)

0
u
~
>

6
/ /,
Base
Case
~
>
0

.
u
Q)

I /
4
Q)
~
0 0
,
-
E
:;
4 -
E
:; Hig~
,,/'
-
0
c
V / ; Higher
2co 2

1/: V --
Q)
Q)
2 Residual E
E Saturation/ ~
~ u
u
c .-1// c

o 5 10 15 20 25 °0~--~5~~=1~0----~15----~2~0--~25
Oil Price (dollars per barrel) Oi I Price (dollars per barrel)

Fig. 1-Effect of flood efficiency on recovery potential (NPC). Fig. 2-Effect of chemical cost on recovery potential (NPC).

AUGUST, 1978 1095

 1 0 0 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -_ _ _ _--.
TABLE 14-STUDIES ON SURFACTANT/POLYMER
Non-Communis' world
FLOODING oil demond

Adsorption or retention
Gulf'''
Mobil42
SheIl 43-..
U.ofTexas47
Phase behavior
ARC04S
Exxon4•
Institut Franc;ais du Petrole 5o
Shell51
U. of Minnesota/Gary Operating52
Interfacial tension
Mobil 53
U. of Minnesota54
U. of TexasSS • 56
ogy. Reports have been given on the manufacturing,
characterization, and performance of synthetic and petro-
leum sulfonates. 1.21-25 Continued work is needed on low-
ering sulfonate manufacturing costs and improving per-
formance by being able to tailor the product to a given
application. This implies (1) a complete understanding of
the effect that molecular type, equivalent weight, equi-
valent weight distribution, sulfonate cation, etc., have on
process performance; and (2) the ability to measure these
properties in "dirty" systems. Only minimal technology
now exists for these problems.
Two main types of polymers now are being used for
mobility control. Synthetic polyacrylamide polymers re-
duce reservoir permeability and are salt sensitive.
Polysaccharide biopolymers require higher concentration
and cost more. Improved polymer technology could
come from graft polymerization. Additional studies are
needed to develop low-costlhigh-performance mobility
control agents. Some work has been reported on improv-
ing design of the polymer mobility bank. 26.27 Continued
gains may be possible.
Scaling laboratory and small pilot floods to field-wide
or commercial-size projects need improved technology
most. These procedures imply the need for (1) an under-
standing of the displacement mechanisms for a given
process, (2) an accurate description of the reservoir, and
(3) an effective reservoir simulator incorporating these
mechanisms. Experimental laboratory displacement re-
sults must be matched to test the simulator. If successful,
this approach could lead to fewer laboratory floods when
designing field projects. Laboratory work has been re-
ported on linear scaling of a slug-type process .28 Pulsed
"
80
"
. - . - ._ _ ~ .
Total non.COI'I""unllt
~.............. world oil production:
-------~ , . Jll""'WithO.P.E.C.linlitat
c ~-......( 33 million barrels/do.,.
~ 40 ........................... With O.P.E.C.limit at
:E ... \ 45 million bo"el./doy
20 ..... - - - .. - - - - - - - - - ____ .... With no O.P'E.C.Ii"'it
_______ ... Non-O.P.E.e.
.. oil production
~=~~-1~98~S-~19~9~S-~20~OS~~2~Ol~S-~20~2-S----~
Year
Fig. 3-0il supply and demand forecast for the non-Communist
world.
nuclear magnetic resonance techniques were used to ob-
serve the oil bank formation mechanism during micellar
flooding. 29 Details have been presented on the
mechanism of microemulsion flooding. 30-33 Several
types of simulators and modeling efforts have been
reported. 34-40 These are definite accomplishments but
more are needed.
Surfactant/polymer flooding studies are being con-
ducted by various industrial laboratories and universities.
The work focuses mainly on surfactant adsorption or
retention, phase behavior, and interfacial tension. Table
14 indicates activity in these areas, based on recent publi-
cations. Both experimental and computer studies are rep-
resented by the references in Table 14. Results have been
reported for only a limited number of fluid and rock
systems, and most data relate to specific applications.
Broader and more encompassing studies will be needed
to improve technology.
Table 15 shows supporting research contracts spon-
sored by DOE for micellar/polymer flooding. Total
commitment for these contracts is $1.4 million, one-half
of which is going to five different universities. This
amount is insignificant in view of the large potential for
this type of enhanced recovery process.
Timing for Large-Scale Application
A recent study indicates that during 1985-90, resource
and production limitations will begin to restrict oil
supply. 57 Further increases in oil demand beyond 1990
simply will not be satisfied, and additional energy re-
quirements will have to be met with other fuels. The
results of this study are summarized in Fig. 3. The gap
between supply and demand depends on OPEC produc-
tion limits. With the present ceiling of33 million BID, oil

TABLE 15-SUPPORTING DOE RESEARCH CONTRACTS FOR

MICELLAR/POLYMER FLOODING
Title Contractor Amount
Interfacial effects in the recovery
of residual oil by displacement Northwestern U. $181,959
Interfacial effects in the recovery
of residual oil by displacement U. of Houston $147,282
Low interfacial tension and miscibility
studies for surfactant tertiary
oil-recovery processes Carnegie-Mellon U. $51,115
Transient spontaneous emulsification
as a tertiary oil-recovery mechanism U.ofTexas $62,966
Tertiary recovery of Pennsylvania
grade crude oil with surfactant
solutions Pennsylvania State U. $189,710
Chemicals for enhanced oil recovery Oak Ridge National
Laboratory $781,500

1096 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

demand will be greater than supply before 1985. With no TABLE 16-S0LlD FUEL CONVERSION COSTS
OPEC limit, a significant gap will develop soon after (First Quarter 1977 Constant Do"ars)'
1995. $IOE Barrel"
Based on this study, the need for other forms of energy Low-sulfur liquids from coal
in the U.S. would become critical during 1985-95. If (Powder River Basin coal)t 20t025
demand in the Communist world exceeds supply, it will Synthetic crude oil from shalestt 15 to 18
Tar sands 18t020
compete for OPEC oil. This could accelerate the U.S.
'15% discounted cash flow rate of return, 100% equity financing.
need for other forms of fuel. Oil equivalent barrel.
>I< >I<

tPowder River Basin sub· bituminous coal at$6/ton.

Results presented earlier indicated that no significant ttPiceance Basin, CO.
quantities of oil will be available from surfactant flooding
by 1985. Unless many large-scale projects are started in TABLE 17-ILLINOIS 6,OOO-ACRE MARAFLOOD PROCESS
the next 2 or 3 years, oil production from surfactant DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMrc SUMMARY
flooding will be practically nonexistent in 1985-95. (Crude Oil Price - $15.50/bbl)
Fig. 4.shows a recent energy supply forecast.58 Oil use 2.5-Acre 5-Acre
is projected to increase to about 25 million B/D by 1990. Spacing Spacing
The distribution of sources for the U. S. oil is given in Oil recovery, bbl/acre-f1 242 242
Fig. 5. 59 About one-half the oil used is expected to come Gross production, million bbl 30.50 30.50
Net production, million bbl 27.09 27.09
from imports. Independent of the balance of payments Revenue, million dollars 419.93 419.93
problem, all or part of this oil supply might be unavail- Investment, million dollars 310.47 243.70
able for political or economic reasons. Expense, million dollars 93.59 111.29
Results in Fig. 3 show that the U.S. and other western Total cost, $/net bbl
industrial nations will need additional liquid hydrocar- (before federal income tax) 14.92 13.10
Project life, years 13.89 17.12
bons by not later than 1995. Other sources of liquid
hydrocarbon are being developed, including tar sands, oil
shale, and different processes for liquefying coal. cates published product costs for some of the alternate
Perhaps the time has come to think of EaR processes, hydrocarbon sources. 62 Table 17 gives the total cost of oil
including surfactant flooding, as an alternate source for for a large scale micellar/polymer development. The
liquid hydrocarbon. Table 10 fixes the petroleum re- price of oil from surfactant flooding compares favorably
source base at 46.5 billion bbl with a price of $301bbl. A with alternate sources.
lower price simply reduces the size of the resource base. In the final analysis, large-scale application of surfac-
By considering EaR oil as an alternate liquid hydrocar- tant flooding depends on the results of many large field
bon, a source becomes available whereby all processing projects. Even with technically favorable results, eco-
is underground. EaR methods form the most environ- nomic incentives will still be needed. Some method is
mentally acceptable process. Coal and tar sand produc- necessary to initiate several 100-acre or larger projects
tion have problems associated with strip mining. Oil from yearly for the next few years. This is the only way the
shale results in large quantities of spent shale. By compet- learning curve can be increased continually in the field.
ing with other alternate source economics, EaR oil Because of the risk and economic uncertainties, industry
would no longer be compared with either oil prices or the will be reluctant to take this step.
economics of supplies produced by primary and second-
ary methods. If tax credits and other development incen-
Economic Considerations
tives are given to alternate hydrocarbon sources, EaR oil Study Parameters
also would qualify. For example, oil extracted from shale The cost of tertiary crude oil and the investment require-
has been exempted from petroleum price controls; DOE ments for a 6,000-acre, lO-year development in the
has agreed to finance 71 % of a $60.5 million project to Robinson sandstone (Crawford County, IL) have been
develop Occidental Petroleum CO.'s process;60 and a tax presented. l For these economic calculations, a 600-acre
credit of $3/bbl now is being legislated. 62 Table 16 indi- block was drilled in 1975 and in each succeeding year

25r---------------------------------~,

60 Hydro.
geothermal. °/oshar. 20
solar 3
10 49
'0 Imports
15
27 ~
.Q
3
'0 30 c --=--
.!?
~ %~ha~~ Gas 16
~
10 18 .............. Fro.m Futu~e 26
-D,scover,es
.2 20 22~ _______ 62 ' ......
............

30 5 82 Domestic Production From Existing

~ 10 Oil 44 Heserves 22
44
o~~----~--~----~----~--~----~~
0~1~9~60~~19~6~5--~19~7~0~~1~9=~~~19~80~~~--~~-J 1960 1965 1970 1975
Year Year

Fig. 4-U.S. energy supply forecast. Fig. 5-Sources of U.S. oil.

AUGUST, 1978 1097

through 1984. Slug injection occurred the year after de-
velopment. Polymer solution and drive water were in-
jected continuously until each block had received 1.5 PV
of total fluid. Economics were calculated for both 2.5-
and 5-acre spacing.
Parameters in this early study were based on 1975
costs, and no provision was made for escalation caused
by inflation of oil prices or investment and operating
costs. To determine the effect on economics of increasing
crude oil prices and inflation, a similar study was based
on 1978 costs. Economic input parameters for the 1975
and 1978 studies are compared in Table 18 for 2.5-acre
spacing. As in the 1975 study, parameters such as the
number of wells, project life, field cost, and well operat-
ing expenses in the 1978 study were scaled for the 5-acre
spacing cases. Note in Table 18 that the slug pore volume
increased from 7 to 10%, and hydrocarbon-like compo-
nents decreased from 24 to 17% for the 1978 study. The
well operating expense in the 1978 study was increased to
cover higher labor costs, including oil treating; the oil
revenue was decreased by $1/bbl to cover the cost of
energy and chemicals for treating. This value for energy
and chemicals represents a maximum that probably will
decrease with experience. Other costs were escalated
from their 1975 values at 6%/yearto give 1978 values. A
value of $750,000 was used for each 600-acre block in
the 1975 study to cover abandonments, reabandonments,
and other well work. This number was left out mistakenly
when reporting the 1975 work, but was escalated and
used in the 1978 study.
Study Comparison (1975 vs 1978)
Results are given in terms of after-tax DCFROR as a
function of oil recovery for different crude oil prices and
spacing (Figs. 6 through 8). For reference, the 119-R
recovery was 230 bbIlacre-ft for the total project and 282
bbIlacre-ft for the confined elements of the pattern. When
the 1975 study was completed, the stripper price for oil
from the Robinson reservoirs was $ 12.33/bbl. The pres-
ent posted price of crude oil (40° API stripper) is
$14.95/bbl. As with the 1975 study, three crude oil prices
are given for the 1978 study.
Fig. 10 of Ref. 1 shows the results of the 1975 study.
The economics of micellar/polymer flooding are strongly
dependent on recovery efficiency and oil price. Results
indicate that 5-acre spacing would develop the 6,000
acres most economically. Actually, this would be true
only if equal recoveries were obtained with the same
spacing. Fig. 6 gives similar results for the 1978 study.
The trends follow those of the earlier study. Fig. 6 shows
the economic potential associated with improving the
field recovery of any micellar/polymer process.
Figs. 7 and 8 compare 1975 with 1978 results for the
2.5- and 5.0-acre development, respectively. Consider a
recovery of 242 bbIlacre-ft in Figs. 7 and 8. In both
figures, the $11. 90/bb11975 DCFROR is higher by about
3% than the $15.50/bbl 1978 value. These results indi-
cate that an increase in crude price from $11.90 in 1975 to
$15.50 in 1978 has been negated by increased costs.
Without extra treating costs, the $11. 90/1975 and

TABLE 18-ILLINOIS 6,OOO-ACRE MARA FLOOD PROCESS DEVELOPMENT,

BASIC ECONOMIC INPUT PARAMETERS FOR EACH 600-ACRE BLOCK
Conditions
1975 and 1978 costs and prices
No cost or price escalation with time
Field data
Area = 600 acres, developed on 2.5-acre spacing
Thickness = 21.0 ft
Porosity = 19.5%
Oil saturation = 40.0% (at the start of tertiary recovery operations)
Oil cut = 3% (at the start oitertiary recovery operations)
Injection wells = 240
Production wells = 272
Royalty and tax data
Royalty = 12.5%
Income tax rate = 50%
Investment tax credit = 7.0% (one-half of equipment installed will be old, thus the
effective rate is 3.5%)
Fluid injection data 1975 1978
Micellar solution slug, %. PV 7 10
Percent hydrocarbon-like components in slug 24 17
Mobility buffer, % PV 105 105
Average polymer concentration, ppm 594 566
Drive water, % PV 38 35
Project life, years (including 1 year
drilling and site preparation) 4.96 4.89
Field costs (dollars)
Drilling and completion costs 8,966,000 10,678,740
Fluid handling and injection equipment 2,940,000 3,501,600
Salvage credit 1,816,300 2,163,180
Lease cleanup 1,407,400 1,676,280
Unit costs
Micellar solution slug, dollars/bbl 7.69 6.51
Slug injection expense, cents/bbl 18.4 33.0
Polymer, dollars/lb 1.02 1.18
Polymer solution injection expense, cents/bbl 4.1 12.9
Water injection expense, cents/bbl 2.6 3.1
Water disposal expense, cents/bbl 2.6 3.1
Well operating expense, dollars/well/month 251 534

1098 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

$15.50/1978 results are about equal. Another way to see
the effect of inflation is to compare the $15.50/bbl results
for 1975 with 1978. For a recovery of 242 bbllacre-ft, the
DCFROR has decreased about 13% for the 2.5-acre de-
velopment (Fig. 7) and about 11 % for the 5.O-acre de-
velopment (Fig. 8).
Figs. 7 and 8 demonstrate that the cost of goods and
services have escalated at least as fast, if not faster, than
the price of crude oil. Hence, the profitability of tertiary
oil recovery in Robinson sandstone reservoirs is about the
same in 1978 as in 1975. Large-scale projects will not be
undertaken until the risk of low recovery is reduced or the
potential profitability is increased. Many large projects
are required to improve the learning curve. The M-l
project is a step in the direction of large-scale projects,
but more are needed.
Incentives Needed
The present government mandated escalation of lower-
and upper-tier crude oil prices is designed to produce a
composite 20% DCFROR before federal income tax for
future investment in the exploration-production segment
of our industry. * Although this rate of return is far from
generous, a substantially enhanced and guaranteed pre-
mium price for tertiary oil is probably the quickest way to
generate activity in the micellar/polymer recovery area.
Fig. 6 shows that to obtain a 15% DCFROR for 2.5-
and 5.0-acre development with a recovery of 242
bbl/acre-ft, the oil price must be about $21.50 and
$21.00/bbl, respectively. These prices fit the range given
in Table 16 for liquid hydrocarbons from other sources,
which lends credence to the suggestion of considering
EOR oil as an alternate source of liquid hydrocarbon.
With price, tax credit, or other development incentives
duction rate from development on 2.5- or 5.0-acre spac-
ing is about 8,360 B/D. As shown, an investment of from
$244 to $310 million is required for the 6,000-acre de-
velopment. Investment includes drilling costs, equip-
ment, and injected chemicals. For the assumed recovery,
the investment develops about 27 million net bbl of
reserve. The total cost per net barrel (Tabie 17) will
decrease with increased recovery, but the given values
indicate the high cost of tertiary oil and compare with the
costs projected for alternate sources of liquid hydrocar-
bons in Table 16.
Conclusions
1. Field projects now under way indicate surfac-
tant/polymer technology is expanding. Projects presently
funded by DOE favor the low-pore-volume, high-
surfactant concentration concept.
2. Field testing of micellar/polymer flooding remains
at a high level. Individual tests are limited to relatively
small acreage. Only two projects have developed more
than 200 acres.
3. Development for a given reservoir requires at least
10 years from the start oflaboratory work through evalua-
tion of a commercial-scale field project.
4. Potential recovery and production rates predicted
for 1985 for surfactant/polymer flooding by the Lewin,
24 - - . 1978 Prices
- - 1975 Prices
;.e 20
e
:>
t 16

offered for alternate liquid hydrocarbon sources (such as '"

'0
oil shale), many new large-scale projects might be ! 12
o
started. '"
Table 17 summarizes the 1978 study associated with U 8
o
the projected 6,OOO-acre development. Values presented
4
depend strongly on oil recovery; the 242 bbl/acre-ft value
mayor may not be typical of field recovery, but it was
used to indicate expected values based on limited field ~O~O~~~~--~~~~~~~~--~2~80~~~3~OO
experience. With this recovery, the maximum daily pro- Tertiary Oil Recovery, Bbls/Acre Ft.
Fig. 7 -Comparison of after-tax projected 1975 and 1978
-Speech by Stuart Ray of DOE to the Oil Analyst Group of New York City on Jan. 19. economics, 2.5-acre spacing (6,OOO-acre Maraflood process
1978. development in Illinois).

28r--'---.---r---r--.---.---~--r---r--'

24

~ 20
e
:>
~ 16
o
GI 12
;;
'"U 8
o
4

Tertiary Oil Recovery, Bbls/Acre Ft.

Fig. 8-Comparison of after-tax projected 1975 and 1978
Fig. 6-After-tax projected 1978 economics (6,OOO-acre economics, 5.0-acre spacing (6,OOO-acre Maraflood process
Maraflood process development in Illinois). development in Illinois).

AUGUST, 1978 1099

NPC, and OTA studies may not be attained. Future
development probably will not follow the screening
criteria used in these studies.
5. Process improvements are needed to increase oil
recovery in the field and to reduce the chemical costs per
barrel. Studies should focus on understanding the
mechanisms of the various surfactant processes and on
developing adequate mathematical simulators for model-
ing laboratory floods and for forecasting field test results.
6. No significant quantities of oil will be available
from surfactant flooding by 1985. World supply and
demand will force the need for fuels from other sources
during 1985-95. Unless many large projects are started in
the next 5 years, micellar/polymer oil will not contribute
significantly to the supply for that period.
7. Prices, tax credits, and other development incen-
tives must be granted EOR oil to spur development. EOR
oil, like oil shale, should be considered an alternate liquid
hydrocarbon source.
8. Economic calculations for the Maraflood process
based on 1975 and 1978 application in Robinson sand-
stone reservoirs show that crude oil price increases have
been negated by the increased cost of goods and services.
Potential profitability remains about the same - poor for
the risks and large investment required.
References
1. Gogarty, W. B.: "Status of Surfactant or Micellar Methods,"
J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1976) 93-102.
2. Enhanced Oil and Gas Recovery and Improved Drilling Methods,
progress review of ERDA, Washington, DC (Jan. 1975-July
1977).
3. Enhanced Oil-Recovery Field Reports, Society of Petroleum En-
gineers of AIME, Dallas (1975-1977).
4. Enhanced Oil Recovery, National Petroleum Council, Washing-
ton, DC (Dec. 1976).
5. Goldburg, A.: "Selection Methodology as Between Competing
Micellar-Polymer Designs," paper SPE 6729 presented at SPE-
AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, Oct. 9-12,1977.
6. Trantham, J. C., Patterson, H. L., and Boneau, D. F.: "The North
Burbank Unit Tract 97 Surfactant/Polymer Pilot - Operation and
Control," J. Pet. Tech. (July 1978) 1068-1074.
7. Widmyer, R. H., Satter, A., Frazier, G. D., and Graves, R. H.:
"Low-Tension Waterflood Pilot at the Salem Unit, Marion
County, Illinois - Part 2: Performance Evaluation," J. Pet. Tech.
(Aug. 1977) 933-938.
8. Strange, L. K. and Talash, A. W.: "Analysis of Salem Low-
Tension Waterflood Test," J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1977) 1380-1384.
9. Murphy, C. L., Thiede, D. M., and Eskew, J. 0.: "A Successful
Low Tension Waterflood Two-Well Test," paper SPE 6005 pre-
sented at SPE-AIME 51st Annual Fall Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, Oct. 3-6, 1976.
10. "Operators Accelerate Testing of Micellar/Surfactant Potential,"
Oil and Gas J. (April 5, 1976) 120-122.
11. Gogarty, W. B. and Davis, J. A., Jr.: "Field Experience With the
Maraflood Process," paper SPE 3806 presented at the SPE-AIME
Second Symposium on Improved Methods for Oil Recovery,
Tulsa, April 16-19, 1972.
12. Earlougher, R. c., Jr., O'Neal, 1. E., and Surkalo, H: "Micellar
Solution Flooding: Field Test Results and Process Improve-
ments," paper SPE 5337 presented at the SPE-AIME Rocky
Mountain Regional Meeting, Denver, April 7-9, 1975.
13. Gogarty, W. B. and Surkalo, H.: "A Field Test of Micellar
Solution Flooding," J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1972) 1161-1169.
14. Howell, J. c., McAtee, R. W., Snyder, W.O., and Tons 0 , K. L.:
"Large-Scale Field Application of Micellar Polymer Flooding,"
paper SPE 7089 presented at the SPE-AIME Fifth Symposium on
Improved Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, April 16-18, 1978.
15. Danielson, H. H., Paynter, W. T. and Milton, H. W., Jr.: "Ter-
tiary Recovery by the Maraflood Process in the Bradford Field,"
J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1976) 129-138.
1100
16. "The Potential and Economics of Enhanced Oil Recovery," report
prepared by Lewin and Assocs., Inc., for the FEA, Washington,
DC (April 1976).
17. "Research and Development in Enhanced Oil Recovery, " report
prepared by Lewin and Assocs. ,Inc., for ERDA, Washington, DC
(Nov. 1976).
18. "Enhanced Oil Recovery Potential in the United States, ' , Office of
Technology Assessment, Washington, DC (Jan. 1978).
19. Dabbous, M. K. and Elkins, L. E.: "Pre injection of Polymers To
Increase Reservoir Flooding Efficiency," paper SPE 5836 pre-
sented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved Methods
for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24, 1976.
20. Dabbous, M. K.: "Displacement of Polymers in Waterflooded
Porous Media and Its Effect on a Subsequent Micellar Flood,"
Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Oct. 1977) 358-368; Trans., AIME, 261.
21. Puerto, M. C. and Gale, W. W.: "Estimation of Optimal Salinity
and Solubilization Parameters for Alkylorthoxylene Sulfonate
Mixtures," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1977) 193-200.
22. Froning, H. R. and Treiber, L. E.: "Development and Selection of
Chemical Systems for Miscible Waterflooding," paper SPE 5816
presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24, 1976.
23. Ashcraft, T. L. and Saunders, R. K.: "Sulfonation of Petroleum
Feedstocks in a Wiped Film Reactor," paper SPE 6119 presented
at the SPE-AIME 51st Annual Fall Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, Oct. 3-6, 1976.
24. Sandvik, E. L., Gale, W. W., and Denekas, M. 0.: "Characteri-
zation of Petroleum Sulfonates," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1977)
184-192.
25. Knaggs, E. A., Nussbaum, M. L., Carlson, J. B., and Guenzani,
R. C.: "Petroleum Sulfonate Utilizati on in Enhanced Oil Recovery
Systems," paper SPE 6006 presented at the SPE-AIME 51st
Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Oct. 3-6, 1976.
26. Gupta, S. P. and Trushenski, S. P.: "Micellar Flooding - The
Design of the Polymer Mobility Buffer Bank," Soc. Pet. Eng. J.
(Feb. 1978) 5-12.
27. Claridge, E. L.: "A Method of Design of Graded Viscosity
Banks," paper SPE 6848 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual
Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12,
1977.
28. Parsons, R. W. and Jones, S. C.: "Linear Scaling in Slug-Type
Processes - Application to Micellar Flooding," Soc. Pet. Eng. J.
(Feb. 1977) 11-26.
29. Dreher, K. D. and Sydansk, R. D.: "Observation of Oil-Bank
Formation During Micellar Flooding," paper SPE 5838 presented
at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved Methods for Oil
Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24,1976.
30. Healy, R. N. and Reed, R. L.: "Physicochemical Aspects of
Microemulsion Flooding," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Oct. 1974) 491-501;
Trans., AIME, 257.
31. Healy, R. N., Reed, R. L., and Carpenter, C. W.: "A Laboratory
Study of Micro emulsion Flooding," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb. 1975)
87-103; Trans., AIME, 259.
32. Healy, R. N., Reed, R. L., and Stenmark, D. G.: "Multiphase
Microemulsion Systems, " Soc. Pet. Eng.J. (June 1976) 147-160;
Trans., AIME, 261.
33. Healy, R. N. and Reed, R. L.: "Immiscible Microemulsion Flood-
ing," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Apr. 1977) 129-139; Trans., AIME, 263.
34. Zetik, D. F.: "Reservoir Simulation for the EI Dorado Micellar-
Polymer Project, " paper SPE 5807 presented at the SPE-AIME
Fourth Symposium on Improved Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa,
March 22-24,1976.
35. Kossack, C. A. and Bilhartz, H. L., Jr.: "The Sensitivity of
Micellar Flooding to Reservoir Heterogeneities," paper SPE 5808
presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24, 1976.
36. Talash, A. W.: "Experimental and Calculated Relative Permeabil-
ity Data for Systems Containing Tension Additives," paper SPE
5810 presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24,1976.
37. Larson, R. G. and Hirasaki, G.: "Analysis of the Physical
Mechanisms in Surfactant Flooding," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb.
1978) 42-58.
38. Pope, G. A. and Nelson, R. c.: "A Chemical Flooding Composi-
tional Simulator," paper SPE 6725 presented at the SPE-AIME
52nd Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Oct. 9-12, 1977.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
39. Thomas, C. P., Winter, W. K., and Fleming, P. D.: "Application
of a General Multiphase, Multicomponent Chemical Flood Model
to Ternary, Two-Phase Surfactant Systems," paper SPE 6727
presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12,1977.
40. Satter, A., Shum, Y. M., Adams, W. T., and Davis, L. A.:
"Chemical Transport in Porous Media," paper SPE 6847 pre-
sented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
41. Bae, J. H. and Petrick, C. B.: "AdsorptionJRetentionofPetroleum
Sulfonates in Berea Cores," Soc. Pet. Eng. 1. (Oct. 1977)
353-357.
42. Hurd, B. C.: "Adsorption and Transport of Chemical Species in
Laboratory Surfactant Waterflooding Experiments," paper SPE
5818 presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24, 1976.
43. Lawson, J. B. and Dilgren, R. E.: "Adsorption of Sodium Alkyl
Aryl Sulfonates on Sandstone," Soc. Pet. Eng. 1. (Feb. 1978)
75-82.
44. Lake, L. W. and Helfferich, F. G.: "The Effect of Dispersion,
Cation Exchange, and Polymer/Surfactant Adsorption on Chemi-
cal Flood Environment," paper SPE 6769 presented at the SPE-
AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, Oct. 9-12,1977.
45. Hill, H. J.: "Cation Exchange - Chemical Flooding Experi-
ments," paper SPE 6770 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual
Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12,
1977.
46. Pope, G. A., Lake, L. W., and Helfferich,-F.: "Cation Exchange
in Chemical Flooding - Basic Theory Without Dispersion,"
paper SPE 6771 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual Fall
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
47. Trogus, F. J., Schechter, R. S., Pope, G. A., and Wade, W. H.:
"Adsorption of Mixed Surfactant Systems," paper SPE 6845
presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
48. Salter, S. J.: "The Influence of Type and Amount of Alcohol on
Surfactant-Oil-Brine Phase Behavior and Properties," paper SPE
6843 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd Annual Fall Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
49. Robbins, M. L.: "Theory for the Phase Behavior of Microemul-
sions," paper SPE 5839 presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Sym-
posium on Improved Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March
22-24, 1976.
50. Baviere, M.: "Phase Diagram Optimization in Micellar Sys-
AUGUST, 1978
terns," paper SPE 6000 presented at the SPE-AIME 51st Annual
Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Oct. 3-6,
1976.
51. Nelson, R. C. and Pope, G. A.: "Phase Relationships in Chemical
Flooding," paper SPE 6773 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd
Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct.
9-12,1977.
52. Larson, R. G.: "The Influence of Phase Behavior on Surfactant
Flooding," paper SPE 6774 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd
Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct.
9-12,1977.
53. Wilson, P. M., Murphy, C. L., and Foster, W. R.: "The Effects of
Sulfonate Molecular Weight and Salt Concentration on the Interfa-
cial Tension of Oil-Brine-Surfactant Systems," paper SPE 5812
presented at the SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24,1976.
54. Anderson, D. R., Bidner, M. S., Davis, H. T., Manning, C. D.,
and Scriven, L. E.: "Interfacial Tension and Phase Behavior in
Surfactant-Brine-Oil Systems," paper SPE 5811 presented at the
SPE-AIME Fourth Symposium on Improved Methods for Oil
Recovery, Tulsa, March 22-24,1976.
55. Wade, W. H., Schechter, R. S., Morgan, J. C., and Jacobson,
J. K.: "Low Interfacial Tensions Involving Mixtures of Sur-
factants," Soc. Pet. Eng. 1. (Apr. 1977) 122-128.
56. Wade, W. H., Morgan, J. c., Schechter, R. S., and Jacobson,
J. K.: "Interfacial Tension and Phase Behavior of Surfactant
Systems," paper SPE 6844 presented at the SPE-AIME 52nd
Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct.
9-12,1977.
57. Basile, P. S. and Stemlight, D.: "The Coming Energy Shortage:
Oil is Not Enough," Tech. Review (June 1977) 41-49.
58. "Exxon Fine Tunes U.S. Energy Forecast," Oil and Gas 1. (Dec.
19,1977) 32-33.
59. Garrett, R. W.: "Estimates of Oil and Gas Potential, "Chern. Eng.
Prog. (June 1977) 31-33.
60. "Oil Shale Shows Signs of Life," Ind. Week (Nov. 7, 1977)
26-33.
61. "News Hilites," Pet. Eng. (Nov. 1977) 3.
62. Energy Economics Newsletter, Energy Center, Stanford Research
International, Menlo Park, CA (June 1977). JPT
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office Feb. 27. 1978.
Paper accepted for publication May 18, 1978. Revised manuscript received June 14,
1978. Paper (SPE 7041) first presented at the SPE·AIME Fifth Symposium on Improved
Methods for Oil Recovery, held in Tulsa, April 16'19, 1978.
1101