Composition of Soil Particles

Opal

Calcite: CaCO3 Rutile TiO2 Apatite

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Magnetite Fe3O4 Gibbsite Al4(OH)12 Ca5(F CL OH)(PO4)3
Brucite Mg6(OH)12

Neosilicates Sorosilicates Cyclosilicates

Tectosilicates
Inosilicates Phyllosilicates

Ref:, MIT course notes and Lambe & Whitman 1996

 ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

• Common Clay Minerals:

1. Clay Minerals with Two-Sheet Layer

Kaolinite: Al4 Si4 O10 (OH)8

• A silica unit (tetrahedral sheet) and a

gibbsite unit (octahedral sheet)
• Particle consists of a stack of two-sheet
layers forming a stiff hexagonal plate
with flat-faced edges
• Linkage between the two-sheet layers
consists of hydrogen and van der
Waals bonds.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

1. Clay Minerals with Two-Sheet Layer

Halloysite :
1 nm
H2O
• Same basic composition and
structure as Kaolinite but with trapped
water molecules between layers
(during formation hydrated form)

• Due to a misfit in the crystalline

structure of the gibbsite-silicate
sheets, Halloysite rolls/wraps to form
hollow tube particles.

• Soil containing large amounts of

Halloysite will possess high moisture
content, low dry density.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

2. Clay Minerals with Three-Sheet Layers

Muscovite (Mica): K2Al4[Al4 Si6] O20(OH)4

• A gibbsite sandwiched between 2 silica

sheets
• During formation, one of the 4 silicon
atoms (Si +4) is replaced by an aluminum
(Al +3): Isomorphous Substitution (IS).
• Resulting negative charge is balanced by
potassium cations (K +1).
• The K +1 cations form a very strong bond
between the three-sheet layers, resulting
in large flaky particles
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

2. Clay Minerals with Three-Sheet Layers

Illite (Hydrous Mica): K (Al,Mg,Fe)4or6 [Si, Al]8

O20(OH)4

• Same basic structure as Mica, with variations

due to presence of Gibbsite or Brucite as
octahedral sheet; and

• Less IS of Al+3 for Si+4, resulting in less K+1

cations and thus weaker bonds between
layers. In addition to removal of the K+1
intersheet at the edges of the plates due to
weathering. The resulting flaky but smaller
particles have frayed edges.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

2. Clay Minerals with Three-Sheet Layers

Montmorillonite (Smectite): (Al3.3 Mg0.7) [Si]8 O20(OH)4

• Composition similar to Mica, however, a small amount

of IS of Mg+2 for Al+3 in the gibbsite sheet takes place,
producing a unit negative charge. This will be
balanced by exchangeable cations; Na+1 or Ca+2

Sodium Montmorillonite = Bentonite

 Na+1cations do not bond unit layers together –

resulting particles in water are thin films ~ 1nm
thick (i.e. unit layer thickness) with high breadth
to thickness ratio and large specific surface area
(surface area per unit mass or volume)
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

2. Clay Minerals with Three-Sheet Layers

Montmorillonite with Other Cations:

 Ca+2, Mg+2, or Fe+2 or +3 act as moderate

glue between layers and restrict separation
to < 1 nm, which greatly reduces the
specific surface area and potential for
swelling.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

2. Clay Minerals with Three-Sheet Layers

Chlorite:

• A variation of Illite or Montmorillonite.

• Interspace between three-sheet layers is filled

by Brucite which forms strong bonds with the
tetrahedral sheets (i.e. hydrogen bonds form
between the surface oxygens of the tetrahedral
sheet and surface hydroxyls of Brucite).

• Small specific surface area

ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure

Soil Structure = Type & Magnitude of Interparticle Forces + Fabric

• Interparticle Forces: repulsive and attractive forces between soil

particles and stress transmission through soil

• Fabric: geometrical arrangement of soil particles with respect to

each other = Orientation & Distribution of particles
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Cation Exchange Capacity :

• Every soil particle carries an electrical charge

• Cations that neutralize the net negative charge on the surface of soil
particles in water are readily exchangeable with other cations

• Cation Exchange Capacity is measured in milliequivalents of cations

per gram of soil particles = measure of net negative charge on soil
particles resulting from IS & broken boundary bonds; CEC is more
significant in very fine clay particles
Clay Mineral Cation Exchange Capacity (meq./g)
Kaolinite 0.03 – 0.1
Illite 0.2 – 0.3
Chlorite 0.2 – 0.3
Montmorillonite 0.8 – 1.2
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Adsorbed Water and Double Layer:

• The water molecule has the ability to form strong bonds with the
surface of soil particles and exchangeable cations surrounding it; 1 to
4 molecular layers of water may be held at the surface of the soil
particles = Adsorbed water- more important in very fine particles

• When individual clay particles are dropped into water, the free cations
(between unit clay sheet layers) diffuse/move away from the surface
of the particle toward the lower cation concentration in the free water
while negative electrical charge of the surface of the soil particle tends
to attract these cations. This process forms what is termed a ‘Double
Layer’.

• A clay particle thus includes ~1nm of adsorbed water, surrounded by

1 to > 50 nm of double layer water, enveloped in turn in free water.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Repulsive and Attractive Force:

 Repulsion develops when two particles approach each other and

their double layers comes in contact. The particles will remain
dispersed unless pushed together by an external force equal to or
higher than the repulsive force.

 Attraction between soil particles is due to the universal van der

Waals Force (secondary bonding force) between adjacent particles.
A decrease in the double layer thickness allows further approach of
the particles, which aggregate into flocs.

 While repulsive and attractive forces act between all soil particles,
they are more important in fine-grained soils (with respect to the
weight of the particle)
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure

Flocculation and Dispersion (freshly deposited soil):

 Soil particles will flocculate when net attractive & repulsive

forces between them is attractive. Flocculated particles form
loose arrays and can exhibit edge-to face particle contacts.

 Soil particles will disperse when the net attractive & repulsive
forces between them is repulsive. Dispersed soil particles form
parallel arrays.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure

Transmission of force through soil (soil under loading):

 For soil particles to approach each other to ~1 nm or less,

adsorbed water has to be removed.

 In clay soils, a very large force will be required to achieve

expulsion of adsorbed water resulting in mineral-to mineral
contact.

 In granular soils (silt & sand), a relatively small force is required

to achieve high pressures between the particles and expulsion
of adsorbed water due to the very small mineral-to-mineral
contact area (about 0.03 % of total particle area)
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Transmission of force through soil (soil under loading):

 Normal stress can be transmitted through clay in a dispersed

state by long range stresses (double layer interaction), with no
direct mineral to mineral contact.

 In a flocculated clay, the particles can be in mineral-to-mineral

contact and the normal stress is transmitted in a fashion similar to
that of sands & coarse silts (i.e. by means of mineral-to-mineral
contact forces).

 In reality, most clay soils also contain silt-size particles or larger

that will affect the arrangements of the plate-shaped clay
particles. The soil behavior will be somewhere between that of
equidimentional grains and parallel clay particles. Behavior in
general is closer to that of equidimentional particles.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Shear Resistance of Soil Particles:

 Most important mechanism of deformation within a soil mass is relative

sliding between soil particles. The resistance of soil to deformation is
influenced by the shear resistance at particles contact.

 Shear resistance = force that must be applied to cause a relative

movement between particles.

 Source of shear resistance are the attractive forces that act at the
surface of the particles. These forces lead to chemical bond formation
at surface points of contact.

 Total shear resistance is proportional to the normal force pushing two

particles together, hence interparticle shear resistance is mainly
frictional in Nature.
ORIGIN, NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

Soil Structure
Fabric:
Describes geometrical arrangement of particles with respect to
each other.

 Random Microfabric: result of settlement of individual mineral

particle in very fine soils; the mineral particles have no preferred
orientation. Typical of quiet fresh water settings.

 Segregated Fabric: result of segregated sedimentation

processes due to seasonal changes in water flow velocities;
e.g. varved clays

 Mixed-grain Unsegregated Fabric: result of salt water

sedimentation; soil particles flocculate and all particle sizes
(clay to coarse silt) settle simultaneously.
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL AGGREGATE INDEX PROPERTIES
Soil = Three-Phase Material
• Solid: Mineral particles
• Liquid: Pore water (electrolytes)
• Gas: Air
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Exercise 1: Soil Index Properties

Demonstrate the following equations using the weight-volume

phase relationships:

e n
n e S  e  w  Gs
1 e 1 n
 '   sat   w note: Archimedes' principle: the buoyant force on a
body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by that object

1 w t
t  G w d 
1 e 1 w
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Exercise 2: Soil Index Properties

Determine:
• moisture content (w),
• void ratio (e), porosity (n),
• degree of saturation (S), and
• dry density (g/cc) and dry unit weight (kN/m3), of a soil sample.

Data:
- Mass of soil sample = 1013 g
- Vol. of soil sample = 585 cc
- Specific gravity (Gs) = 2.65
- Dry mass of soil sample = 904 g
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Exercise 2: Soil Index Properties
Solution:

ρw =1 g/cc

ρd=2.65 g/cc
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL AGGREGATE INDEX PROPERTIES
Typical Values: Granular Soils – See also Table 6.3 Textbook
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL AGGREGATE INDEX PROPERTIES
Typical Values: Cohesive Soils– See also Table 6.3 Textbook

For clay soils, the range of values of index properties such as void
ratio and moisture content can greatly vary.

 Sodium Montmorillonite (at low confinement) can exist with a void

ratio e > 25.
 Saturated clays under high stresses can have a void ratio e < 0.2
 Corresponding moisture contents for the example clays above

Sodium Montmorillonite w = 900%

Clay under high pressure w= 7%
 Oven dry clay soil samples left sitting in the lab will absorb
enough moisture from the atmosphere to raise their water content
from 2% to up to 20%.
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Consistency & Sensitivity of Fine Grained Soils
• Consistency of an undisturbed soil aggregate refers to the degree of
adhesion between fine soil particles and the resistance offered
against forces causing deformation or rupture of the soil aggregate.

• Described as: soft, medium, stiff, or hard and is assessed based on

the unconfined compressive strength or shear strength of the soil
Consistency UCS qu , kPa Shear Strength Su, kPa
Very Soft < 25 < 12
Soft 25- 50 12-25
Medium 50- 100 25- 50
Stiff 100- 200 50-100 (N >8)
Very Stiff 200- 400 100-200
Hard > 400 > 200
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Consistency & Sensitivity of Fine Grained Soils

• Sensitivity: refers to the effect of remolding on the consistency of

a clay. The degree of sensitivity is different for different types of
clay and may be different for the same clay at different water
contents!

• Sensitivity St of a clay is expressed as:

Unconfined .compressiv e.strength .undisturbe d

St 
Unconfined .compressiv e.strength .remoulded
• Consistency of remoulded clays may be changed by increasing or
decreasing their water contents (passing from liquid to plastic then
solid state and vice-versa)
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

• AASHTO Soil Classification System
- Particle Size Characteristics
- Atterberg Limits.
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Particle Size Characteristics- Sieve & Hydrometer Analyses GS Distribution
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION

Coefficient of Uniformity:
D60
Cu 
D10

Coefficient of Curvature:

( D30 ) 2
Cc 
D10  D60
USCS
ASTM D-2487
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Atterberg Limits
• Based on the concept that a fine-grained soil can
exist in any four states depending on its water
content: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.
1- Liquid Limit (LL or wL):
water content at which two sections of a pat of soil
(separated by a groove) with specific dimensions flow
together (close) a distance = ½ in under the impact of
a number of blows = 25. A standardized Liquid limit
device or Casagrande’s apparatus is used.
The LL is the approximate boundary between the soil
liquid state and the plastic state
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Atterberg Limits
2- Plastic Limit (PL or wP):
water content at which the soil just begins to crumble when
rolled out into a specific diameter thread (~1/8 inch).

The PL is the approximate boundary between the plastic

state and the semisolid state
2- Shrinkage Limit (SL or wS):
water content below which further loss of water by
evaporation does not result in a reduction in volume.
The SL is the approximate boundary between the
semisolid state and the solid state
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Related Atterberg Limits Indices

Plasticity Index (PI or IP): is the range of water within which a soil
possesses plasticity. It is the numerical difference between LL and
PL.
PI  LL  PL
Liquidity Index (LI or IL): as the natural water content approaches
the lower limit of the plastic range, the soil stiffness increases. The
ratio expressed as the percentage between the natural moisture
content minus the PL & PI is the LI
w  PL
LI 
PI
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
PLASTICITY CHART
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Atterberg Limits and Clay Soil Activity:

Considering the fact that Atterberg Limits of a soil are related to the amount of
water that is in the soil sample, i.e. attracted to the surfaces of the soil particles
& due to the increase in surface area per mass with decreasing particle size, it
may be expected that the amount of attracted water is related to the clay fraction
in the soil (fraction < 0.002 mm in diameter). On this basis, Skempton (1953)
defined Clay Activity as :

PI
Activity 
%.by.weight . finer .than..0.002 .mm

On the Activity scale, clayey soils may be classified as:

Active: A > 1.25; Normal: 0.75 < A <1.25, & Inactive A < 0.75
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Other Useful Field Tests on Cohesive Soils:

 Dry Strength: Crushing Characteristics
 Dilantancy: Reaction to Shaking
 Toughness: Consistency near the PL
 SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES AND
CLASSIFICATION
Determine the USCS classification of Soil ‘A’ given the fine portion LL=40, PL=32

Gravel = 19%
Sand = 63%
Silt + Clay = 18%
Coefficient of Uniformity:
D60
Cu 
D10 SOIL A
Coefficient of Curvature:
( D30 ) 2
Cc 
D10  D60