CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In this chapter you will be introduced to some of the important principles underlying the study
of mechanics. Though most of these principles was already introduced in Physics, however it is good
to review these principles. Who knows, you might get some additional ideas that you did not thought
of? A good grasp of these principles will be a big hand in your future problem-solving skills and may
improve your analysis of the problems.

1.1 WHAT IS MECHANICS?

Mechanics is a science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or motion of bodies under
the action of forces (Beer, 2013). From the definition itself, an important portion in dealing with problems
is to describe and predict what will happen to the state of motion of the body, whether it will remain at
rest or it will move at constant velocity or it will move with an acceleration. Mechanics is further divided
into three, namely: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies and mechanics
of fluids.

Fig 1.1. Mechanics and its divisions

The mechanics of rigid bodies is divided into two: statics and dynamics. Statics deals with
bodies that are at rest and dynamics deals with bodies in motion, both under the action of forces. in
both division, bodies under investigation are assumed to be rigid bodies – bodies that do not exhibit
any form deformation under the action of forces. When we say deformations, these are changes in the
dimensions or even the geometry (shape) of the body. These deformations include, but not limited to,
lengthening, shortening, bending and twisting. However, it should be clear, that there is no body that is
perfectly rigid! All bodies, deform when subjected to forces. These deformations, however are usually
very small (as compared to its original dimensions and shape) and do not appreciably affects the
conditions of equilibrium or the state of rest or motion of the body. Deformations, however, becomes
significant when dealing with the resistance of the material to failure – breaking or excessive
deformation. This part of the behavioral reaction of the bodies to force is dealt in the mechanics of
deformable bodies. The third division of mechanics is the fluid mechanics. Obviously, it deals with the
actions of forces on or exerted by fluids, both liquids and gases. Further elaboration of the subject is
not provided here. No worries about it, you will get there by and by.
As mentioned earlier, mechanics is a science which describes and predicts the conditions of
equilibrium of the body under the action of forces. In order to do so, these conditions are quantified.
Expect therefore that, in this subject, mathematics and physical science will go hand in hand. Mechanics
is considered to be the foundation of most engineering sciences and is undeniably an indispensable
prerequisite to their study. Thus, it is important to, as much as possible for the learner to have a
complete grasp of the principles of the subject and use these principles correctly in its application. To a
greater extent, it is a must for the learner to acquire a high level of mastery of the subject to have a
better success in learning this field of science and engineering.
 1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
The basic concepts used in mechanics are: space, time, mass and force. these concepts cannot be
truly defined; they should be accepted on the basis of our intuition and experience and used as a mental
frame of reference for the study of mechanics. (Beer, 2013)
The concept of space is associated with the notion of the position of a point, say point P, and
can be defined by three lengths measured from a reference point, or origin (point O), in three given
dimensions (e.g. dx, dy and dz). These dimensions measured from the origin is the coordinates of the
point (see Fig. 1.2). As in the case of two-dimensional space, the position of the point is defined in two
lengths dx and dy measured from a reference point, or origin, say point O (see Fig.1.3).

y
P(dx, dy, dz) y
dx
P(dx, dy)
dy
d z
d dy

dz
O x O x
dx
Fig.1.2. Coordinate of point P in three Fig.1.3. Coordinate of point P in two
dimensions (in space). dimensions.

The concept of time is associated with events. As per definition from Merriam-Webster
dictionary, it is the measured or measurable period during which an action, process, or condition exists
or continues. Further it is a nonspatial continuum that is measured in terms of events which succeed
on another from past through present to future. Time is used to record the point or period when
something or when an event occurs.
The concept of mass is used to characterize and compare bodies. Mass is defined as that
invariant property of a body which measures it resistance to a change of motion. For example, if you
will try to compare between manually pushing a parking truck and manually push small parking cart,
both are at rest, with the same force, you will find out that it is difficult to almost impossible for you to let
the truck change its state of motion, from being at rest to moving. However, it is a piece of cake to
change the state of motion of the cart. Further, if these two are racing, if you will try to stop them, I bet
you won’t dare to stand in front of the raging truck because you cannot stop it nor even deflect or change
in its direction of motion. These is so because the truck is more massive than the cart.
A force represents the action of one body to another. It can be exerted by actual contact
(contact forces like pulling a rope) or at a distance (gravitational forces and magnetic forces). It is
characterized by its point of application, its magnitude, and its direction; a force is represented by a
vector (arrow). The characterization of the force is shown in Fig. 1.4. The length of the vector (or the
arrow) represents the magnitude of the vector. However, in most cases the magnitude of the force is
indicated together with the arrow. As an advance information, it does not follow that if two forces have
the same magnitude, then these two forces are equal. Forces or different set of force systems acting
on the body will only be equal if their effects on the body are the same. This will be discussed further in
Chapter 2.

θ
B A F = 10 N

(a) (b)
Fig.1.4. Characterization of a force. (a) A force F with a magnitude of 10 N is applied on the body at point A. The line of action of
the force is horizontal and passes through points A and B. The direction of the force is to the right, (b) A 10-N force P is
applied on the body at point A with its line of action though points A and B inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal directed
to the right and up.
 Strictly speaking, a particle is a body of negligible dimensions. In mathematical sense, a
particle is a body whose dimensions are considered to be near zero so that it can be analyzed as a
mass concentrated at a point. However, in mechanics, a body can be treated as a particle if its size and
shape will not significantly affect the solution of the problems. So, even if the body is large or small, as
long as their dimensions does not affect the solution of the problems, they are treated as particles.
A rigid body is defined as a definite amount of matter the parts of which are fixed in position
relative to one another. When we say “relative” it means in reference to one another or in relation to
one another. To illustrate this definition, refer to Fig. 1.5. Suppose that the original position of the body
is shown at (a) with points A and B are the positions of the particle at the opposite corners of a face of
the body which were randomly selected. Points A and B are d distance apart (d can also be referred to
as the relative distance between points A and B – the distance of point A from point B is d or the distance
between point B from A is d). For some reasons, like by applying forces on the body, the orientation or
position of the body changes as in (b) and in (c). Notice the position of point A and point B in the space
has also changed. However, if the relative distance between the points remains the same and still, they
are located on the same face (plane) as mentioned earlier, then the body is said to be rigid. But, solid
bodies are never rigid; they deform under the action of applied forces. To a broader sense, if all the
particles is able to remain in their position relative to each other, then we can say that the body is rigid.
In reference to Fig.1.5(d), if due to the action of forces, the particle at point B changes in position by
moving from point B to B’ which causes the relative position of the particle at A and the particle at B
(now at B’) to change from d to d’. In which case the body is said to have undergone deformation
(change in dimensions or geometry) and so the body may be referred to as non-rigid. An example of
which is a rubber that is stretched. In many cases, this deformation is negligible compare to the size of
the body and may be assumed as rigid.

deformation
A

A d
B
A
d d B
B A A
d’

B’ B
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1.5. Different positions of a body in space. (a) Original position of the body, (b) and (c) are changed position of
the body but undeformed and (d) deformed body.

One might think that rigidity is relative or dependent on the force that is applied on the body.
For instance, if a very very small force is applied on the rubber band and it stretches almost negligbly,
can we say that the rubber band is rigid since its deformation is small? Its not the case. Rigidity is
relative to the type of material the bodies are made. We can safely say that steel is more rigid than
wood, but wood is more rigid than an elastic rubber band.

1. The Parallelogram Law. This states that two forces acting on a particle can be replaced by a single
force, called their resultant, which is the diagonal formed of the parallelogram which has sides equal to
the given forces. The procedure in determining the resultant force R using the parallelogram law is show
in Fig. 1.6.
P P P

R R
A A A A

Q
Q Q
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1.6. Addition of vectors using the parallelogram law. (a) Concurrent forces P and Q acting on particle A, (b) a
parallelogram is drawn where the sides are equal to the magnitude of the forces, (c) the resultant R of
forces P and Q are obtained drawing an arrow through a diagonal of the parallelogram from point A to a
corner opposite point A. The magnitude of the resultant is the length of the diagonal. (d) Resultant force
R acting on particle A, replacing the forces P and Q.
 2. The Principle of Transmissibility. This states that a force acting at a point of the rigid body can be
replaced by a force of the same magnitude and direction (sense), the same line of action and but acting
at a different point as long as the conditions of equilibrium or of motion of the rigid body will remain
unchanged. Conditions for equilibrium refers to the effects of a force when applied to a body. These
effects include the tendencies to translate or move a body along a straight line and the tendencies to
rotate the body about a point. The translational and rotational effects of the forces on a rigid body may
be categorized as external effects. From Fig. 1.7(a), the force P with specified direction and line of
action which passes through points A and B is applied at point A. One of the possible effects of this
force on the body is to translate or move the body along its line of action (e.g. horizontally) and the
motion in directed to the right – the same as the direction of the force P. When the same force P acts
at point B, taking note that point B is in the line of action of the force, the force will have the tendency
to move or translate the body horizontally and directed to the right. Thus, we can see that when for P is
applied at A and the same force is moved along its line of action and applied at B, their external effects
on the body is the same. For this case, the principle of transmissibility is applicable. This principle can
then be rephrased and states: a force acting at a point of the rigid body can be moved along its line of
action provided that the magnitude and direction (sense) remains the same and the conditions of
equilibrium or of motion of the rigid body will remain unchanged. Does the principle of transmissibility is
applied correctly if the force P is applied at point C as shown in Fig. 1.7(c)? Yes, the principle is applied
correctly since moving for P from point A to point C, of even moving the force from point B to point C,
the external effect of the force is the same, that is to move the body to the right. It should be emphasized
that the principle of transmissibility can only be applied if it only concerns the external effects of the
forces on the body. These effects are translation and rotation.

A B A B P
P P C

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.7. Applied principle of transmissibility. (a) Force P acting at point A, (b) Force P applied at point
B, (c) Force P applied at point C.
Fig. 1.8. and 1.9 are examples where the principle of transmissibility is not applied correctly.
Can you tell the reason why? What do you think are the difference in the external effect of the two
systems?
45 kN
23 N

23 N
35 kN
45 kN

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b)
Fig.1.8. Systems that are not equivalent and erroneous if the
principle of transmissibility is applied. A 23 N force
applied on the crowbar trying to remove the nail at C.
Fig.1.9. Erroneous application of the principle of transmissibility.
The forces applied on the piston of an engine come from
the force exerted by the gas being compressed by the
piston.

There are also cases where the principle of transmissibility is not allowed even if the force is applied at
a different point, the same magnitude and the same line of action. This is due to the conditions of
equilibrium is changed when moving the force to another point. Such is the case in Fig. 1.10. The reason
for now may not be that evident. This will be discussed in the succeeding lessons. But for now, it is
good to note that care should be taken an applying the principle of transmissibility. You really have to
analyze that it is not just the force and its characteristics (magnitude, line of action, point of application
and direction) that you should look into but more importantly, you have to analyze the effect of the force
if it will change the conditions of equilibrium of the body or change its state of motion.

Fig.1.10. Erroneous application of the

principle of transmissibility. A
three-hinged structure supporting
the load P.

As mentioned earlier that the principle of transmissibility is only applicable to when the
equilibrium condition or the external effects of the forces are unchanged. But what about the internal
effects of the forces? Before that, what are these internal effects? It was also mentioned that when a
body is subjected to forces the body has a tendency to deform whether it will shorten, elongate, twisted,
distorted and bent. When a body when will be subjected to external forces, the particles making up the
body will tend to hold each other. This causes stress on the particles of the body or stress on the whole
itself. And while the external forces are applied, all particles are stressed by holding each other, the
body also deforms or strained. If a greater force will be applied, the forces holding the particles together
may break or an excessive deformation may be observed. Stress and strain (deformation) are the
internal effects of the external forces applied on the body. So, are the internal effects affected by the
principle of transmissibility? Consider a spring subjected to forces P and P’ of the same magnitude,
oppositely directed and have the same line of action applied initially at points A and B as shown in figure
Fig. 1.11. In Fig. 1.11(a) the forces P and P’ applied at points A and B, respectively, will not cause the
whole spring to translate nor rotate about some points since both forces are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and with the same line of action. However, these two forces will tend to compress
the spring and will tend to shorten its length. Now, when the principle of transmissibility is applied as in
Fig. 1.11(b) where the force P is applied at B and the force P’ is applied at A, the spring still will not be
able to translate nor rotate at some point, however the forces caused the spring to be tensioned and
the spring also will elongate. Clearly, the type of stress and the type of deformation has changed when
transmissibility is applied. Therefore, from the preceding discussion that the principle of transmissibility
is only applicable if it only concerns external effects (equilibrium conditions) but not applicable when
internal effects (state of stress and corresponding deformation) are of concern.

P P’ P’ P
A B A B
(a) (b)

Fig.1.11. Principle of transmissibility concerning internal effects. (a) Spring is compressed, (b) spring is stretched.

The ability to use the principle of transmissibility correctly and effectively, because sometimes
it is not necessary to use such principle, will be of great aid in simplifying the solutions to the problems
in succeeding chapters.
3. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.

FIRST LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will remain at rest (if originally
at rest) or will move at constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion). The law can be stated
as:
Σ𝐹 = 0 Eqn. 1.1

where ΣF represents the net force or the resultant force acting on the particle and should be equal to
zero. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12a where a block is subjected to two forces of the same magnitude,
opposite in direction with the same line of action. Of course, a body can be acted by several force with
different magnitude and direction and can satisfy the condition given by Eqn. 1.1 to have a resultant
that is equal to zero. But taking note that this condition alone is necessary, but it is also insufficient to
guarantee a state of static equilibrium. This is because the expression only addresses the translational
effect (motion along a straight line) of the forces on the body, because for a body to be in static
equilibrium, the body should not translate nor rotate when acted upon by forces. This equation does not
include the tendency of the forces to cause any rotational effect. A case is shown in Fig. 1.12b where
the sum of the two forces is zero (e.g ΣF = 0) and thus the block will not translate in any direction under
the action of these two forces, however, these forces surely would rotate the body in a counterclockwise
direction – the block is not in equilibrium. In may applications, Eqn. 1.1 is already sufficient if the forces
act on a particle (dimensionless matter). This is so because when forces act on a common point which
is the particle itself (see Fig. 1.13 a). This is also sufficient to bodies subjected to forces where the lines
of action of the forces meets at a common point as in Fig. 1.13b. These forces then will not cause any
rotational effect on the body, only translational effect or tendency to translate. And if the resultant of the
forces acting on the body or particle is zero, then the particle or the body is said to be in equilibrium –
the body will not translate. Forces acting on a common point or forces where their line of actions meet
at a common point, these are forces are referred to as concurrent forces.

F1
-P
F3
A O
P -P P F2

(a) (b) (a) (b)

Fig.1.12. Block of wood subjected to equal and opposite
force P and -P. (a) The block is in equilibrium
under the two forces, (b) The block will not
translate but will rotate in a counter-clockwise.
direction.
Fig.1.13. Concurrent forces. (a) Three forces act on
particle A, (b) Three forces applied on the hook
and their line with their line of action intersect at
a common point O.

SECOND LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will have an
acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this resultant force.
This law can be stated as:

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Eqn. 1.2

where ΣF, m and a represents the net force or the resultant force acting on the particle, the mass of the
particle, and the acceleration of the particle, respectively. Notice that the net force and the mass are
directly proportional to each other. The more massive a body is, the more force is required to accelerate
the body. This is in agreement to the idea that the more massive a body is, the greater its resistance to
any changes in its state of rest or state of motion. Therefore, mass is a measure of the resistance of
the body to change in its state of rest or motion. In the study of statics, the second law is not much given
focus.
THIRD LAW. The forces of action and reaction between bodies in contact have the same magnitude,
same line of action but of opposite direction. Thus, a force acting on the body is always the result on
interaction with another body, so forces always comes in pairs. Just like when you are standing on the
ground, you are exerting a force on the ground which is equal to your weight (the direction is always
going down) at the same time the ground exerts an upward on your body and you actually feel that
force at you feet. Your weight which is a downward force and the force exerted by the ground on your
feet should be equal in magnitude, opposite in the direction and should have the same line of action.
By the way your weight is the force exerted by the gravity on your body. Remember that all forces acting
on a body are the forces exerted by other bodies on the body. Just like in this case your weight is
exerted on your body by the gravity, the that you feel at your feet is the force exerted by the ground on
you body (feet). Once this is misunderstood, for sure you will make much errors in the next lessons.

4. Newton’s Law of Gravitation. This states that two particles of mass M and m are mutually attracted
with equal and opposite forces (Fig. 1.14) an is given by the formula
𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 Eqn. 1.3
𝑟2

where r = distance between the two particles measured from the center of gravity of each body.
G = constant of gravitation (6.673×10-11 N·m2/kg2)

M m
Fig.1.14. Newton’s law of gravitation.

Newton’s Law of gravitation introduces the action of an action exerted at a distance and extends the
range of application of Newton’s third law that these attraction force between two bodies should be
equal, opposite and collinear (same line of action) as shown in Fig. 1.14. As mentioned earlier, you
weight is the force exerted by the gravity on your body at the same time you are also attracting the earth
with a force that is equivalent to your weight! So, it is not just the earth that is pulling you, you are also
pulling the earth towards you.

Generally, if the force F exerted by the earth on the particle is the weight of the particle W and taking M
equal to the mass of the earth, m being the mass of the particle, and if the particle is at the surface of
the earth, then r is equal to the radius R of the earth (which is not constant since the earth is not a
perfect sphere), and introducing the constant g which is known as the acceleration due to gravity

𝐺𝑀
𝑔= Eqn. 1.4
𝑅2

then weight W is given by

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 Eqn. 1.5

The value of R in Eqn. 1.4 depends upon the elevation of the point where the particle is situated. The
value of g therefore varies with the position of the point being considered. As long as the particle is at
the surface of the earth, it sufficiently accurate in most engineering computations to take g = 9.81 m/s2
or 32.2 ft/s2.

FURTHER READINGS!

So far all the important principles are already introduced, on your own read the following topics from
the book Vector Mechanics for Engineers – 10th Edition by Beer, Johnston, Mazurek and Cornwell from
pages 5 – 13: (1) Systems of Units; (2) Conversion from One System to Another; (c) Method of Problem
Solutions; (4) Numerical Accuracy (Optional)
This will enable you to review your knowledge on measurements of physical quantities. The formal
study of these topics was already discussed during your early sciences studies like Physics so the
succeeding lessons will not give more emphasis on those topics. And one more thing, also review your
Trigonometry since it will be used extensively in the succeeding lessons.