EE 379 - CONTROL SYSTEMS

Week # 6 – Root Locus Analysis

• Background
• Pole Zero Plots
• General Method
• Construction Rules
• Examples

Design of Feedback Control Systems 4th (Edition)

R.T. Stefani, C.J. Savant, B. Shahian, G.H. Hostetter
INSTRUCTOR: DR. KUNWAR FARAZ AHMED
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background Root Locus Analysis
Background
• Chapter 1: D.E can be written for various systems and can
be solved and the response could be divided into forced and
natural components
• Chapter 2: Established definitions related to natural
response and types of stability (stability is generally
considered to be the property of the natural response)
• Chapter 3: The other response component (steady-state)
was considered – that is the tendency of a device to follow
(track) a command
• Chapter 4: Return to stability and provide a very broad and
useful measure as compared to the Routh-Hurwitz criterion

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2
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background Root Locus Analysis
Background
• Logical approach to determine stability would be to
- Extract roots of the characteristic polynomial as the
adjustable gain varies (computational packages i.e.,
MatLab can readily perform this task)
- Walter Evans (1940) developed a set of rules by which
the path traced by roots of a closed loop characteristic
equation can be sketched – this plot is the root locus
- There are two chapters devoted to root locus in chapter
4 we will concentrate on the basic understanding of root
locus principles

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3
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
Pole-Zero Plot
bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ... + b0
• Zeros are the values at F (s) = n
which the function is zero s + an −1s n −1 + ... + a0
(numerator roots) K [( s − z1 )( s − z 2 )...( s − z n )]
=
• Poles are the values at ( s − p1 )( s − p2 )...( s − pn )
which the function is z1 , z 2 , z3 ,..., z m are the zeros
infinite (denominator
roots) p1,p2 ,p3 ,...,pm are the poles
• A rational function in the
factored form is given by

• The constant k= bm/an is 4

the multiplying constant

• When poles and zeros are
plotted on the complex
plain the result is a pole 4s + 5 4(s + 5 )
F (s) = 3 = 4
zero plot s + 4 s + 13s s ( s + 2 + 3 j )( s + 2 − 3 j )
2

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4
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
+ Graphical Evaluation
Pole-Zero Plot : Graphical Evaluation
• On a pole-zero plot K [( s − z1 )( s − z 2 )...( s − z n )]
suppose a line is F (s) =
( s − p1 )( s − p2 )...( s − pn )
drawn from p1 to s0
where the function K [( s0 − z1 )( s0 − z 2 )...( s0 − z n )]
=
is being evaluated ( s0 − p1 )( s0 − p2 )...( s0 − pn )
• This segment has
length | s0 - p1 | and k (| s0 − z1 | e j ( s0 − z1 ) )(| s0 − z 2 | e j ( s0 − z2 ) )
F ( s0 ) =
angle (s0 - p1) (| s0 − p1 | e j ( s0 − p1 ) )(| s0 − p2 | e j ( s0 − p2 ) )
with real axis  product of lengths of dir 
| k |  
| F ( s0 ) |=  segment from zeros to s0 
 product of lengths of dir 
 
 segment from poles to s 0 
s0
| s0 - p1 | = ( sum of angles of dir segments )
 F ( s0 ) = ( from the zero to s0 ) −
p1 (s0 - p1) ( sum of pole angles ) + 180 (if k  0)

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5
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
+ Graphical Evaluation
Pole-Zero Plot : Graphical Evaluation
• The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation define
the system characteristic responses.
• Their location in the complex s-plane lead to prediction of
the characteristics of the time domain responses in terms
of:
– damping ratio, z
second-order modes
– natural frequency, wn
– damping constant, s → first-order modes
• Consider how these roots change as the loop gain is
varied from 0 to 

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6
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
+ Graphical Evaluation
+ Example
Example
• The closed-loop transfer function is
R(s) E(s) Y(s)
K
+
– s ( s + 2)

• The characteristic equation is

2
s +2 s + K = 0
• Consider the characteristic roots as K = 0 →  .

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7
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
+ Graphical Evaluation
+ Example
Example

s = - 1± 1- K loci of closed-loop roots

• For K = 0 the closed-loop

poles are at the open-loop K→ jw
poles.
• For 0  K  1 the closed-
loop poles are on the real
axis. K=1
• For K  1 the closed-loop s
X X
poles are complex, with a
real value of –1 and an –2
imaginary value increasing K=0
with gain K

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8
 Root Locus Analysis

Step Responses
1.6 K = 50.0 K→ jw
1.4 K = 15.0
1.2
K = 2.0
Amplitude

1
K = 1.0 K=1
0.8

0.6 X X s
K = 0.5
0.4 –2
0.2 K=0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
+ Graphical Evaluation
+ Example
Example - Observations
• This is a second-order system and there two loci.
• The root loci start at the open-loop poles.
• The root loci tend towards the open-loop zeros at infinity as
K →  . (Note: the number of zeros is equal to the number
of poles, when the zeros at infinity are included.)
• The relationship between the characteristic responses and
the increasing gain is seen through the root loci.

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10
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
The General Root Locus Method
• Consider the general system
Y (s) G (s)
=
R ( s ) 1 + GH ( s )
• The characteristic equation is
1 + GH ( s) = 0
or R(s) Y(s)

GH ( s) = - 1 +
G(s)
or –
GH ( s) = 1
H(s)
GH ( s) = (2k + 1)π
k = 0, ± 1,± 2 …
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11
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
The General Root Locus Method
• All values of s which satisfy
GH ( s ) = 1 ; GH (s ) = ( 2k + 1) π ; k =0 , ± 1, ± 2 . . .
are roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation.

• Consider the following general form

K ( s + z 1 )( s + z 2 ) . . . ( s + z m )
GH ( s ) =
( s + p 1 )( s + p 2 ) . . . ( s + p n )

Note : p i may be zero.

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12
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
The General Root Locus Method
• Then
m
K  s + zi
GH ( s ) = n
i =1
=1
 s+ p
i =1
i

m n
GH ( s ) =  ( s + zi ) −  ( s + pi ) = (2k + 1)
i =1 i =1

k = 0,  1,  2,  ...

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13
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
+ Geometric
Interpretation
General Method – Geometric Interpretation
qp3 jw
• Consider the example -p3
X B s1
K ( s + z1 )
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + p2 )( s + p3 )
C
• Then the values of s = s1 A
qz1 qp1
which satisfy O X
-p1 s
K s + z1 -z1 D
=1
s s + p2 s + p3
qp2
-p2 X

( s + z1 ) − (s + ( s + p2 ) + ( s + p3 )) = (2k + 1)

are on the loci and are roots of the characteristic equation.

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14
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
+ Geometric
Interpretation
General Method – Geometric Interpretation
• In terms of the vectors, the jw
qp3
condition for s = s1 to be on -p3
X B s1
the root loci are
KA A 1 C
= 1 or = A
BCD BCD K
qz1 qp1
O X
and -z1 -p1 s
D
 z1 − ( p1 +  p 2 +  p 3 ) = (2k + 1)
k = 0,  1,  2, ...
qp2
-p2 X

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15
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
Analysis
• When plotting the loci of the roots as K = 0 → , the
magnitude condition is always satisfied

• Therefore, a value of s = s1 that satisfies the angle

condition, is a point of the root loci.

• The magnitude condition may then be used to determine

the gain K corresponding to that value s1

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
1. The loci start (K = 0) • For our example system
at the poles of the s + z1 1
GH ( s ) = =
open-loop system. s s + p2 s + p3 K
There are n loci
• Therefore, as K → 0 ,
GH(s) →  , the poles of the loop
2. The loci terminate transfer function.
(K → ) at the zeroes • As K →  , GH(s) → 0 , the zeroes
of the open-loop of the loop transfer function.
system (include
zeroes at infinity).

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
3. The root loci are
• The roots with imaginary
symmetrical about the real
parts always occur in
axis.
conjugate complex pairs

4. As K →  the loci • When the loci approach

approach asymptotes. infinity, the angles from all
There are q = n – m the poles and zeroes are
asymptotes and they equal. The angle condition
intersect the real axis at then is
angles defined by mq – nq = (2k + 1)π
(2k + 1)
, k = 0,  1,  2, ...
q

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
5. The asymptotes intersection
point on the real axis is
defined by

a =
 poles of GH ( s ) −  zeroes of GH ( s )
6. Real axis sections of the root
loci exist only where there
is an odd number of poles
and zeroes to the right.
© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls
q
• The angles from poles
and zeroes to the left of
s1 are zero. The angles
from poles and zeroes
to the right are – p. An
odd number are
required to satisfy the
angle condition.
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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Example
• Consider our example with z1 = 4 , p12 = 1  2j
K ( s + 4) jw asymptote
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + 1 + 2 j )( s + 1 − 2 j )
• Asymptotes: real axis X 2j
(2k + 1) 
angles = = locus
3 −1 2
s
O X
–4 –2 –1 +1

X
–2j

a =
− 0 − (1 + 2 j ) − (1 − 2 j ) − (−4) = +1
3 −1

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
7. The angles of departure, • The angle of arrival at the
qd from poles and arrival, zero, -z1 is obtained from
qa to zeroes may be found
by applying the angle
condition to a point very
near the pole or zero.
m n
 az1 +  (− z1 + zi ) −  (− z1 + pi ) = (2k + 1)
i =2 i =1

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Example
• Departure angle from p2 .
qz1 = tan-1(2/3) = 33.7°
qp1 = tan-1(–2/1) = 116.6°
qp3 = 90° qp2
jw

• Then -p2

33.7° – (90° + 116.6° + qp2 ) = 180° X 2j

qp2 = – 352.9° = + 7.1° -z 116.6°
1 33.7°
O X -p s
–4 –2
1
+1
90°
-p3X –2j

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
8. The imaginary axis Marginal stability refers to
crossing is obtained by the point where the roots of
applying the Routh- the closed-loop system are
Hurwitz criterion and on the stability boundary, i.e.
checking for the gain that the imaginary axis.
results in marginal
stability. The imaginary
components are found from
the solution of the resulting
auxiliary equation.

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23
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Example
• Imaginary axis crossing: • For marginal stability,
Characteristic equation K = 5 and the
auxiliary equation is
s ( s + 1 + 2 j )( s + 1 − 2 j )`+ K ( s + 4) = 0
2 s 2
+ 20 = 0
s + 2 s + (5 + K ) s + 4 K = 0
3 2

s =  10 j = 3.16 j
Routh table
• Therefore, the
s3 1 5+K 0
imaginary axis
s2 2 4K 0 intersection is
s1 5–K 0 0  3.16 j

s0 4K 0

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Example
• Summary:
There are three root 7.1° jw
loci. One on the
real axis from -p1 -p2 3.16 j
to -z1 , and a pair X 2j
of loci from -p2 and
-p3 to zeroes at -z1
s
infinity along the O X
-p1
asymptotes. The –4 –2 +1
departure angle
from these poles is 
-p3X –2j
7.1° and an
imaginary axis
crossing at
s = 3.16j
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25
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
• Breakaway Points: Some examples
When two or more
loci meet, they will
breakaway from this x x o o
point at particular
angles. The point is
known as a
breakaway point. It x x
corresponds to
multiple roots. 45°
x x x x

x x

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26
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
9. The angle of breakaway • Note:
is 180°/k where k is the
K = −GH ( s )
−1

number of converging
− 2 d GH ( s ) 
= GH ( s )
dK
loci. The location of the =0
breakaway point is ds ds
found from
• Also,
dK d GH ( s ) d GH ( s ) d N ( s ) D( s )
= 0 or =0 =
ds ds ds ds
N ( s ) N ( s ) D( s )
= − 2
=0
D( s) D( s)

D( s ) N ( s ) − N ( s ) D( s ) = 0

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27
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
• Consider the
following loop jw
K
transfer function. asymptotes
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + 3) 2
2j

• Real axis loci exist for 60° s

XX X
the full negative axis.
–4 –2 +1

• Asymptotes:
(2k + 1) 
angles 5 –2j
= = , ,
3 3 3
(−3 − 3 − 0) − (0)
a = = −2
3
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28
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Example
• Determine the breakaway points from
d  K  d  K  jw
=
ds  s ( s + 3) 2  ds  s 3 + 6 s 2 + 9 s 
− K (3s 2 + 12 s + 9) 2j
= =0
( s + 6s + 9s)
3 2 2

XX s
X
–4 –2 +1
then
s 2 + 4 s + 3 = ( s + 1)( s + 3) = 0 –2j
s = −1, s = −3

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules
10. For a point on the root • Alternately, K may be
locus, s =s1 calculate the determined graphically from
gain, K from the root locus plot
s + p1 s + p2 ... B s jw
K = X 1
s + z1 s + z 2 ...
A
C s
O X
D

BCD
K =
A

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Summary
• Plot the poles and zeros of the open-loop system.
• Find the section of the loci on the real axis (odd number of poles
an zeroes to the right).
• Determine the asymptote angles and intercepts.
(2k + 1)
angles = , q = n − m, k = 0,  1,  2,...
q

a =
 poles −  zeroes
q

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31
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Summary
+ Summary
• Determine departure angles. For a pole -p1
(− p1 + z1 ) + (− p1 + z 2 ) + ... −  p1 − (− p1 + p2 ) − (− p1 + p3 )...
= (2k + 1)

• Check for imaginary axis crossings using the Routh-Hurwitz

criterion.
• Determine breakaway points.

angle = , k = No of converging loci
k
d GH ( s )
location from =0
ds
• Complete the plot.

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
+ Construction Rules
Analysis – Construction Rules : Summary
+ Summary • Loop Transfer function:
K jw
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + 4)( s 2 + 4 s + 20) X 4j
• Roots: asymptotes
s = 0, s = –4, s = –2  4j
2j
• Real axis segments:
between 0 and –4 . 45°
s
• Asymptotes: X X
(2k + 1)  3 5 7 –4 –2 +1
= = , , ,
4−0 4 4 4 4
(−4 − 2 − 2 − 0) –2j
a = = −2
4

X
–4j
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33
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
jw
• Breakaway points:
X 4j
d  K 
ds  s 4 + 8s 3 + 36 s 2 + 80 s 
K (4 s 3 + 24 s 2 + 72 s + 80) 2j
= =0
s + 8s + 36 s + 80 s
4 3 2

45°
or s 3 + 6 s 2 + +18s + 20 = 0 s
X X
solving sb = −2,−2  2.45 j
–4 –2 +1

–2j

X
• Three points that breakaway at 90° –4j

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Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
• The imaginary axis crossings: • Condition for critical
Characteristic equation stability:
s 4 + 8s 3 + 36 s 2 + 80 s + K = 0 80-8K/26 > 0 or
Routh Table K<260
s4 1 36 K
s3 8 80 0 The auxiliary equation
s2 26 K 0 26 s 2 + 260 = 0
s1 80-8K/26 0 0
s0 K 0 0 solving
s = ± √10j = ± 3.16 j

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35
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
• The final plot is shown on jw
the right.
X 4j

• What is the value of the 3.16j

gain K corresponding to 2j
the breakaway point at
sb = –2 ± 2.45j ?
s
X X
–4 –2

–2j

X
–4j
© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls
36
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
• From the general magnitude condition the gain corresponding
to the point s1 on the loci is
n

 (s + p ) i
K= i =1
m

 (s + z )
i =1
i

• For the point s1 = –2 + 2.45j

−2 + 2.45𝑗 + 4 −2 + 2.45𝑗 + 4 −2 + 2.45𝑗 + 2 + 4𝑗 −2 + 2.45𝑗 + 2 − 4𝑗
𝐾=
\ 1.0
= 3.163 • 3.163 • 6.45 • 1.55 = 100

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37
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
• Is there a gain jw
corresponding to X 4j
a damping ratio
of 0.707 or more 3.16j
for all system 2j
modes?
z = 0.707 = cos(q ) s
45°
q = 45° X X
–4 –2

–2j

X
–4j
© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls
38
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
• Examine the responses jw
for the various gains
and relate them to the X K=260 4j
location of the closed- 3.16j
loop roots.
• K = 64, roots are K=100 2j
K=64
–2, –2, –2±3.46j
s
• K = 100, roots are X X
–2±2.45j, –2±2.45j –4 –2
• K = 260, roots are
±3.16j, –4±3.16j –2j

X
–4j
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39
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
Step Response, K = 64
s = –2±3.46j
1

s = –2, –2
0.8
Amplitude

0.6
whole response
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Time (sec)

© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls

40
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
Step Response, K = 100

s = –2±2.45j (repeated)
0.8
Amplitude

0.6

whole response
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Time (sec)
© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls
41
Lecture Sequence
• Root Locus Analysis
- Background
- Pole-Zero Plot
Root Locus Analysis
- General Method
- Analysis
- Example
Example
Step Response K = 260
2
s = ±3.16j
1.8

1.6
whole response
1.4
Amplitude

1.2

0.8 s = –4±3.16j
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Time (sec)

© Dr Kunwar Faraz Ahmed http://www.kfaraz.com/#!__controls

42