Understanding Research
Chi-Square Test
Lynne Connelly
n this issue, several authors (Mumba & Kraemer,
I 2019; Serafico, Jarvis, & Eckhardt, 2019) used a chi-
square statistic to analyze selected pieces of their
data. The chi-square statistic is used under certain con-
ditions instead of the t-test or analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The chi-square is a nonparametric statistic,
which I will explain in more detail. I also will discuss the
reasoning behind use of the chi-square statistic.
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
Parametric statistics are based on the theory of a
normal distribution. If we collect data from a popula-
tion on a variable (e.g., pain, depression, weight) and if
we plotted the data on a graph, a normal distribution
would have a symmetrical shape and the mean of those
data would be in the center of this distribution (known
as a bell curve because of its shape). Parametric statistics
also are based on a few other assumptions, to include
measurement of the variable at an interval or ratio level.
In addition, it is assumed the data are collected from
random samples (Gray, Grove, & Sutherland, 2017).
When the data do not meet these assumptions,
nonparametric statistics are used for analysis. These
techniques are not as powerful as parametric statistics in
identifying differences in the data, but they fit the situ-
ation better. Nonparametric statistics are used for nom-
inal data (yes/no) and ordinal data (rankings), and they
also are used when the data do not fit a normal distribu-
tion or are said to be skewed or asymmetrical (Polit &
Beck, 2018).
Chi-Square
The chi-square statistic is used when the variable is
measured at the nominal (also called categorical) level.
With nominal data, each category is mutually exclusive.
These data can be viewed as buckets, with each piece of
data in one bucket only. For example, in the study by
Mumba and Kraemer (2019), a chi-square statistic was
used to assess if self-reporting users were more or less
likely to relapse compared to non-self-reporting users.
The variable on self-reporting is nominal level data (a
subject either is self-reporting or not self-reporting). In
this statistic, proportions are compared to see if they are
statistically significant. The observed proportions (data
Lynne M. Connelly, PhD, RN, is Faculty, University of St. Mary,
Leavenworth, KS; and Research Editor, MEDSURG Nursing.
March-April 2019 • Vol. 28/No. 2
collected) are compared to what the proportions would
be if there were no difference between the groups; this
is the same as the null hypothesis (Gray et al., 2017).
In the Mumba and Kraemer (2019) study, if the null
hypothesis were true that there was no difference
between the self-reporting group and the non-self-
reporting group, then the relapse rate would be the
same or close to the same for both groups. In any form
of data collection, the results of two groups are rarely
the same number, so some difference will occur by
chance and not because of what is being studied. Any
difference by chance or random variation would not be
statistically significant (Judge, 2017). So, the chi-square
statistic is used to determine if the difference between
the two groups is significant, as it was in the study by
Mumba and Kraemer (2019). The self-reporting users
had a relapse rate of 4% and the non-self-reporting users
had a relapse rate of 17%. The chi-square statistic shows
this difference was significant (p=0.01).
This type of chi-square test is a two-way chi-square
as it tests if proportions in levels of one variable are dif-
ferent from those in a second variable. There is also a
one-way chi-square that compares different levels of one
variable only. For example, if you wanted to compare
the proportion of gender in a sample, a one-way chi-
square could be used (Gray et al., 2017).
Nonparametric statistics are used in many situa-
tions to analyze data, and there are many different types
of statistics for different types of data. If further and
more detailed information about chi-square or other
statistics is needed, readers can consult the references or
a statistical textbook. Statistics do not need to be intim-
idating, and it is not necessary to understand the formu-
las. What is crucial when reading research is to under-
stand the reasoning behind the statistic and how to
interpret the results.
REFERENCES
Gray, J.R., Grove, S.K., & Sutherland, S. (2017). Burns and Grove’s the
practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and generation
of evidence (8th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Judge, M. (2017). How to interpret chi-squared. Retrieved from
https://sciencing.com/interpret-chisquared-8089141.html
Mumba, M.N., & Kraemer, K.R. (2019). Substance use disorder among
nurses in medical-surgical, long-term care, and outpatient services.
MEDSURG Nursing, 28(2), 87-92, 118.
Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. (2018). Essentials of nursing research:
Appraising evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Philadelphia,
PA: Wolters Kluwer.
Serafico, K., Jarvis, C., & Eckhardt, A. (2019). Nurses’ knowledge of
alcohol-interactive medications. MEDSURG Nursing, 28(2), 93-99.
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